CHAPTER 13

SHALLOW FOUNDATION II:

SAFE BEARING PRESSURE AND
SETTLEMENT CALCULATION

13.1

INTRODUCTION

Allowable and Safe Bearing Pressures

The methods of calculating the ultimate bearing capacity of soil have been discussed at length in
Chapter 12. The theories used in that chapter are based on shear failure criteria. They do not
indicate the settlement that a footing may undergo under the ultimate loading conditions. From the
known ultimate bearing capacity obtained from any one of the theories, the allowable bearing
pressure can be obtained by applying a suitable factor of safety to the ultimate value.
When we design a foundation, we must see that the structure is safe on two counts. They are,
1. The supporting soil should be safe from shear failure due to the loads imposed on it by the
superstructure,
2. The settlement of the foundation should be within permissible limits.
Hence, we have to deal with two types of bearing pressures. They are,
1. A pressure that is safe from shear failure criteria,
2. A pressure that is safe from settlement criteria.
For the sake of convenience, let us call the first the allowable bearing pressure and the second
the safe bearing pressure.
In all our design, we use only the net bearing pressure and as such we call qna the net
allowable bearing pressure and qs the net safe bearing pressure. In designing a foundation, we use
545

546

Chapter 13

the least of the two bearing pressures. In Chapter 12 we learnt that qna is obtained by applying a
suitable factor of safety (normally 3) to the net ultimate bearing capacity of soil. In this chapter we
will learn how to obtain qs. Even without knowing the values of qna and qs, it is possible to say from
experience which of the two values should be used in design based upon the composition and
density of soil and the size of the footing. The composition and density of the soil and the size of the
footing decide the relative values of qna and qs.
The ultimate bearing capacity of footings on sand increases with an increase in the width, and
in the same way the settlement of the footing increases with increases in the width. In other words
for a given settlement 5p the corresponding unit soil pressure decreases with an increase in the
width of the footing. It is therefore, essential to consider that settlement will be the criterion for the
design of footings in sand beyond a particular size. Experimental evidence indicates that for
footings smaller than about 1.20 m, the allowable bearing pressure q is the criterion for the design
of footings, whereas settlement is the criterion for footings greater than 1.2 m width.
The bearing capacity of footings on clay is independent of the size of the footings and as such
the unit bearing pressure remains theoretically constant in a particular environment. However, the
settlement of the footing increases with an increase in the size. It is essential to take into
consideration both the shear failure and the settlement criteria together to decide the safe bearing
pressure.
However, footings on stiff clay, hard clay, and other firm soils generally require no settlement
analysis if the design provides a minimum factor of safety of 3 on the net ultimate bearing capacity
of the soil. Soft clay, compressible silt, and other weak soils will settle even under moderate
pressure and therefore settlement analysis is necessary.
Effect of Settlement on the Structure
If the structure as a whole settles uniformly into the ground there will not be any detrimental effect
on the structure as such. The only effect it can have is on the service lines, such as water and
sanitary pipe connections, telephone and electric cables etc. which can break if the settlement is
considerable. Such uniform settlement is possible only if the subsoil is homogeneous and the load
distribution is uniform. Buildings in Mexico City have undergone settlements as large as 2 m.
However, the differential settlement if it exceeds the permissible limits will have a devastating
effect on the structure.
According to experience, the differential settlement between parts of a structure may not
exceed 75 percent of the normal absolute settlement. The various ways by which differential
settlements may occur in a structure are shown in Fig. 13.1. Table 13.1 gives the absolute and
permissible differential settlements for various types of structures.
Foundation settlements must be estimated with great care for buildings, bridges, towers,
power plants and similar high cost structures. The settlements for structures such as fills,
earthdams, levees, etc. can be estimated with a greater margin of error.
Approaches for Determining the Net Safe Bearing Pressure
Three approaches may be considered for determining the net safe bearing pressure of soil. They
are,
1. Field plate load tests,
2. Charts,
3. Empirical equations.

Shallow Foundation II: Safe Bearing Pressure and Settlement Calculation

547

Original position
of column base

Differential settlement

t ^ Relative rotation, /?

(a)

-Wall or panel

Tension cracks

Tension cracks '

I
" Relative deflection, A ^
Relative sag Deflection ratio = A/L

, ,. ,
Relative hog

(b)

Relative rotation,
(c)

Figure 13.1

Definitions of differential settlement for framed and load-bearing wall

structures (after Burland and Wroth, 1974)

Table 13.1 a Maximum settlements and differential settlements of buildings in cm.

(After McDonald and Skempton, 1955)
SI. no.

Criterion

Isolated foundations

Raft

1/300

1/300

Clays

4-5

4.5

Sands

3-25

3.25

Clays

7.5

10.0

Sands

5.0

6.25

1.

Angular distortion

2.

Greatest differential settlements

3.

Maximum Settlements

548

Chapter 13
Table 13.1b

Permissible settlements (1955, U.S.S.R. Building Code)

Sl.no. Type of building

1.

Average settlement (cm)

Building with plain brickwalls on

continuous and separate foundations with
wall length L to wall height H

LJH>2.5

7.5

LIH<\.5

10.0

2.

Framed building

10.0

3.

Solid reinforced concrete foundation of

blast furnaces, water towers etc.

30

Table 13.1c

Permissible differential settlement (U.S.S.R Building Code, 1955)

Sl.no. Type of structure

1.

Steel and reinforced concrete structures

2.

