Chapter 2: Forces and Motion
CHAPTER 2: FORCES AND MOTION
Physics
2.1
SPM 2013
Linear Motion
Kinematics the study of movement without reference to the forces that cause the
movement
Linear Motion movement with constant acceleration
Classification
Physical quantity with
Example
Scalar
Magnitude only
Distance
Speed
Vector
Magnitude and direction
Displacement
Velocity
Acceleration
2.1.1 Equations of Linear Motion
If s = displacement (succession) [m]
u = initial velocity [m s-1]
v = final velocity [m s-1]
t = time [s]
s = (u + v) t
vu
t
From :
Insert into :
v = u + at
s = (u + u + at) t
s = ut + at2
vu
a
From :
Insert into :
s (u v)
(v u )
t
v2 u2
2a
v2 = u2 + 2as
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Physics
2.2
Chapter 2: Forces and Motion
SPM 2013
Linear Motion Graphs
2.2.1 Ticker timer
Ticker timer
used to study movement in a short period of time
50 Hz
used to determine:
o time
o displacement
o average velocity
o acceleration
o type of movement
Movement
Explanation
Consistent distance
= uniform velocity
Short distance
= low velocity
Long distance
= high velocity
Increasing distance
= increasing velocity / acceleration
Decreasing distance
= decreasing velocity / deceleration
To calculate the average velocity from a ticker tape strip or graph:
Average velocity
Total distance
Total time
To calculate the acceleration from a ticker tape
strip or graph:
Step 1: Calculate the initial velocity, u
s2
s1
s1
.
t
s2
.
t
vu
Step 3: Calculate the acceleration, a
.
t
Step 2: Calculate the final velocity, v
s2
s1
Remember! Time for acceleration
must be ONE LESS tick/strip
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Physics
Chapter 2: Forces and Motion
SPM 2013
2.2.2 Linear Motion Graphs
v=0
(a = 0)
Displacement-time
graphs
Velocity-time graphs
Acceleration-time
graphs
Velocity = slope of the graph
Acceleration = slope of the graph
Displacement = area under the
graph
Velocity = area under the graph
v/m s-1
s/m
a/m s-2
t/s
v=
constant
(a = 0)
t/s
s/m
-2
v/m s
a/m s
t/s
v
a=
constant
t/s
t/s
v/m s-1
s/m
a/m s-2
t/s
v
a=
constant
t/s
-1
t/s
t/s
v/m s-1
s/m
a/m s-2
t/s
t/s
t/s
v
a
a/m s-2
v/m s-1
t/s
v
a
t/s
a/m s-2
-1
v/m s
t/s
t/s
REMEMBER!
gradient
gradient
DISPLACEMENT
VELOCITY
ACCELERATION
Displacement-time graph
Velocity-time graph
Acceleration-time graph
area under the graph
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Physics
2.3
Inertia
SPM 2013
Chapter 2: Forces and Motion
Inertia
natural characteristics of an object to oppose any attempted change on its original state,
whether at rest or in motion
tendency of an object to remain at rest, or to keep moving at constant speed in a straight
line
Newtons First Law of Motion (Law of Inertia)
Every object in a state of uniform motion tends to remain in that state of motion unless an
external force is applied to it.
2.4
Momentum
Momentum = mass velocity
p = mv
-1
where p = momentum [kg m s ]
m = mass [kg]
v = velocity [m s-1]
Principle of conservation of momentum
In any collision or interaction between two or more objects in an isolated system, the total momentum
before collision is equal to the total momentum after collision.
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
Three types of collisions:
1) Elastic collision
Both objects move separately after collision.
Note: In an elastic collision, the kinetic energy is conserved.
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
E.g.: a cue ball hitting a snooker ball, bowling ball striking a pin, bumper cars colliding into each other
2) Inelastic collision
Both objects move together after collision.
m1u1 + m2u2 = (m1 + m2)v
E.g.: a boy running and jumping onto a skateboard and both move together after collision
3) Explosion
Both objects are initially stationary, and move in opposite directions after the explosion.
m1v1 = - m2v2
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Physics
Chapter 2: Forces and Motion
SPM 2013
E.g. : a bullet fired from a stationary gun, a man jumping out of a stationary boat, a boy jumping off a
stationary skateboard
2.5
Force
Force is the product of mass and acceleration.
Force changes the size, shape, state of rest, velocity and/or direction of an object.
Force is a vector quantity.
Newtons Second Law of Motion
The acceleration of a body, a, is directly proportional to the net force acting upon it, F, and
inversely proportional to its mass, m.
