ChemistryStudyGuide

Rulesforsignificantdigits:
1)Allnon-zerosaresignificantinameasurement.
2)Allzerosbetween2non-zerosinameasurementaresignificant.
3)Zerosatthebeginningofanumberarenotsignificant.
4)Zerosattheendofanumberwithoutadecimalarenotsignificant.
5)Zerosattheendofanumberwithadecimalaresignificant.
6)Allvaluesinscientificnotationaresignificant.
*Acalculatorwillnotroundtothedesiredamountofsignificantdigits*
RulesforRoundingAfterCalculations:
Mathbeforerounding.
MultiplicationandDivision:answercanonlyhavesamenumberofsignificant
digitsasleastaccurateofthenumbers.
AdditionandSubtraction:answerisroundedtosamenumberafterdecimalas
leastaccurate.
AccuracyandPrecision:
Accuracy:Howclosetoaliteraturevalueameasurementis.
Precision:Howclosealldatapointsaretoeachother.
ScientificNotation:
*KNOWHOWTODOONACALCULATOR*
Example:Whatis13,456writteninscientificnotation?
Answer:1.3456x104

Remembertoalwayshavetheonesplacebegreaterthan1andlessthan10
RandomandSystematicError:

RandomError:unforeseen,lackofcontrolofvariables,datasethaslargerangeofdata,
lackofprecision,datasetitbothtoohighANDtoolowfromliteraturedata.
SystematicError:procedural/equipment,datasethassmallrangeofvalues;lackof
accuracy,datasetiseithertoohighORtoolow.
Whencalculatingwithsignificantdigits,youneedtomanuallyroundtothecorrect
numberofdigitsbasedontherules.

UncertaintyandRange:
UncertaintyinMeasurement:measurementisanimportantpartofchemistry.
Therewillbetimeswhereyouwillhavetoselectthecorrectinstrumentto
completeyourtask.Eachtypeofmeasuringdevicecouldbeusedtocomeup
withthesameanswer,buttheyeachhaveadifferentamountofuncertainty.
Digitalinstrumentswillhavetheamountofuncertaintyonit.
UncertaintyinAnalogueInstruments:anuncertaintyrangeappliestoany
experimentalvalue.Theuncertaintyofananaloguescale(non-digital)wouldbe:
plusorminushalfofthesmallestdivision.
Range:uncertaintysubtractedandaddedtoapieceofdata.
Ex)8.78plusorminus0.04=8.748.82
Partsofadatatableandgraph:
DataTable:designatornumberpresent,datatabletitled,tablelabeled,unitsgiven,and
thetableisfilledincompletely.
Graph:designatornumberpresent,graphtitled,graphaxislabeled,unitsgiven,line
clearlymarkedongraph,slopeequationclearlyshownongraph.
Chemistry
Unit2StudyGuide

Physicalproperties:canbeobservedwithoutchemicallychangingmatter
ex:color,shape,density,mass,malleability,solubility,texture,pressure

Chemicalproperties:describehowasubstanceinteractswithothersubstances
ex:reactivity,combustibility,flammability,acidity,abilitytorust

SOLIDS:

definiteshape
definitevolume
particlespackedtogethertightly

LIQUIDS:
indefiniteshape
definitevolume
particleshaveroomtomove

Physicalchanges:nochangeinidentity(chemicalformula)ofsubstance
ex:grinding,freezing,melting,condensing

Chemicalchanges:oneormorenewsubstancesareproduced
combustion,acidrain
signsofchemicalreactions:
formationofsolidprecipitate
releaseofgasbubblesthataren'tduetophysicalchange(boilingorsublimation)
colorchangethatdoesntresultfromdilutionorcolorchanging
temperaturechangenotcausedbyexternalheatingorcooling

PHASECHANGESAREPHYSICALCHANGES

differentpoints
freezingpoint:liquidtosolid
meltingpoint:solidtoliquid
FREEZINGPOINT=MELTINGPOINT
boilingpoint:liquidtogas
condensationpoint:gastoliquid
sublimationpoint:solidtogas

LawofConservationofMass:masscannotbecreatedordestroyedduringa
chemicalorphysicalchange