Plain brick walls in multistory buildings

Type of soil
Sand and hard clay
Plastic clay
0.002L

0.002L

for LIH < 3

0.0003L

0.0004L

L/H > 5

0.0005L

0.0007L

3.

Water towers, silos etc.

0.004L

0.004L

4.

Slope of crane way as well as track

0.003L

0.003L

for bridge crane track

where, L = distance between two columns or parts of structure that settle different amounts, H = Height of
wall.

13.2

FIELD PLATE LOAD TESTS

The plate load test is a semi-direct method to estimate the allowable bearing pressure of soil to
induce a given amount of settlement. Plates, round or square, varying in size, from 30 to 60 cm and
thickness of about 2.5 cm are employed for the test.
The load on the plate is applied by making use of a hydraulic jack. The reaction of the jack
load is taken by a cross beam or a steel truss anchored suitably at both the ends. The settlement of
the plate is measured by a set of three dial gauges of sensitivity 0.02 mm placed 120 apart. The dial
gauges are fixed to independent supports which remain undisturbed during the test.
Figure 13.2a shows the arrangement for a plate load test. The method of performing the test is
essentially as follows:
1. Excavate a pit of size not less than 4 to 5 times the size of the plate. The bottom of the pit
should coincide with the level of the foundation.
2. If the water table is above the level of the foundation, pump out the water carefully and
keep it at the level of the foundation.
3. A suitable size of plate is selected for the test. Normally a plate of size 30 cm is used in
sandy soils and a larger size in clay soils. The ground should be levelled and the plate
should be seated over the ground.

Shallow Foundation II: Safe Bearing Pressure and Settlement Calculation

ns Channel

|k

IL
Steel girders

rod -

549

k^

r_

5IC ^V-^

""^X ^-^ |
/

Anchors

rt

3-1

^^_ Hydraulic
>^ jack
L_p

Extension ^^
pipe
^~^^

J]

55
T^^-^S;

.^^Ita.

Dial gau;e

h
4

13c=

Test plate / |^_ &p __^|

/7 N \

^
Y
S;

>^ Test pit

Section
^na

U1C i

2 Girders

i i
i .

i
i
I

A
/
t

\ \
i

i i
i i

)
Test plate

Support

n
1

Top plan
Figure 13.2a

Plate load test arrangement

A seating load of about 70 gm/cm2 is first applied and released after some time. A higher
load is next placed on the plate and settlements are recorded by means of the dial gauges.
Observations on every load increment shall be taken until the rate of settlement is less than
0.25 mm per hour. Load increments shall be approximately one-fifth of the estimated safe
bearing capacity of the soil. The average of the settlements recorded by 2 or 3 dial gauges
shall be taken as the settlement of the plate for each of the load increments.
5. The test should continue until a total settlement of 2.5 cm or the settlement at which the soil
fails, whichever is earlier, is obtained. After the load is released, the elastic rebound of the
soil should be recorded.

4.

From the test results, a load-settlement curve should be plotted as shown in Fig. 13.2b. The
allowable pressure on a prototype foundation for an assumed settlement may be found by making
use of the following equations suggested by Terzaghi and Peck (1948) for square footings in
granular soils.

550

Chapter 13
Plate bearing pressure in kg/cm2 or T/m2
i \ qa = Net allowable pressure

Figure 13.2b

Load-settlement curve of a plate-load test

B
Sf =S x -

(IS.lb)

where

5, = permissible settlement of foundation in mm,

S - settlement of plate in mm,
B = size of foundation in meters,
b = size of plate in meters.
For a plate 1 ft square, Eq. (13.la) may be expressed as

iJ fr 0p

(13.2)

in which S, and 5 are expressed in inches and B in feet.

The permissible settlement 5, for a prototype foundation should be known. Normally a
settlement of 2.5 cm is recommended. In Eqs (13.la) or (13.2) the values of 5, and b are known.
The unknowns are 5 and B. The value of S for any assumed size B may be found from the
equation. Using the plate load settlement curve Fig. 13.3 the value of the bearing pressure
corresponding to the computed value of 5 is found. This bearing pressure is the safe bearing
pressure for a given permissible settlement 5~ The principal shortcoming of this approach is the
unreliability of the extrapolation of Eqs (13. la) or (13.2).
Since a load test is of short duration, consolidation settlements cannot be predicted. The test
gives the value of immediate settlement only. If the underlying soil is sandy in nature immediate
settlement may be taken as the total settlement. If the soil is a clayey type, the immediate settlement
is only a fraction of the total settlement. Load tests, therefore, do not have much significance in
clayey soils to determine allowable pressure on the basis of a settlement criterion.

Shallow Foundation II: Safe Bearing Pressure and Settlement Calculation

Pistp inaH
Flate
load
test

TLoadA qn per unit* area

^ca

551

Foundation of
building

I
lJJJJlLLiJ
\y/////////////////^^^^
Stiff clay

Pressure bulbs

Figure 13.2c

Soft clay

Plate load test on non-homogeneous soil

Plate load tests should be used with caution and the present practice is not to rely too much on
this test. If the soil is not homogeneous to a great depth, plate load tests give very misleading
results.
Assume, as shown in Fig. 13.2c, two layers of soil. The top layer is stiff clay whereas the
bottom layer is soft clay. The load test conducted near the surface of the ground measures the
characteristics of the stiff clay but does not indicate the nature of the soft clay soil which is below.
The actual foundation of a building however has a bulb of pressure which extends to a great depth
into the poor soil which is highly compressible. Here the soil tested by the plate load test gives
results which are highly on the unsafe side.
A plate load test is not recommended in soils which are not homogeneous at least to a depth
equal to \l/2 to 2 times the width of the prototype foundation.
Plate load tests should not be relied on to determine the ultimate bearing capacity of sandy
soils as the scale effect gives very misleading results. However, when the tests are carried on clay
soils, the ultimate bearing capacity as determined by the test may be taken as equal to that of the
foundation since the bearing capacity of clay is essentially independent of the footing size.
Housel's (1929) Method of Determining Safe Bearing Pressure from
Settlement Consideration
The method suggested by Housel for determining the safe bearing pressure on settlement
consideration is based on the following formula

