Chapter 1: Introduction

Section 1)
Occurrence of plasmas in nature
a) 99% of the matter in the universe is in the plasma state, an electrified gas
with atoms dissociated into positive ions and negative electrons
b) Amount of ionization in thermal equilibrium:
(1)
(2)

3 /2
ni
T
2.41021
eU / KT
nn
ni

( )

ni , nn

is the density of ionized atoms and neutral atoms, T is

temperature in Kelvin, K is boltzmans constant, and

Ui

is the

ionization energy of the gas.

(3) At an average room temp, with nitrogen gas, the ratio of ionization is
10-122
c) When an atom is ionized, it has to chance to face a collision high enough
to knock out an electron.
Section 2)
Definition of Plasma
a) A plasma is a quasineutral gas of charged and neutral particles which
exhibits a collective behavior.
(1) Collective behavior is the fact that certain particles act in identical
ways, ie being affected by the same force (such as air particles being
affected by sound waves). In plasma, charges move around generating
local concentrations of positive or negative charge, which in turn
create electric fields. Similarly, the motion of charges results in
currents and magnetic fields. In summation, these fields affect the
motion of other charged particles far away. (Motions that depend not
only on local conditions but on the state of the plasma in remote
regions as well.)
b) The effect of two slightly charged regions of plasma separated by distance
r, Coulombs force says that

F=

AB
2
r , however for a given solid angle,

the volume of plasma in B that can affect A increases as

Section 3)
Concept of Temperature
a) A gas in thermal equilibrium has particles of all velocities, and the most
probable distribution of these velocities is known as the Maxwellian
distribution.
b) Maxwellian distribution

(1) One dimensional

(a)

f ( u ) =A exp(

fdu = the number of particles per

(b) Where

with velocity between

u+du ,
and

1
mu2 / KT )
2

A=n

( 12 ) mu

and

is the kinetic energy,

is Boltzmanns constant (K=1.38E-23 J/K) and

m
2 KT

1
2

(2) Three dimensional

(a)

f ( u , v , w ) =A 3 exp[

(b) Where

A 3= A

1
m(u2 + v 2+ w2 )/KT ]
2

c) Average Kinetic Energy

(1)

1
Eavg = KT
2

(in one dimension)

(2)

3
Eavg = KT
2

(in 3 dimensions)

(3) *the energy changes per degree of freedom (ie a dimension, where 3rd
dimension has 3 degrees of freedom)
d) Conversions
(1)

1 eV =KT =1.6 E19 J =11,600 K

(a) Thus 2eV plasma means 2 dimensions and 3eV plasma=E in three
dimensions.
e) Temperatures within plasma
(1) Plasma can have several temperatures at the same time. Usually ions
and electrons have different temperatures because of the collision
rates among electrons and ions differ. Henceforth, both the electrons
and the ions can be in their own thermal equilibrium where the plasma
may not be in existence long enough for them to neutralize.
(2) In a magnetic field
(a) Forces acting along B differ from those acting B thus these forces
may belong to different Maxwellian distributions with temperatures
T and T
Section 4)
Debye Shielding
a) A fundamental characteristic of plasma is its ability to shield out electric
potentials that are applied to it. In essence, its the measure of a charge
carrier's net electrostatic effect in solution, and how far those electrostatic

effects persist. A Debye sphere is a volume whose radius is the Debye

length, in which there is a sphere of influence that attracts electron
clouds. (Theoretically there is an equal number of charges in the cloud as
in the sphere. This sphere is defined by its Debye length.)
b) The edge of the Debye cloud occurs where the potential energy
(electrical) is approximately equal to the thermal energy (KT). However,
potentials on the order of KT/ can leak into the plasma and cause finite
electric fields to exist.
c) Poissons equation in one dimension (describes potential energy field
caused by a given charge density distribution)

d2
2

=
=e ( nine ) where Z=1
0
0
2
(1)
dx
(a) Potential energy can thus be solved

=0 exp( x D )

(i)

d) Electron distribution function

1
f ( u ) =A exp[( mu2 + q)/ K T e ]
2

(1)

(a) This equation shows that there are fewer particles at places where
the potential energy is large, since not all particles have enough
energy to get there.
e) Debye Length

0 K T e
(1) D= n e2

1
2

(a) Note that as density decreases,

decreases since each layer of

plasma contains more electrons.