TypesofPhysicalReactions
Intensiveproperty:doesntchangeduetotheamount
ex:reactivity,boilingpoint,melting.
point
Extensiveproperty:changesaccordingtohowmuch
ex:mass,volume

SI=standardinternationale=allmetricmeasurements

Element
puresubstance
onekindofatom
representedbyoneor2lettersymbol
if2letters,firstisuppercase,secondislowercase
ex:He

Compound
2ormoreelementschemicallycombined
representedbychemicalformula
combineinsameproportions
ex:H2O

Mixture
2ormoresubstancesarephysicallycombined
dontcombineinsameproportions
heterogeneousmixture:notmixedinuniform
homogeneousmixture:mixedinuniform
alloy:solutionsoftwomoremetals
puresubstancesarehomogenous

thecomponentofamixturemaybeseparatedbasedonthephysicalpropertiesof:
magnetism
density:centrifugeseparatesmixtureswhentinysolidparticlesaredissolvedina
solid
sometechniquesusedtoseparatethecomponentsofamixtureare:
filtration:usedtoseparateliquidsandsolids
evaporationanddistillation:usedtoseparatesolutions

Density=Mass/Volume

Chromatography:
separatesorganiccompoundsforidentificationorpurification,separatescolors
chromophore:isthecolorproducingpartofthedye
eluent:thesolventthatcarriesthematerialsbeingseparatedthroughthe
absorbent
absorbent:attractsandbindsthepartsofamixture
TLCplate:usedtoseparatecomplexorganicmoleculesstandsforthinlayer
chromatography

ChemistryUnit4

BohrsEnergyLevels
electronsmustexistinfixedpathsororbit
lowenergylevels:closertonucleus
highenergylevels:fartherfromnucleus
GROUNDSTATE:electroninlowestenergylevelpossible
ExcitedAtom
atomhasabsorbedenergy
excitedstateisunstable
atomssoonemitssameamountofenergyabsorbed
energyseenasvisiblelight
WaveDescriptionofLight
Wavelength
distancebetweencorrespondingpointsonadjacentwaves
distancebetweensuccessivecrests
measuredinmeters

Frequency
thenumberofwavespassingagivenpointinagiventime
1 sec Hz
constant=wavelengthtimesfrequency
c=3.00 10 8 =speedoflight
ParticleDescriptionofLIght
energyexistsasparticlesquanta
ModernViewofLight

lightmaybehaveeitherasa:
wave
orasastreamofparticlescalledquantaorphotons
Spectroscopy(separateslightintocolorsitcontains)

spectrallinesrepresentsenergyreleasedaselectronreturnstolower
energystate
spectrallinesidentifyanelement
calledtheBrightLinespectrumofanelement
Orbital*thinkofdartboard
regionofspacewhereanelectronismostlikelytobefound
describesprobabilityofwheretheelectronmightbe
Twobasicequationsforlight
speedoflight=wavelength frequency
energy=Plancksconstant(6.626 10 34 J sec) frequency
QuantumNumbers
n,l,m,s
usedtodescribeanelectroninanatom
n
principalquantumnumber
representsmainenergylevelofelectrons
maximum#einanenergylevel=2n^2
l
the2ndquantum#
describestheorbitalshapewithinanenergylevel
numberoforbitalshapes(ofelectroncloud)possibleinenergylevel=n
OrbitalShapes
designateds,p,d,f
level1:s
level2:s,p
level3:s,p,d
level4:s,p,d,f
s=1orbital 2e/orbital=2e
p=2orbital 2e/orbital=6e
d=5orbital 2e/orbital=10e
f=7orbital 2e/orbital=14e
m
the3rdquantumnumber
describestheorientationoforbitalinspace
ifthereare2electronstheyhavetospininoppositedirectionssotheydont
repel
s
the4thquantumnumber
describesspinofelectroninorbital
HundsRule:
orbitalsofequalenergyareeachoccupiedbyoneelectronbeforeany
orbitalisoccupiedbyasecondelectron