O
^ = Ap m + Pp n

C13 3)
\~>.~>
j

where Q = load applied on a given plate, A = contact area of plate, P = perimeter of plate, m = a
constant corresponding to the bearing pressure, n - another constant corresponding to perimeter
shear.
Objective
To determine the load (Xand the size of a foundation for a permissible settlement 5-..
Housel suggests two plate load tests with plates of different sizes, say Bl x B^ and
B2 x B2 for this purpose.

552

Chapter 13

Procedure
1 . Two plate load tests are to be conducted at the foundation level of the prototype as per the
procedure explained earlier.
2. Draw the load-settlement curves for each of the plate load tests.
3. Select the permissible settlement S,. for the foundation.
4. Determine the loads Q{ and Q2 from each of the curves for the given permissible settlement
sf
Now we may write the following equations
Q\=mAP\+npP\

(13.4a)

for plate load test 1 .

Q2=mAp2+nPp2

(13.4b)

for plate load test 2.

The unknown values of m and n can be found by solving the above Eqs. (13.4a) and (13. 5b).
The equation for a prototype foundation may be written as
Qf=mAf+nPf

(13.5)

where A, = area of the foundation, />,= perimeter of the foundation.

When A, and P,are known, the size of the foundation can be determined.
Example 13.1
A plate load test using a plate of size 30 x 30 cm was carried out at the level of a prototype
foundation. The soil at the site was cohesionless with the water table at great depth. The plate
settled by 10 mm at a load intensity of 160 kN/m2. Determine the settlement of a square footing of
size 2 x 2 m under the same load intensity.
Solution
The settlement of the foundation 5,,may be determined from Eq. (13. la).

=3a24mm
Example 13.2
For Ex. 13.1 estimate the load intensity if the permissible settlement of the prototype foundation is
limited to 40 mm.
Solution
In Ex. 13. 1, a load intensity of 160 kN/m2 induces a settlement of 30.24 mm. If we assume that the
load-settlement is linear within a small range, we may write

Shallow Foundation II: Safe Bearing Pressure and Settlement Calculation

553

where, q{ = 160 kN/m2, S^ = 30.24 mm, S^ = 40 mm. Substituting the known values
40
q2 = 160 x = 211.64 kN/m 2

Example 13.3
Two plate load tests were conducted at the level of a prototype foundation in cohesionless soil close
to each other. The following data are given:
Size of plate
0.3 x 0.3 m
0.6 x 0.6 m

Load applied
30 kN
90 kN

Settlement recorded
25 mm
25 mm

If a footing is to carry a load of 1000 kN, determine the required size of the footing for the
same settlement of 25 mm.
Solution
Use Eq. (13.3). For the two plate load tests we may write:

PLTl: Apl = 0.3 x 0.3 = 0.09m2 ; Ppl = 0.3 x 4 = 1.2m; Ql = 30 kN

PLT2: Ap2 =0.6x0.6 = 0.36m2; Pp2 = 0.6 x 4 = 2.4m; Q2 = 90 kN
Now we have
30 = 0.09m + 1.2n
90 = 0.36m + 2.4n
On solving the equations we have
m = 166.67, and n = 12.5
For prototype foundation, we may write
Qf = 1 66.67 Af+ 12.5 Pf
Assume the size of the footing as B x B, we have
Af = B2, Pf = 4B, and Qf = 1000 kN

Substituting we have
1000 =166.67fl2 +505
or B2 +0.35-6 = 0
The solution gives B = 2.3 m.
The size of the footing = 2.3 x 2.3 m.

554

13.3

Chapter 13

EFFECT OF SIZE OF FOOTINGS ON SETTLEMENT

Figure 13.3a gives typical load-settlement relationships for footings of different widths on the
surface of a homogeneous sand deposit. It can be seen that the ultimate bearing capacities of the
footings per unit area increase with the increase in the widths of the footings. However, for a given
settlement 5, such as 25 mm, the soil pressure is greater for a footing of intermediate width Bb than
for a large footing with BC. The pressures corresponding to the three widths intermediate, large and
narrow, are indicated by points b, c and a respectively.
The same data is used to plot Fig. 13.3b which shows the pressure per unit area corresponding
to a given settlement 5j, as a function of the width of the footing. The soil pressure for settlement
Sl increases for increasing width of the footing, if the footings are relatively small, reaches a
maximum at an intermediate width, and then decreases gradually with increasing width.
Although the relation shown in Fig. 13.3b is generally valid for the behavior of footings on
sand, it is influenced by several factors including the relative density of sand, the depth at which the
foundation is established, and the position of the water table. Furthermore, the shape of the curve
suggests that for narrow footings small variations in the actual pressure, Fig. 13.3a, may lead to
large variation in settlement and in some instances to settlements so large that the movement would
be considered a bearing capacity failure. On the other hand, a small change in pressure on a wide
footing has little influence on settlements as small as S { , and besides, the value of ql corresponding
to Sj is far below that which produces a bearing capacity failure of the wide footing.
For all practical purposes, the actual curve given in Fig. 13.3b can be replaced by an
equivalent curve omn where om is the inclined part and mn the horizontal part. The horizontal
portion of the curve indicates that the soil pressure corresponding to a settlement S{ is independent
of the size of the footing. The inclined portion om indicates the pressure increasing with width for
the same given settlement S{ up to the point m on the curve which is the limit for a bearing capacity
Soil pressure, q