1

T K

(b)

D=69(T /n) 2 m,

(c)

D=7430 (KT /n) 2 m ,T K

f) Quasineutrality
(1) The plasma is quasineutral; that is, neutral enough so that one can
take

ni n e n

where

is a common density called the plasma

density, but not so neutral that all electrostatic forces vanish. (ie
densities basically same but with electrostatic forces)
g) Number of particles in a Debye sphere
(1)
Section 5)

N D =n

4
3
6 3 /2
1/2
D =1.38 E T /n
3

Criteria for plasma

(1) D L ( dimensions of L of a system )

(2)

ND 1

(3)

>1

Chapter 2: Single Particle Motions

Section 1)
Intro
a) In plasmas, densities fall in an intermediate range. Collisions dominate in
normal fluids, but at very low density fluids like alternating-gradient
synchrotron, only single-particle trajectories need be considered,
henceforth, collective effects are often unimportant. Plamsas behave like
fluids and sometimes like a collection of individual particles.
Section 2)
Uniform E and B Fields
a) Equation of motion of a single charged particle
(1)

F=m

dv
=ma=q v B
dt

^z

(a) If

the direction of B (B=B z^ )

m vx =qB v y m v y =qB v x m vz =0

(i)

qB
qB
(ii) v x = m v y = m v x

( )
qB
qB
v = v =( ) v
m
m
2

(iii)

b) Cyclotron frequency
(1)

|q| B

c=

m
v x , y =v exp ( i c t+i x , y )

(i)

1.
(ii)
c)

where v denotes the speedthe plane perpendicular B .

v x =v e i t v y =
c

m
1
v =
v = i v ei t
qB x
c x
c

Larmor radius
(1) Is the radius of the circular motion of a charged particle in the
presence of a uniform magnetic field. (the angular frequency of this
circular motion is known as the cyclotron frequency)
(2)

rL

v m v
=
c |q| B

(3) Thus position can be defined

(a)

xx 0=r L sin c t

(b)

y y 0 =r L cos c t
(i) These equations thus describe the circular orbit of the guiding
center (see right). The direction of gyration is always such that
the magnetic field generated by the charged particle is opposite
to the externally imposed field. Plasma particles, therefore, tend

to reduce the magnetic field and plasmas are diamagnetic

(materials create an induced magnetic field in a direction
opposite to an externally applied magnetic field, and are
repelled by the applied magnetic field)
(ii) In addition to circular motion, there is an arbitrary velocity

vz

along B which is not affected by Bthus the trajectory of a

charged particle in space in generally a helix.
Section 3)
Finite E
a) Two motions
(1) By adding an electric field, one observes the usual circular Larmor
gyration plus a drift of the guiding center.
(a) The new equation of motion
(i)

dv
=q ( E+ v B )
dt

1. Consider z
a.

d vz q
= E
dt m z

b.

v z=

q Ez
t +v z 0
m

(ii) Above describes straightforward acceleration along B. One must

now add the transverse components
1.

d vx q
= E c v y
dt m x

a.
2.

v x =v e i t
c

d vy
=0 c v x
dt
a.

v y =i v ei t
c

Ex
B

3. The Larmor motion is the same as before, but there is

superimposed drift of

v gc

of the

See figure to right

(A) No disturbing force

(B) With an electric field, E

(C) With an independent force, F (eg.

gravity)

(D) In an inhomgeneous magnetic

field (varies in space and time, (grad
guiding center in the

direction when there is an E-

field>0

(b) The general formula for guiding curve drift

(i)

v =
gc

EB
vE
B2

1. Where

vE

is the electric field drift of the guiding center

2. Heavier particles (positive ions) have larger Larmor radii and

thus greater drift per cycle. However, its gyration frequency
is smaller and the two effects cancel out (angular momentum
conserved)
3. The actual three dimensional orbit in space of particles is
therefore a slanted helix with changing pitch.
(c)

Drifts are also subject to other forces by simply replacing

(i) Drift caused by force F
1.

vf=

1 FB
q B2

(ii) Drift caused by gravity

qE

1.

v g=

m gB
q B2

(2) ***For all drifts, they drift in a direction perpendicular to both the force
and the field. These drifts all occur because of the change in Larmor
radius.
(3) When the lines of force are curved, there is an effective gravitational
force due to centrifugal force which is non-negligible. Furthermore, this
force is the basis of plasma instability called the gravitational
instability (which has nothing to do with real gravity).
Section 4)
Magnetic Mirrors
a) Lets considers the mirror to be going in the Z direction where

z
=0 .