PauliExclusionPrinciple:
notwoelectronsinthesameatomcanhavethesamesetoffourquantum
#s
b/cthe4thquantum#showsthespinandthatmustbedifferent
fourtypesoforbitals
sshapedspherically
pshapedlikeadumbbell
dshapedlikeadoubledumbbell
fdoesnthaveashape
electronconfigurationdiagram:
describingpositionofeveryelectroninanatomintermsofenergyleveland
sublevel
*isoelectronic:whennoblegases&anionhavethesameelectronconfiguration

Labs:
Chemiluminescence:
luminoloxidedemitsphotonofbluelight
changestogreenororangefromfluorescentdye
dyeabsorbsblueandusesitasenergytoemitorangeorgreen(thisstuffisused
inglowsticks)
anystateofmatter
occurswhenexcitedmoleculereturnstogroundstate.causesittoemitlight
exampleinnature:lightning

ElectromagneticSpectrum:
1865J.C.Maxwellshowedthatvisiblelightisaformofelectromagnetic
radiation
allformsofthisconsistofelectricandmagneticfieldstravelataconstant
speed
familiarformsofthisincludemicrowaveradiation,Xrays,theinfrared
radiationinheatfromfireandradiowaves
thevisibleportionissmall,spanningfrom400to700wavelengths
weseelightof400nmasvioletand700nmasredbctheyareclosestto
thenonvisiblecolor
violetishigherenergythanredlight
ROYGBIV:red,orange,yellow,green,blue,indigo,violet
typicalblacklightgivesoffUVA(Ultraviolet)light
whitelightcontainsallcolorsinthevisiblespectrum
colorsoppositeeachotheronthecolorwheelarecomplementarycolors
ex)yellowandvioletareopposite,sowhenayellowsolutionabsorbsviolet
light,ittransmitsyellowlight

whenlightpassesthroughaprismitproducesacontinuousspectrum

LineSpectra:
linespectrum:colorspresentintheemissionspectrumthatarethesame
onesmissingfromtheabsorptionspectra
differentelementshavedifferentlinespectra
canbeusedasawaytoidentifydifferentelements
givesvaluableinaboutthearrangementofelectronsintheatom

Fluorescence:
luminescenceistheemissionofradiation(light)byasubstanceasaresult
ofabsorptionofenergyfromphotons,chargedparticles,orchemical
change
fluorescenceisdifferentfromothertypesofluminescencebcitis
restrictedtophenomenainwhichthetimeintervalbetweenabsorptionand
emissionofenergyisextremelyshort

fluorescenceisonlypossibleinthepresenceoftheexcitingsource
whenalightsourceisshinedonamaterial,aphotonisabsorbed

Massspectrum
resultsoftheanalysisofamassspectrometer
horizontalaxisshowsthemass/chargeratioofthedifferentionsonthe
carbon12scale
verticalaxisshowstherelativeabundanceoftheions
convertingbetweenmetersandnanometers
multiplymetersby10^9andsimplifyinstandardscientificnotation

FlameTests
someelementsgiveoutlightofadistinctivecolorwhentheircompounds
areheatedinaflameorwhenanelectricdischargeispassedthroughtheir
vapor
sodium:brightflamingorange
K+:orange/pink/salmon
Li+:darkorange,lightred
Sr2+:stopsignred,bright
Cu2+:brightseagreen
Ca2+:mediumorange
HydrogenSpectrum
hydrogenatomgivesoutenergywhenanelectronfallsfromahigher
energyleveltoalowerenergylevel
hydrogenproducesvisiblelightwhentheelectronfallstothesecond
energylevel(n=2)
infraredradiationisproducedwhenanelectronfallstothethirdorhigher
energylevels

 patternofthelinesgivesanideaoftheenergylevelsinanatom
linesconvergeathigherenergiesbecausetheenergylevelsinsidethe
atomareclosertogether
ionizationenergy:energyneededtoremoveanelectronfromtheground
stateofeachatominamoleofgaseousatoms,ions,ormolecules
Lyman
n=1
intheultravioletband
Balmer
n=2
givesoffviolet,darkblue,lightblue,andred
Paschen
n=3
BuildingAtoms
chemicalpropertiesofanatomaredependentonthewaythatitselectronsare
arranged
valenceelectrons:electronsintheoutermostshellofanatom