(a)

Given settlement, S\

Narrow footing

(b)

Width of footing, B

Figure 13.3

Load-settlement curves for footings of different sizes

(Peck et al., 1974)

Shallow Foundation II: Safe Bearing Pressure and Settlement Calculation

555

failure. This means that the footings up to size Bl in Fig. 13. 3b should be checked for bearing
capacity failure also while selecting a safe bearing pressure by settlement consideration.
The position of the broken lines omn differs for different sand densities or in other words for
different SPT N values. The soil pressure that produces a given settlement Sl on loose sand is
obviously smaller than the soil pressure that produces the same settlement on a dense sand. Since
N- value increases with density of sand, qs therefore increases with an increase in the value of N.
13.4

DESIGN CHARTS FROM SPT VALUES FOR FOOTINGS ON SAND

The methods suggested by Terzaghi et al., (1996) for estimating settlements and bearing pressures
of footings founded on sand from SPT values are based on the findings of Burland and Burbidge
(1985). The SPT values used are corrected to a standard energy ratio. The usual symbol Ncor is used
in all the cases as the corrected value.
Formulas for Settlement Calculations
The following formulas were developed for computing settlements for square footings.
For normally consolidated soils and gravels
(13.6)
cor

For preconsolidated sand and gravels

for qs>pc

Sc=B."-(qs-0.67pc)

(13.7a)

cor

!
NIA
cor

(I3.7b)

If the footing is established at a depth below the ground surface, the removal of the soil above
the base level makes the sand below the base preconsolidated by excavation. Recompression is
assumed for bearing pressures up to preconstruction effective vertical stress q'o at the base of the
foundation. Thus, for sands normally consolidated with respect to the original ground surface and
for values of qs greater than q'o, we have,
for qs>q'0

Sc = B0'75-(qs-Q.61q'0)

(13 8a)

cor

for qs<q'0
where
Sc =
B qs =
Q =
A =
p =

S = jfi-75 qs

(13.8b)

settlement of footing, in mm, at the end of construction and application of

permanent live load
width of footing in m
gross bearing pressure of footing = QIA, in kN/m2 based on settlement
consideration
total load on the foundation in kN
area of foundation in m2
preconsolidation pressure in kN/m2

Chapter 13

556

0.1

10

Breadth, B(m) log scale

Figure 13.4 Thickness of granular soil beneath foundation contributing to

settlement, interpreted from settlement profiles (after Burland and Burbidge 1985)
q N =

effective vertical pressure at base level

average corrected N value within the depth of influence Z; below the base the of
footing

The depth of influence Z; is obtained from

Z^B0-15

(13.9)

Figure 13.4 gives the variation of the depth of influence with depth based on Eq. (13.9)
(after Burland and Burbidge, 1985).
The settlement of a rectangular footing of size B x L may be obtained from
L
1.25(1/8)
S(L/B>l) = Sc = 1
B
LI 5 + 0.25

(13.10)

when the ratio LIB is very high for a strip footing, we may write
Sc (strip)
Sr (square)

= 1.56

(13.11)

It may be noted here that the ground water table at the site may lie above or within the depth
of influence Zr Burland and Burbidge (1985) recommend no correction for the settlement
calculation even if the water table lies within the depth of influence Z;. On the other hand, if for any
reason, the water table were to rise into or above the zone of influence Z7 after the penetration tests
were conducted, the actual settlement could be as much as twice the value predicted without taking
the water table into account.

Shallow Foundation II: Safe Bearing Pressure and Settlement Calculation

557

Chart for Estimating Allowable Soil Pressure

Fig. 13.5 gives a chart for estimating allowable bearing pressure qs (on settlement consideration)
corresponding to a settlement of 16 mm for different values of TV (corrected). From Eq. (13.6), an
expression for q may be written as (for normally consolidated sand)
yyl.4

NIA

(13.12a)

1.7fl-75
where Q

(13,12b)

1.75 0.75

For sand having a preconsolidation pressure pc, Eq. (13.7) may be written as
for qs>pc

qs=16Q+Q.61pc

(13.13a)

for qs<pc

qs=3x\6Q

(13.13b)

If the sand beneath the base of the footing is preconsolidated because excavation has removed
a vertical effective stress q'o, Eq. (13.8) may be written as
for qs>q'o,

qs =16Q+Q.61q'o

(13.14a)

for qs<q'0,

qs

(13.14b)

5 6 7 8 9
Width of footing (m)

10 20 30

Figure 13.5 Chart for estimating allowable soil pressure for footing on sand on the
basis of results of standard penetration test. (Terzaghi, et al., 1996)

558

Chapter 13

The chart m Fig. 13.5 gives the relationships between B and Q. The value of qs may be
obtained from Q for any given width B. The Q to be used must conform to Eqs (13.12), (13.13)
and (13.14).
The chart is constructed for square footings of width B. For rectangular footings, the value of
qs should be reduced in accordance with Eq. (13.10). The bearing pressures determined by this
procedure correspond to a maximum settlement of 25 mm at the end of construction.
It may be noted here that the design chart (Fig. 13.5b) has been developed by taking the SPT
values corrected for 60 percent of standard energy ratio.