The mirror changes in only the X and Y axis where it comes to a funnel.
(See Below)

Br

b) The Magnetic field can be represented by

which can give rise to a

force that can trap a particle

[ ]

1 B z
B
=
r
r
(1)
2
z

r=0

(a) The variation of

with

causes a grad-B drift of the

guiding centers about the axis of symmetry, but there is no radial

grad-B drift because

B /=0 .

(b) The components of Lorentz force are

(i)

Fr =q (v B z v z B )

(ii)

F =q(v r B z + v z B r )

(iii) Fr =q (v r Bv Br )

1. It is important to note that is

equals 0, the equations of

i and ii represent normal Larmor gyration.

(c) By substituting

Br

from above, specifically with

Fz

we have

the azimuthal force causing drift in the radial direction.

(i)

F z=

2
1 mv Bz
2 B z

(ii) The magnetic moment of the gyrating particle can now be

defined
1.

1
m v 2 /B
2

(iii)This then gives us

1.

F z= B z / z

(d) In generalizations the equation will modify

(i)

F = B / s= B

(ii) Where ds is a line element along B.

(e) The magnetic moment of a current loop with area A and current I
(i)

=IA

(ii) We can use this to describe the case of a singly charged ion:
1.

I =e c /2

2.

A= r 2L= v2 /2c

3.

v2
e c
2
2
2c
1 v e 1 m v
=
= =
2
2 c 2 B

(f) As the particle mores into regions of stronger or weaker B, its

Larmor radius changes, but

remains constant. Its invariance is

the basis for plasma confinement: the magnetic mirror.

(i) As a particle moves from the weak-field region to a strong-field
region in the course of its motion, it sees an increasing B, and
therefore its

must increase in order to keep

Energy is conserved

constant.

eventually becomes zero; and the

particle is reflected back to the weak-field region. The effect

works on both ions and electrons.
(g) Trapping is not perfect
(i)

B0 v 2 0
= 2 =sin 2
'
B
v0

(ii) Where

is the pitch angle of the orbit in the weak-field

region. Particles with smaller

B. If

is too small,

not mirror at all.

1. The smallest

B'

will mirror in regions of higher

exceeds

B max

and the particle will

of a confined particle is given by

sin m=B0 / Bm=1/R m

a.
i.

Where

Rm

is the mirror ratio.

ii. The equation above defines the boundary of a region

in space in the shape of a cone, called the loss cone.
Particles lying within the loss cone are not confined. It
is important to note that is independent of both q and
m. Without collisions, everything is confined, however
when collisions occur, particles change pitch angle and
are

lost.
Section 5)
Summary of Guiding Center Drifts for nonuniform fields
a) Nonuniform E field
(1)

1 2 2 EB
v E= 1+ r L
2
4
B

b) Nonuniform B field
(1) Grad-B Drift
(a)

1
B B
v B= v r L
2
B2

(2) Curvature Drift

m v 2 R c B
(a) v R= q R2 B 2
c
(i) Where

Rc

is the radius of curvature

(3) Curved Vacuum Field

m 2 1 2 Rc B
v
+v
=
v + v
R

B
(a)
q 2 R2c B2

(4) Polarization Drift

(a)

v p =

1 dE
c B dt

Section 6)
Adiabatic Invariants
a) Definition
(1) When a system has a periodic motion, the action integral

p dq

taken over a period is a constant of motion. If a slow change is made to

the system so that motion is not quite periodic, the constant of motion
does not change and is then called an adiabatic invariant.
b) First Adiabatic Invariance
(1)

=mv /2 B
(a) Violations of
. (Where

occur when

is not small compared with

is a frequency characterizing the rate of change of a

B as seen by the particle)

(i) Example: Cyclotron heating
1. The B field is oscillated at the frequency

c . The induced

electric field will then rotate in phase with some of the

particles and accelerate their Larmor motion continuously.
The condition

is violated,

is not conserved and

the plasma can be heated.