Video401
DimitriMedeleev
arrangedelementsbyincreasingatomicmass
predictedpropertiesofmissingelements
someminormistakes
discoveredperiodictable
HenryMosely
discoveredthateachelementhasauniqueatomicnumber
arrangedelementsbyatomicnumber
nowallelementsfitintoplacebasedonproperties
LinusPauling
discoveredelectronegativity
ModernPeriodicLaw
propertiesofelementsrepeatwhenelementsarearrangedbyincreasing
atomicnumber
LanthanidesandActinidesarepulledoutbecauseofspacingissues,no
realscientificreasoning
HeliumsharessimilarpropertieswithNobleGasesandafullouter
shellstable
quantum#increasesby1(#ofenergylevels)increasesby1asyougo
downtherows
elementsinthesamecolumn
similarelectrondistribution
same#ofvalenceelectrons(outerenergylevels)

similarchemicalproperties
fullouterenergylevel
8valenceelectrons
stable
noblegasesarestabledontbond

Video402
periods
rows
tellsenergylevel(quantum#)
characteristicschangegraduallyacrosstherow
groups
columns
forcolumns12and1318,thenumberintheonesplacerepresentsthat#
ofvalenceelectrons
characteristicsdownthegroup
metalloids
propertiesofmetalsandnonmetals
borderzigzaglineexceptaluminum

Video403

atomic#:

atomicmass

atomicradiushalfthedistancebetweenthenucleioftwolikeatoms

IonicRadii

Metals(cations)*loseselectrons

Nonmetals(anions)*gain
electrons

ionissmallerthanatom
Ca2+<Ca

ionislargerthanitsatom
S2>S

ionizationenergyamountofenergyittakestoremoveavalenceelectronfromthe
outerenergyshell
firstionizationenergyofanelementistheenergyrequiredtoremoveonemoleof
electronsfromonemoleofgaseousatoms
increasegoingacrosstheperiodincreaseinnuclearcharge(#ofprotons)causes
anincreasesintheattractionbetweentheouterelectronsandthenucleusmakes
theelectronsmoredifficulttomove
decreasegoingdownagroupelectronremovedisfromanelectronshellfurthest
fromthenucleusalthoughthenuclearchargesincrease,theeffectivenuclear
chargeisaboutthesame,owingtoshieldingoftheinnerelectrons,andsothe
increaseddistancebetweentheelectronandthenucleusreducestheattraction
betweenthem

electronegativity:scalethatgivesaratingtoeachelementonhowwellittakesan
electroninbonds
abilityofanatomtoattractelectronsinacovalentbond
highelectronegativity:hasahighpullingpowerforelectrons4.0
highestelectronegativity:flourine3.98
lowelectronegativity:hasaweakpullingpowerforelectrons0.0
lowestelectronegativity:francium0.1

ElectronAffinity

amountofenergyreleasedwhenanatomgainsanelectron

meltingpoint

smallatomstendtohavehighmeltingpoints
NOTRUETREND
decreasesgoingdowngroup1
increasesgoingdowngroup7
molecularstructuresareheldtogetherbyvanderWaalsforces
increasewiththenumberofelectronsinthemolecule

effectivenuclearcharge(ENC)
pullofpositiveprotonstonegativeelectrons
higheratomic#(proton#)highertheENC

shielding
effectofinnerelectronsontheENCanditbufferstheouterelectrons
thefartheryougodowninthegroups,thelesschargeyouregoingtogetbecause
thereismorepadding

nuclearcharge
isatomic#/#ofprotons

effectivecharge
lessthanthefullnuclearcharge
increaseswiththenuclearchargeasthereisnochangeinthenumberofinner
electrons

Group1AlkaliMetals
extremelyreactive
reactvigorouslywithwater
producehydrogengas+base
sometimesselfignites(hydrogengas)
storedinoil
becausereactvigorouslywiththehumidityintheair
reactswithhalogenstoformsalts
1:1ratio
ex.NaCl,KF
silvery,soft,conductwell,lowdensities
reactsbecomemorevigorousasyougodownthegroup

Noblegasesdontreactbecausearealreadystablewith8valenceelectrons
colorlessgases
monatomic:existassingleatoms
withtheexceptionofhelium,theyhavecompleteoutershells,stableoctet
(b/chave8electrons)
heliumhasacompletefirstshellofelectrons(2)