Example 13.4
A square footing of size 4 x 4 m is founded at a depth of 2 m below the ground surface in loose to
medium dense sand. The corrected standard penetration test value Ncor = 1 1 . Compute the safe
bearing pressure qs by using the chart in Fig. 13.5. The water table is at the base level of the
foundation.
Solution
From Fig. 13.5 Q = 5 for B = 4 m and Ncor = 11.
From Eq. (13.12a)
q = 160 = 16x5 = 80 kN/m 2

Example 13.5
Refer to Example 13.4. If the soil at the site is dense sand with Ncor = 30, estimate qs for B = 4 m.
Solution
From Fig.
^ 13.5 Q
*~- =24 for B = 4m and Ncor =30.
FromEq. (13.12a)
<7s = 16Q = 16 x 24 = 384 kN/m2

13.5 EMPIRICAL EQUATIONS BASED ON SPT VALUES FOR

FOOTINGS ON COHESIONLESS SOILS
Footings on granular soils are sometimes proportioned using empirical relationships. Teng (1969)
proposed an equation for a settlement of 25 mm based on the curves developed by Terzaghi and
Peck (1948). The modified form of the equation is

(13.15a)
where q - net allowable bearing pressure for a settlement of 25 mm in kN/m2,
Ncor = corrected standard penetration value
R WZ = water table correction factor (Refer Section 12.7)
Fd = depth factor = d + Df I B) < 2.0
B = width of footing in meters,
D,= depth of foundation in meters.

Shallow Foundation II: Safe Bearing Pressure and Settlement Calculation

559

Meyerhof (1956) proposed the following equations which are slightly different from that of
Teng
qs=\2NcorRw2Fd

for

5<1.2m

(13.15b)

Rw2FdforB>L2m

(13.15c)

where Fd = (l + 0.33 Df/B) < 1.33.

Experimental results indicate that the equations presented by Teng and Meyerhof are too
conservative. Bowles ( 1 996) proposes an approximate increase of 50 percent over that of Meyerhof
which can also be applied to Teng's equations. Modified equations of Teng and Meyerhof are,
Teng's equation (modified),
^=53(Af c o r -3) ^- Rw2Fd

(13.16a)

Meyerhof 's equation (modified)

qs = 20NcorRw2FdforB<L2 m
s

Rw2FdforB>l2m

(13.16b)
(13.16c)

If the tolerable settlement is greater than 25 mm, the safe bearing pressure computed by the
above equations can be increased linearly as,

where q's = net safe bearing pressure for a settlement S'mm, qs = net safe bearing pressure for a
settlement of 25 mm.

13.6 SAFE BEARING PRESSURE FROM EMPIRICAL EQUATIONS

BASED ON CPT VALUES FOR FOOTINGS ON COHESIONLESS SOIL
The static cone penetration test in which a standard cone of 10 cm2 sectional area is pushed into the
soil without the necessity of boring provides a much more accurate and detailed variation in the soil
as discussed in Chapter 9. Meyerhof (1956) suggested a set of empirical equations based on the
Terzaghi and Peck curves (1948). As these equations were also found to be conservative, modified
forms with an increase of 50 percent over the original values are given below.
qs = 3.6qcRw2 kPa

( n2

for

B < 1.2 m

qs=2.lqc 1 + - Rw2kPa
V

for 5>1.2m

(13.17a)
(13.17b)

DJ

An approximate formula for all widths

qs=2.7qcRw2kPa
where qc is the cone point resistance in kg/cm2 and qs in kPa.
The above equations have been developed for a settlement of 25 mm.

(13.17c)

560

Chapter 13

Meyerhof (1956) developed his equations based on the relationship qc = 4Ncor kg/cm2 for
penetration resistance in sand where Ncor is the corrected SPT value.
Example 13.6
Refer to Example 13.4 and compute qs by modified (a) Teng's method, and (b) Meyerhof 's method.
Solution

(a) Teng's equation (modified) Eq. (13.16a)

if
D '
where Rw2 = - ^1 +- j = 0.5 since Dw2 = 0

F,d, = \+- = 1 + B
4

=1.5<2

By substituting
qs -53(11 -3)11 x 0.5 x 1.5 - 92 kN/m 2
(b) Meyerhof 's equation (modified) Eq. (13.16c)

f
where Rw2,=0.5, F,d = l + 0.33x
- = l + 0.33x=1.1 65 < 1.33
4
B

By substituting
2

<? y = 12.5x11

x0.5x!.165-93kN/m 2

Note: Both the methods give the same result.