2. ***this is one very important way to heat up plasma. Review
the article: Electromagnetic ion cyclotron resonance heating
in the VASIMR
Chapter 3:
Plasma as Fluids
Chapter 4: Waves in Plasma
Section 1)
Representation of Waves
a) Any periodic motion of a fluid can be decomposed by Fourier analysis into
a superposition of sinusoidal oscillations with different frequencies
and wavelength

. Thus any sinusoidally oscillating quantitysuch as

densitycan be represented:
(1)

n=n exp[i ( k rt )]
(a) Here

is a constant defining the amplitude of the wave, and k is

the propagation constant. If the wave propagates in the x direction,

k only has an x component.
(i) In that instance

i ( kxt )

n=n e

1. ***the exponential notation means that the real part of the

expression it to be taken as the measurable quantity. Thus
the real part of

is then

( n )= n cos ( kxt)

a.

b) Phase velocity
(1) The phase speed gives you the speed at which a point of constant
phase of the wave will travel for a discrete frequency. Phase velocity
refers to how fast the phase of the wave is changing - it is the
velocity inside the wave packet. In other words, it is the velocity of
the motion of a point on the underlying sine wave. It is essentially
an imaginary quantity since it does not refer to a physical particle no particle can actually move faster than the speed of light, but in
certain cases, the dispersion relation can be such that the phase of
the wave is changing at a rate faster than the speed of light. from
Cayla Wood
(2)

dx

= v =
dt k
T

(a) If

/k

is positive, the wave moves to the right since both x and t

increase so as to keep
c) Oscillating field E
(1) Since the phase of

kxt

constant.

is 0, we must allow E to have a different phase:

(2)

i ( kxt + )
E= E cos ( kxt + )E= E e

(a) Where

is a real constant vector.

E

Section 2)
Group Velocity
a) The speed at which a resultant wave packet from a narrow range of
frequencies will travel is called the group velocity. Most commonly referred
to the speed of the envelope of the wave. In simplest terms, group
velocity is the velocity of the wave itself - so the velocity of each
particle moving in the wave. You can maybe think about it as the
velocity of the wave packet in a beating wave - there is a big sine wave
on the outside, and the group velocity is how fast that outside wave is
moving. This is the pulse that carries the information about the wave,
including the energy it carries. from Cayla Wood.
(1)

v g=d /dk

(a) This quantity can never exceed

c .

b) The phase velocity of a wave in plasma often exceeds the velocity of light

c . *This does not violate the theory of relativity, because an infinitely

long wave train of constant amplitude cannot carry information. Also

phase velocity is not measuring the speed of a particle, just a point on the
wave that is changing
Section 3)
Plasma Oscillations
a) Why it occurs
(1) If the electrons in a plasma are displaced from a uniform background of
ions, electric fields will be built up in such a direction as to restore the
neutrality of the plasma by pulling the electrons back to their original
positions. Because of their inertia, the electrons will overshoot and
oscillate around their equilibrium positions with a characteristic
frequency known as the plasma frequency. This oscillation is so fast
that the massive ions do not have time to respond to the oscillating
field and may be considered fixed.
b) Expression for plasma frequency in absence of magnetic field, thermal
motions, fixed ions, plasma is infinite in extent, and electrons move only in
the x direction

n0e2
(1) p = m
0

1 /2

( )

(2) This formula can be mathematically approximated to plasma ordinary

frequency:
(a)

f p 9 n

Section 4)
Electron Plasma Waves
a) There is another effect that can cause plasma oscillations to propagate,
and that is thermal motion. One can easily treat this effect by adding a
term

pe

to the equation of motion in the one dimensional problem.

will be three.

b) The frequency of electron waves is thus

(1)

3
2 =2p + k 2 v 2eth
2

(a) Where

v eth =2 K T e /m

which is electron thermal velocity

(b) This means that group velocity is finite

(i)

v g=

2
3 v eth
2 v

( )

c) A simple way to excite plasma waves would be to apply an oscillating

potential to a grid or a series of grids in a plasma. In the past one had to
use an electron beam to excite plasma waves. Look at Looney-Brown
experiment on plasma oscillations
Section 5)
Sound Waves
a) If

=kv

then

p 0 2 KT
=
=
k
0
M

1
2

( ) ( )

(1)

=v s c s

(a) Above is the expression for the velocity

v s cs

of sound waves in

a neutral gas. Sounds waves are pressure waves propagating from

one layer to the next by collisions among the air molecules. In
plasma with no neutrals and few collisions, an analogous
phenomenon occurs. This phenomena is called an ion acoustic
wave, or simply an ion wave.
Section 6)
Ion waves
a) Explanation
(1) Ions can still transmit vibrations to eachother because of their charge,
and acoustic waves can occur through the intermediary of an electric
field. Because of the mass of ions, the collisions will be of low
frequency.
b) Ion fluid equation in the absence of a magnetic field
1
K T e+ i K T i 2
=
v s(where n=n i=ne )
k
M

(1)

v s is the dispersion relation for ion acoustic waves, which is also

(2)

sound speed in plasma.