F = ma
where F = force [N]
m = mass [kg]
a = acceleration caused by F [m s-2]
2.5.1 Balanced Forces
Balanced forces is a state where net force is zero
When an object is in a state of balanced forces or forces in equilibrium, the object will
either be stationary or moving with uniform velocity in a straight line.
Example:
An airplane moving with uniform velocity at constant height is in a state of balanced forces.
Weight = Lift
Thrust = Drag
2.5.2 Unbalanced Forces
Unbalanced forces may cause an object to start moving, to speed it up, to slow it down, or to
bring it to a stop. The greater the unbalanced force, the greater the acceleration or
deceleration produced.
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Physics
2.6
SPM 2013
Chapter 2: Forces and Motion
Impulse and Impulsive Force
Impulse = change of momentum
Ft = mv mu
Impulsive force is the change of momentum in a very short period of time.
Impulsive force = rate of change of momentum
mv mu
F
t
where Ft = impulsive [kg m s-1]
F = impulsive force [N]
m = mass [kg]
u = initial velocity [m s-1]
v = final velocity [m s-1]
2.7
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Safety Features in Vehicles
Padded dashboards
Shatterproof windscreen glass
Inflatable airbags
Collapsible steering wheels
Headrest
Padded seats
Seatbelt
2.8
8. Antilock brake systems (ABS)
9. Variable-ratio
response
steering
systems
10. Intelligent speed adaptation systems
11. Reverse collision warning systems
12. Bumper bars
Gravity
All objects are pulled towards the centre of the earth by a force known as
the earths gravitational force. Any object dropped towards earth which
falls under the influence of the earths gravitational force (without any
influence of other external forces, such as air friction) is said to be going
through a free fall. In reality, free falls only happen within a vacuum
space.
The diagram on the right shows the non-uniform gravitational field of the Earth, g which is
represented by radial lines directed towards the centre of the Earth. The field is strongest
where the lines are closest.
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Physics
Chapter 2: Forces and Motion
SPM 2013
2.6.1 Free fall
An object undergoing free fall will fall at the rate of gravitational acceleration which is at a
constant of 9.81 m s-2 at sea level. The gravitational acceleration is not influenced by the size
or mass of the object.
Baseball
Bowling ball
Objects dropped from the same height will fall at the same rate and
will hit the ground at the same time, regardless of the mass.
However, for objects with very small mass and
very large surface area like feathers, pieces of
paper and cloth, they will fall at a lower rate.
This is because the larger the surface area, the
greater the air resistance.
If the same objects are placed in a vacuum tube,
they will fall at the same rate.
2.6.2 Weight
Weight = gravitational force acting on the respective object
W = mg
where W = weight [N]
m = mass [m]
g = gravitational acceleration [m s-2]
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Physics
SPM 2013
Chapter 2: Forces and Motion
2.6.3 Lifts
R
a
W = mg
Common formula:
R = mg + ma
Where R = reading of the scale [N]
m = mass of person [kg]
g = gravitational acceleration [m s-2]
a = upward acceleration of the lift [m s-2]
If the lift is stationary or moving with uniform velocity (a = 0):
R = mg
If the lift is moving upwards with acceleration:
R = mg + ma
If the lift is moving upwards with deceleration:
R = mg + m(-a)
R = mg ma
If the lift is moving downwards with acceleration:
R = mg - ma
If the lift is moving downwards with deceleration:
R = mg m(-a)
R = mg + ma
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Physics
2.9
Chapter 2: Forces and Motion
SPM 2013
Forces in Equilibrium
Equilibrium:
- resultant force = 0
- acceleration = 0 (stationary or uniform velocity)
Newtons Third Law
For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Fx = F cos
Fy = F sin
2.9.1 Nett / Resultant Forces
Using the parallelogram method
You can solve resultant force by using scaled diagram or calculation.
1. Scaled diagram
Draw the forces to scale using a ruler and a protractor.
Magnitude of resultant force is obtained by measuring and converting back to value using
the scale, and the angle is measured with a protractor.
2. Calculator
Rx = F1 + F2 cos
Ry = F2
R
F2
Ry
R=
Rx Ry
2
F1
Angle of R, = tan-1
Ry
Rx
Rx
Note: If two equal forces
are acting upon an object at an angle, the simplified solution is:
F
R = F cos + F cos
R = 2 F cos
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Physics
Chapter 2: Forces and Motion
SPM 2013
2.9.2 Pulleys
Assume motion
and acceleration
in this direction
T
T
m2
F2
Based on the force formula:
F = ma
F = Net force acting on the system
m = Total mass of the system
a = Acceleration of the system
m1
F1 F2 = (m1 + m2) a
F1
To find out the rope tension:
F = ma
F1 T = m1a
T = F2 m2a
Example:
Calculate the acceleration and rope tension in the following system.