Example 13.7
A footing of size 3 x 3 m is to be constructed at a site at a depth of 1 .5 m below the ground surface.
The water table is at the base of the foundation. The average static cone penetration resistance
obtained at the site is 20 kg/cm2. The soil is cohesive. Determine the safe bearing pressure for a
settlement of 40 mm.
Solution

UseEq. (13.17b)

Shallow Foundation II: Safe Bearing Pressure and Settlement Calculation

561

B
where qc = 20 kg/cm2, B = 3m,Rw2 = 0.5.
This equation is for 25 mm settlement. By substituting, we have
qs = 2.1 x 201 1 + -I x 0.5 = 37.3 kN/m2
For 40 mm settlement, the value of q is

40
q s =37.3 =60 kN/m 2
*
25

13.7

FOUNDATION SETTLEMENT

Components of Total Settlement

The total settlement of a foundation comprises three parts as follows
S = Se+Sc+Ss
where

S
S
Sc
Ss

=
=
=
=

(13.18)

total settlement
elastic or immediate settlement
consolidation settlement
secondary settlement

Immediate settlement, Se, is that part of the total settlement, 51, which is supposed to take
place during the application of loading. The consolidation settlement is that part which is due to the
expulsion of pore water from the voids and is time-dependent settlement. Secondary settlement
normally starts with the completion of the consolidation. It means, during the stage of this
settlement, the pore water pressure is zero and the settlement is only due to the distortion of the soil
skeleton.
Footings founded in cohesionless soils reach almost the final settlement, 5, during the
construction stage itself due to the high permeability of soil. The water in the voids is expelled
simultaneously with the application of load and as such the immediate and consolidation
settlements in such soils are rolled into one.
In cohesive soils under saturated conditions, there is no change in the water content during
the stage of immediate settlement. The soil mass is deformed without any change in volume soon
after the application of the load. This is due to the low permeability of the soil. With the
advancement of time there will be gradual expulsion of water under the imposed excess load. The
time required for the complete expulsion of water and to reach zero water pressure may be several
years depending upon the permeability of the soil. Consolidation settlement may take many years
to reach its final stage. Secondary settlement is supposed to take place after the completion of the
consolidation settlement, though in some of the organic soils there will be overlapping of the two
settlements to a certain extent.
Immediate settlements of cohesive soils and the total settlement of cohesionless soils may be
estimated from elastic theory. The stresses and displacements depend on the stress-strain
characteristics of the underlying soil. A realistic analysis is difficult because these characteristics
are nonlinear. Results from the theory of elasticity are generally used in practice, it being assumed
that the soil is homogeneous and isotropic and there is a linear relationship between stress and

562

Chapter 13

Overburden pressure, p0
Combined p0 and Ap

D5= 1.5to2B

0.1 to 0.2

Figure 13.6

Overburden pressure and vertical stress distribution

strain. A linear stress-strain relationship is approximately true when the stress levels are low
relative to the failure values. The use of elastic theory clearly involves considerable simplification
of the real soil.
Some of the results from elastic theory require knowledge of Young's modulus (Es), here
called the compression or deformation modulus, Ed, and Poisson's ratio, jU, for the soil.
Seat of Settlement
Footings founded at a depth D, below the surface settle under the imposed loads due to the
compressibility characteristics of the subsoil. The depth through which the soil is compressed
depends upon the distribution of effective vertical pressure p'Q of the overburden and the vertical
induced stress A/? resulting from the net foundation pressure qn as shown in Fig. 13.6.
In the case of deep compressible soils, the lowest level considered in the settlement analysis
is the point where the vertical induced stress A/? is of the order of 0.1 to 0.2qn, where qn is the net
pressure on the foundation from the superstructure. This depth works out to about 1.5 to 2 times the
width of the footing. The soil lying within this depth gets compressed due to the imposed
foundation pressure and causes more than 80 percent of the settlement of the structure. This depth
DS is called as the zone of significant stress. If the thickness of this zone is more than 3 m, the steps
to be followed in the settlement analysis are
1. Divide the zone of significant stress into layers of thickness not exceeding 3 m,
2. Determine the effective overburden pressure p'o at the center of each layer,
3. Determine the increase in vertical stress Ap due to foundation pressure q at the center of
each layer along the center line of the footing by the theory of elasticity,
4. Determine the average modulus of elasticity and other soil parameters for each of the
layers.

13.8

EVALUATION OF MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

The most difficult part of a settlement analysis is the evaluation of the modulus of elasticity Es, that
would conform to the soil condition in the field. There are two methods by which Es can be
evaluated. They are

Shallow Foundation II: Safe Bearing Pressure and Settlement Calculation

563

1. Laboratory method,
2. Field method.
Laboratory Method

For settlement analysis, the values of Es at different depths below the foundation base are required.
One way of determining Es is to conduct triaxial tests on representative undisturbed samples
extracted from the depths required. For cohesive soils, undrained triaxial tests and for cohesionless
soils drained triaxial tests are required. Since it is practically impossible to obtain undisturbed
sample of cohesionless soils, the laboratory method of obtaining Es can be ruled out. Even with
regards to cohesive soils, there will be disturbance to the sample at different stages of handling it,
and as such the values of ES obtained from undrained triaxial tests do not represent the actual
conditions and normally give very low values. A suggestion is to determine Es over the range of
stress relevant to the particular problem. Poulos et al., (1980) suggest that the undisturbed triaxial
specimen be given a preliminary preconsolidation under KQ conditions with an axial stress equal to
the effective overburden pressure at the sampling depth. This procedure attempts to return the
specimen to its original state of effective stress in the ground, assuming that the horizontal effective
stress in the ground was the same as that produced by the laboratory KQ condition. Simons and Som
(1970) have shown that triaxial tests on London clay in which specimens were brought back to their
original in situ stresses gave elastic moduli which were much higher than those obtained from
conventional undrained triaxial tests. This has been confirmed by Marsland (1971) who carried out
865 mm diameter plate loading tests in 900 mm diameter bored holes in London clay. Marsland
found that the average moduli determined from the loading tests were between 1.8 to 4.8 times
those obtained from undrained triaxial tests. A suggestion to obtain the more realistic value for Es
is,
1. Undisturbed samples obtained from the field must be reconsolidated under a stress system
equal to that in the field (^-condition),
2. Samples must be reconsolidated isotropically to a stress equal to 1/2 to 2/3 of the in situ
vertical stress.
It may be noted here that reconsolidation of disturbed sensitive clays would lead to
significant change in the water content and hence a stiffer structure which would lead to a very high
E,Because of the many difficulties faced in selecting a modulus value from the results of
laboratory tests, it has been suggested that a correlation between the modulus of elasticity of soil
and the undrained shear strength may provide a basis for settlement calculation. The modulus E
may be expressed as
Es = Acu