(3) One must not forget that

relates to the degrees of freedom. Since

the ions suffer one-dimensional compressions in the plane waves we

have assumed, we may set

i=3 . The electrons move so fast

relative to these waves that they have time to equalize their

temperature everywhere; therefore, the electrons are isothermal and

e =1 .
c) Ion waves are basically constant-velocity waves and exist only when
there are thermal motions.
(1) For ion waves, group velocity is equal to phase velocity.
(2) The ions form regions of compression and rarefaction, but the
compressed regions tend to expand into the rarefactions (two reasons)
(a) First, the ion thermal motions spread out the ions; this effect gives
rise to the second term in the square root (equation: Chap 4. Sec 6.
b. 1).
(b) Second, the ion bunches are positively charged and tend to
disperse because of the resulting electric field. This field is largely
shielded out by electrons, and only a fraction, proportional to

K Te

Section 7)

is available to act on the ion bunches. This effect gives rise

to the first term in the square root (equation: Chap 4. Sec 6. b. 1).
The ions overshoot because of their inertia, and the compressions
and rarefactions are regenerated to form a wave.
Validity of the plasma approximation

a) Refer to the equation: Chap 4. Sec 6. b. 1. Since that example assumed

that densities are identical with infinite E, there is an error. The equation
accounting for this is below:

K Te
1
K Ti

M
=
+ i
2 2
k
M
1+k D

(1)

(a)

where k 2 2D=( 2 D / ) 2

(b) Since

Section 8)

1
2

is very small in most experiments, the plasma

approximation from Chap 4. Sec 6. b. 1, is valid for all except the

shortest wavelength waves.
Comparison of ion and electron waves

a) If we consider these short wavelength waves by taking

k 2 2D 1

equation Chap 4. Sec 6. b. 1 becomes

2
n0 e 2
2
2 n0 e

=k
=
2p
2
(1)

M
0 M k
0

(a) Where

is the ion plasma frequency. For high frequencies, the

wave turns into a constant frequency wave.

(b) Electron plasma waves become constant velocity at a large

and ion acoustic waves become constant frequency at a large

k .

Section 9)
Electrostatic Electron Oscillations Perpendicular to B
a) When a magnetic field exists, many more types of waves are possible
(1) Restrictions

(a) Parallel and perpendicular will denote the direction of

to the magnetic field

B0 .

(b) Longitudinal and transverse refer to the direction of

the oscillating electric field

B 1 is zero, the wave is

electrostatic, otherwise its electromagnetic.

(2) Related by Maxwells equation

E1=B 1

similarly
(b)

k E 1= B1

E1 .

(c) If the oscillating magnetic field

(a)

relative

relative to

(i) If a wave is longitudinal,

electrostatic
(ii) If the wave is transverse,

k E 1 vanishes, and the wave is

B 1 is finite, and the wave is

electromagnetic.
(iii)It is also possible for

k to be at an arbitrary angle to

B0

or

E1 .
(3) Furthermore, we shall assume that the ions are too massive to move at
the frequencies involved, and thus shall form a fixed, uniform
background of positive charge. Thermal motions shall also be
neglected and set
(a)

v x=

K T e =0 .

eE /im
12c / 2

(i) Notice that

vx

becomes infinite at cyclotron resonance

because the electric field changes sign with

vx

and

continuously accelerates the electrons.

(b) The dispersion relation is thus (using equation: Chap 4. Sec 9. A. 3.
A)
(i)

2 =2pe +2c 2h
a.

2p is the electron plasma frequenc y 2

b.

2c is theelectron cyclotron frequenc y 2

2. The frequency

h is called the upper hybrid frequency.