Group17Halogens
reactwithbothalkalimetalsandalkalineearthmetalstoformsalts
displacementchlorine+sodiumfluoridefluoride+sodiumchloride
canbefoundassolids,liquids,gases
colorful
diatomic
whenalone,havea2subscript,orhave2likeatoms
reactionwithgroup1
reactwithgroup1metalstoformionichalides
halogenatomgainsoneelectronfromtheGroup1elementstoforma
halideX

 addingasolutioncontainingthehalidetoasolutioncontainingsilverions
producesaprecipitate

****valenceelectronsareinhighestenergylevelshell(biggestnumber
coefficient)familieshavethesamenumberofvalenceelectrons

Textbookpages5061
atomicradiuscantjustbehalfthediameterbecauseatomsarentperfectcircles
thedistancebetweenthenucleusoftwolikeatoms
chemicalpropertiesofanelementaredeterminedbytheelectronarrangement
effectiveenergyincreasesasnuclearenergydoesasyouaregoingacrossa
period
effectiveenergydoesnotincreaseasnuclearenergyincreaseswhengoingdown
agroupbecausethenumberofrepellinginnershellelectronschanges

Chapter6.16.3Bonding

ElectronDotDiagrams
atomssymbolsurroundedbydotstorepresentitsvalenceelectrons

LewisStructures
diagramrepresentingthearrangementofvalenceelectronsinamolecule

KelterMethodofdrawingLewisStructures
1. Addtogetherthevalenceelectronsofallatomsinthemolecules
2. Addtogetherthenumberofvalenceelectronstobehappy
3. (#2#1)/2=howmanytotalbondsthemoleculehas
4. Pickthecentralatom(singletononeatom,carbon,lowestelectronegativity
a. Hydrogenandthehalogenswillneverbecentral.
5. Draw
a. singlebond(2e)
b. doublebond(4e)CNOPS(carbon,nitrogen,oxygen,phosphorus,sulfur)
c. triplebond(6e)CNP(carbon,nitrogen,phosphorus)
6. checkmoleculesforhappiness
a. moreionicstrongerthebond
b. shortbondsarestrongbonds
c. inorderofstrength(leasttomost)
i.
single
ii.
double

iii.

triple

**mostatomsneed8valenceelectronstobestable,exceptforHandHe(theyonlyneed
2valenceelectronstobestablesincetheyonlyhave1energylevel)

HH
^sharedpair,2electronsbelongingtobothatoms

Ifanelementhasmorebondsthanitshould,itis/couldbeadativecoordinatebond.If
anelementintheNfamilyhasmorethan3bondsorifanelementintheOfamilyhas
morethan2bonds,itisdative.WritedativeonthebottomoftheLewisstructure.Ina
resonancestructure,adoubleortriplebondcanbeplacedinmultipleplacesitdoesnt
matterwhereyoudrawit.Inthiscase,youwriteresonanceonthebottomoftheLewis
structure.

Ifthestructureisapolyatomicionthenyouputbracketsaroundtheentirestructure,and
putthenumberofaddedorsubtractedelectronsontheupperrighthandcorneroutside
thebrackets.

AmazingProblemSet#1:TakeNO21.LetsdrawanamazingLewisstructureforthispolyatomicion.

Valenceelectrons:1N*5+2O*6+1(theresanextraelectron)=18

Valenceelectronstobehappy:1N*8+2O*8=24

(2418)/2=4bonds.WOW!!

ThecentralatomisNasitisasingleton.Andasyoushouldbeabletoguess,weregoingtobe
2doublebondstomake2Osbondwhenthereare4bonds.

Sotheansweris:

BUTWAIT!ITSWRONG!

Yes,asyouareanexemplarystudent,youknowthatyoumustputabracketaroundthatLewis
structureandwritethe1charge!Andasastudentworthyofsuccess,youknowthatthisisadative
coordinatebond.YouknowthatyoumustwritedativeonthebottomoftheLewisstructure(inthis

structure,Nisshowntohave4bondswhileitcanonlyhave3bonds...butsinceitsintheNfamily,
thiscanbethecaseasadativecoordinatebond)