(13.19)

where the value of A for inorganic stiff clay varies from about 500 to 1500 (Bjerrum, 1972) and cu
is the undrained cohesion. It may generally be assumed that highly plastic clays give lower values
for A, and low plasticity give higher values for A. For organic or soft clays the value of A may vary
from 100 to 500. The undrained cohesion cu can be obtained from any one of the field tests
mentioned below and also discussed in Chapter 9.
Field methods

Field methods are increasingly used to determine the soil strength parameters. They have been
found to be more reliable than the ones obtained from laboratory tests. The field tests that are
normally used for this purpose are
1. Plate load tests (PLT)

564

Chapter 13

Table 13.2

Equations for computing Es by making use of SPT and CPT values (in
kPa)

Soil

SPT

CPT

Sand (normally consolidated)

500 (Ncor + 1 5 )
(35000 to 50000) log Ncor
(U.S.S.R Practice)

2 to 4 qc
(\+Dr2)qc

Sand (saturated)
Sand (overconsolidated)

250 (N
-

Gravelly sand and gravel

Clayey sand
Silty sand
Soft clay

1200 (N + 6)
320 (Ncor +15)
300 (Ncor + 6)
-

2.
3.
4.
5.

+15)
6 to 30 qc
3 to 6 qc
1 to 2 qc
3 to 8 qc

Standard penetration test (SPT)

Static cone penetration test (CPT)
Pressuremeter test (PMT)
Flat dilatometer test (DMT)

Plate load tests, if conducted at levels at which Es is required, give quite reliable values as
compared to laboratory tests. Since these tests are too expensive to carry out, they are rarely used
except in major projects.
Many investigators have obtained correlations between Eg and field tests such as SPT, CPT
and PMT. The correlations between ES and SPT or CPT are applicable mostly to cohesionless soils
and in some cases cohesive soils under undrained conditions. PMT can be used for cohesive soils to
determine both the immediate and consolidation settlements together.
Some of the correlations of y with N and qc are given in Table 13.2. These correlations have
been collected from various sources.

13.9

METHODS OF COMPUTING SETTLEMENTS

Many methods are available for computing elastic (immediate) and consolidation settlements. Only
those methods that are of practical interest are discussed here. The'various methods discussed in
this chapter are the following:
Computation of Elastic Settlements
1. Elastic settlement based on the theory of elasticity
2. Janbu et al., (1956) method of determining settlement under an undrained condition.
3. Schmertmann's method of calculating settlement in granular soils by using CPT values.
Computation of Consolidation Settlement
1. e-\og p method by making use of oedometer test data.
2. Skempton-Bjerrum method.

Shallow Foundation II: Safe Bearing Pressure and Settlement Calculation

565

13.10 ELASTIC SETTLEMENT BENEATH THE CORNER OF A

UNIFORMLY LOADED FLEXIBLE AREA BASED ON THE THEORY OF
ELASTICITY
The net elastic settlement equation for a flexible surface footing may be written as,

a->" 2 ),

P
S=B-
- fI

(13.20a)

where

Se = elastic settlement
B = width of foundation,
Es = modulus of elasticity of soil,
fj, = Poisson's ratio,
qn = net foundation pressure,
7, = influence factor.
In Eq. (13.20a), for saturated clays, \JL - 0.5, and Es is to be obtained under undrained
conditions as discussed earlier. For soils other than clays, the value of ^ has to be chosen suitably
and the corresponding value of Es has to be determined. Table 13.3 gives typical values for /i as
suggested by Bowles (1996).
7, is a function of the LIB ratio of the foundation, and the thickness H of the compressible
layer. Terzaghi has a given a method of calculating 7, from curves derived by Steinbrenner (1934),
for Poisson's ratio of 0.5, 7,= F1?
for Poisson's ratio of zero, 7,= F7 + F2.
where F{ and F2 are factors which depend upon the ratios of H/B and LIB.
For intermediate values of //, the value of If can be computed by means of interpolation or by
the equation

(l-f,-2f,2)F2

(13.20b)

The values of Fj and F2 are given in Fig. 13.7a. The elastic settlement at any point N
(Fig. 13.7b) is given by
(I-// 2 )
Se at point N = -S-_
[/^ + If2B2 + 7/37?3 + 7/47?4]

(13 20c)

Table 13.3 Typical range of values for Poisson's ratio (Bowles, 1996)
Type of soil

y.