Electrostatic waves across

those along

have this frequency, while

are the usual plasma oscillations with

= p .
3. Electrons in the plane wave form regions of compression and
rarefaction, as in a plasma oscillation. However, there is now
a

field perpendicular to the motion, and the Lorentz

force turns the trajectories into ellispses. There are two

restoring forces acting on the electrons: the electrostatic field
and the Lorentz force. The increased restoring force makes
the frequency larger than that of a plasma oscillation. As the
magnetic field goes to zero,

goes to zero in the

equation above, and one recovers a plasma oscillation. As

the plasma density goes to zero,

goes to zero, and one

has a simple Larmor gyration, since the electrostatic forces

vanish with density.
(4) What we also see is a linear relationship between

2c / 2 and density:

2c
2pe
n e2
=1 2 =1
2

0 m 2

(a)

Section 10)
Electrostatic Ion Waves Perpendicular to B
a) In this we are considering what
happens to an ion acoustic wave
what

is

to

B0 .

Although a dot product would

make sense mathematically
when set equal to zero, it does
not describe what usually
happens in real plasmas. thus
it will be almost

to

B0

(see figure). Assume also an

infinite plasma in equilibrium
with uniform density,

n0

and magnetic field

of cold ions is considered, i.e

T i =0 . The angle

E=E 1 ^x

so small that we may take

B 0 . Also the assumption

/2

is taken to be

as far as ions are concerned. For the

electrons, however it makes a great difference whether

/2

is small

or infinite. The electrons have small Larmor radii that they cannot move in
the x-direction to preserve charge neutrality; all that the E field does is
make them drift back and forth in the y direction. If

is not exactly

/2 , however, the electrons can move along the dashed line (along
B 0 ) to carry charge from negative to positive regions in the wave and
carry out Debye shielding. The ions cannot do this effectively because
their inertia prevents them from moving such a long distance in a wave
period. This critical angle

1
x=
2

is proportional to the ratio of ions to

electrons thermal velocity which is proportional to

the plasma approximation

me /mi

. Considering

ni=ne , the dispersion equation of the ion

cyclotron waves is obtained.

(1)

=c +k v s

where c is ioncyclotron frequency =e B0 / M

(a)

v s refer to Chap 6. Sec 6. b. 1. (is also called electron

(b) For
Section 11)

oscillating velocity)
The Lower Hybrid Frequency

a) Once

becomes

/ 2 and the electrons are not allowed to preserve

charge neutrality by flowing along the lines of force, the no longer obey
Boltzmanns relations, but the full equation of motion. Assuming also that
the electron mass is infinite and considering the plasma approximation

ni=ne
(1)

we obtain the lower hybrid frequency

=( c c )1 /2 l
(a) lower hybrid oscillations are only observed when

is very close

/2

to
Section 12)

Electromagnetic waves with

B1 0

a) Waves with

B 0=0

are transverse electromagnetic waves which are light

or radio waves traveling through a plasma. The dispersion relation for

electromagnetic waves (with no dc magnetic field) is thus:
2

(1)

= p + c k

(2)

c 2 k 2= 2 is the vaccuumrelation

above is modified by

2p

which

consequently makes phase velocity of a light wave in a plasma greater

than the velocity of light.
2
(a) v =

(b)

2
2 2 p 2
=c
+
>c
k2
k2

(refer to other page to see better explanation and derivation)

b) The dispersion relation in Chap 4. Section 12. a. 1. Exhibits a phenomenon

called cutof. If one sends a microwave beam with a given frequency
through a plasma, the wavelength

2 /k

in the plasma will take on the

value prescribed by Eq. [Chap 4. Section 12. a. 1]. As the plasma density,
and hence

p , is raised,

k2

will necessarily decrease; and the

wavelength becomes longer and longer. Finally a density will be reached

such that

k2

is zero. For densities larger than this, the wave cannot

propogate. This cutoff condition occurs at a critical density

nc

such that

= p
nc =m0 2 /e2

(1)
(2) If

is too large or

too small, an electromagnetic wave cannot

pass through a plasma.

c) Method of density measurement
(1) Relies on the dispersion, or variation of index of refraction
(a)

~
n c /v =ck /

d) Shortwave radio communication

(1) When a radio wave reaches an altitude in the ionosphere, where the
plasma density is sufficiently high, the wave is reflected, making it
possible to send signals around the earth. If max density is

12

10 m

the critical frequency is of the order of 10 MHz. To communicate with

space vehicles, it is necessary to use frequencies above this in order to
penetrate the ionosphere. However, during reentry of a space vehicle,
a plasma is generated by the intense heat of friction. This causes a
plasma cutoff, resulting in a communications blackout during reentry.
Section 14)

Electromagnetic waves perpendicular to

B0