To calculate acceleration:
To calculate tension:
F = ma
50 30 = (5+3)a
a = 2.5 m s-2
5 kg
Isolate the left side of the pulley (5 kg
object is moving down):
T
3 kg
F = ma
50 T = 5(2.5)
T = 37.5 N
5 kg
50 N
OR
Isolate the right side of the pulley (3 kg
object is moving up):
T
F = ma
T 30 = 3(2.5)
T = 37.5 N
3 kg
30 N
You will get the same value of tension
whether you isolate the left or right side.
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Physics
Chapter 2: Forces and Motion
SPM 2013
2.9.3 Inclined Planes
R
Fr
W=mg
R = mg cos
Fr = mg sin
where W = weight of object [N]
m = mass of object [kg]
g = gravitational acceleration [m s-2]
R = reaction caused by weight of object perpendicular to plane [N]
Fr = friction caused by weight of object parallel to plane [N]
When solving questions with inclined planes, use the following shortcut:
Weight of object parallel to the plane = mg sin
mg sin
2.10 Work, Energy, Power and Efficiency
2.10.1
Work
Work is the product of the applied force and its displacement in the direction of the net
force.
Work is a scalar quantity.
When work is done, energy is transferred to the object or changed into a different form.
Work is only done when the object has been displaced. If there is no displacement, there
is no work done.
Displacement must be parallel to the force exerted.
W = Fs
where W = work [J]
F = force creating the work [N]
s = displacement [m]
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Physics
2.10.2
Chapter 2: Forces and Motion
SPM 2013
Energy
Energy is the potential or ability of a system to do work.
Energy is a scalar quantity.
First law of thermodynamics a.k.a. the principle of conservation of energy states that
energy may neither be created nor destroyed; it can only change shape.
2.10.2.1 Kinetic Energy
Kinetic energy is energy acquired by an object during movement.
E = mv2
where E = kinetic energy [J]
m = mass [kg]
v = velocity of the object [m s-1]
2.10.2.2 Potential Energy
Potential energy is the energy within an object because of its position or state.
Potential energy is stored energy giving the body potential to do work.
Gravitational potential energy:
E = mgh
where E = potential energy [J]
m = mass [kg]
g = gravitational acceleration [m s-2]
h = height of the location of the object [m]
F/N
Elastic potential energy:
E = Fx
where E = potential energy [J]
F = force exerted [N]
x = extension or compression of the spring [m]
x/m
2.10.3
Power
Power is the rate at which energy is used OR the rate at which work is done.
E W
P
t
t
where P = power [W]
E = energy [J]
W = work [J]
t = time [s]
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Physics
2.10.4
Chapter 2: Forces and Motion
SPM 2013
Efficiency
Efficiency is the ratio at which the output power is compared to the input power.
Efficiency
Output power
100%
Input power
2.11 Maximising Efficiency
The second law of thermodynamics a.k.a. the law of entropy states that in any energy
transformation, some energy will be lost in the form of heat.
Efficiency should be maximized in order to conserve energy resources.
For example, to maximize efficiency of refrigerators:
Use refrigerators that have freezers at the top instead of the side
Keep the cooling coils clean
Do not put the fridge too near the wall or in a room that is too hot
Door seals should be in good condition
Do not open the fridge door unnecessarily
Defrost the fridge regularly
Dont set the thermostat low all the time
Send it for repair if the motor is not working properly
2.12 Elasticity
Elasticity is the ability of an object to return to its original shape and size after the applied
external force applied onto it has been removed.
2.10.1
Hookes Law
Hookes Law states that the extension or compression of a spring is directly proportional to
the force acting on it provided the elastic limit of the spring has not been exceeded.
Spring
extension, x
(cm)
Elastic limit
Tension force, F (N)
F = kx
where F = force exerted on the spring [N]
k = spring constant [N m-1]
x = spring extension / compression [m]
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Note: Because F=kx and E=Fx, you
can derive it to:
E = kx2
Page 13 of 14
Physics
SPM 2013
Chapter 2: Forces and Motion
2.10.2 Spring stiffness
Factors which affect the stiffness of a spring:
1) Length of spring
The greater the length the spring, the lower the stiffness
2) Diameter of wire
The greater the diameter of wire, the higher the stiffness
3) Diameter of coil
The greater the diameter of coil, the lower the stiffness
4) Material of wire
Different materials have different stiffness values
2.10.3 Spring systems
Parallel arrangement
Series arrangement
W
W
The load is equally distributed among the The same load is applied to each spring.
springs.
If n springs are used:
If n springs are used:
Total extension = nx
x
Total extension =
n
END OF CHAPTER
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