Clay, saturated
Clay, unsaturated
Sandy clay
Silt
Sand (dense)
Coarse (void ratio 0.4 to 0.7)
Fine grained (void ratio = 0.4 to 0.7)
Rock

0.4-0.5
0.1-0.3
0.2-0.3
0.3-0.35
0.2-0.4
0.15
0.25
0.1-0.4

566

Chapter 13

0.1

Values of F,
0.2
0.3

_)andF2( _ _ _

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

Figure 13.7 Settlement due to load on surface of elastic layer (a) F1 and F2 versus
H/B (b) Method of estimating settlement (After Steinbrenner, 1934)

To obtain the settlement at the center of the loaded area, the principle of superposition is
followed. In such a case N in Fig. 13.7b will be at the center of the area when B{ = B4 = L2 = B3 and
B2 = Lr Then the settlement at the center is equal to four times the settlement at any one corner. The
curves in Fig. 13.7a are based on the assumption that the modulus of deformation is constant with
depth.
In the case of a rigid foundation, the immediate settlement at the center is approximately 0.8
times that obtained for a flexible foundation at the center. A correction factor is applied to the
immediate settlement to allow for the depth of foundation by means of the depth factor d~ Fig. 13.8
gives Fox's (1948) correction curve for depth factor. The final elastic settlement is
(13.21)
final elastic settlement
rigidity factor taken as equal to 0.8 for a highly rigid foundation
depth factor from Fig. 13.8
s = settlement for a surface flexible footing
Bowles (1996) has given the influence factor for various shapes of rigid and flexible footings
as shown in Table 13.4.
where,

"f =

Shallow Foundation II: Safe Bearing Pressure and Settlement Calculation

Table 13.4

Influence factor lf (Bowles, 1988)

lf (average values)
Rigid footing
Flexible footing

Shape
Circle
Square
Rectangle

0.85

0.88

0.95

0.82

1.20

1.06

L/B= 1.5

1.20

1.06

2.0

1.31

1.20

5.0

1.83

1.70

10.0

2.25

2.10

100.0

2.96

3.40

Corrected settlement for foundation of depth D ,

T~lr-ritli fnr^tnr

Calculated settlement for foundation at surface

Q.50

0.60

0.70

0.80

0.90

j
100

0.1
0.2

25-

Df/^BL

1
j

i7TT

0.4
0.5
0.7

I\r
k1
1
1I
!/

0.8
0.9
1 n
0.9
0.8
0.7
y

0.6

0.3
0.2
0.1
_ n

Figure 13.8

0.5
0.4

*l

'rf /
4y

\ l l > //
<
//

0.6

1.0

<7/ /^ -9
-1
/
'/<
I// /

' D,

0.3

//

19-

L '//

'/!

Numbers denote ratio L/B

r /

^/25
-100

Correction curves for elastic settlement of flexible rectangular

foundations at depth (Fox, 1948)

567

568

Chapter 13

13.11 JANBU, BJERRUM AND KJAERNSLI'S METHOD OF

DETERMINING ELASTIC SETTLEMENT UNDER UNDRAINED
CONDITIONS
Probably the most useful chart is that given by Janbu et al., (1956) as modified by Christian and
Carrier (1978) for the case of a constant Es with respect to depth. The chart (Fig. 13.9) provides
estimates of the average immediate settlement of uniformly loaded, flexible strip, rectangular,
square or circular footings on homogeneous isotropic saturated clay. The equation for computing
the settlement may be expressed as
S =

(13.22)

In Eq. (13.20), Poisson's ratio is assumed equal to 0.5. The factors fiQ and ^ are related to the
DJB and HIB ratios of the foundation as shown in Fig. 13.9. Values of \JL^ are given for various LIB
ratios. Rigidity and depth factors are required to be applied to Eq. (13.22) as per Eq. (13.21). In
Fig. 13.9 the thickness of compressible strata is taken as equal to H below the base of the
foundation where a hard stratum is met with.
Generally, real soil profiles which are deposited naturally consist of layers of soils of
different properties underlain ultimately by a hard stratum. Within these layers, strength and
moduli generally increase with depth. The chart given in Fig. 13.9 may be used for the case of ES
increasing with depth by replacing the multilayered system with one hypothetical layer on a rigid

1.0
D
0.9

Incompressible

10
Df/B

15

20

1000

Figure 13.9

Factors for calculating the average immediate settlement of a loaded

area (after Christian and Carrier, 1978)

Shallow Foundation II: Safe Bearing Pressure and Settlement Calculation

569

base. The depth of this hypothetical layer is successively extended to incorporate each real layer,
the corresponding values of Es being ascribed in each case and settlements calculated. By
subtracting the effect of the hypothetical layer above each real layer the separate compression of
each layer may be found and summed to give the overall total settlement.

13.12 SCHMERTMANN'S METHOD OF CALCULATING

SETTLEMENT IN GRANULAR SOILS BY USING CRT VALUES
It is normally taken for granted that the distribution of vertical strain under the center of a footing
over uniform sand is qualitatively similar to the distribution of the increase in vertical stress. If true,
the greatest strain would occur immediately under the footing, which is the position of the greatest
stress increase. The detailed investigations of Schmertmann (1970), Eggestad, (1963) and others,
indicate that the greatest strain would occur at a depth equal to half the width for a square or circular
footing. The strain is assumed to increase from a minimum at the base to a maximum at B/2, then
decrease and reaches zero at a depth equal to 2B. For strip footings of L/B > 10, the maximum strain
is found to occur at a depth equal to the width and reaches zero at a depth equal to 4B. The modified
triangular vertical strain influence factor distribution diagram as proposed by Schmertmann (1978)
is shown in Fig. 13.10. The area of this diagram is related to the settlement. The equation (for
square as well as circular footings) is

IB l
-jj-te
^

(13.23)

where,

S = total settlement,
qn = net foundation base pressure = (q - q'Q),
q = total foundation pressure,
q'0 = effective overburden pressure at foundation level,
Az = thickness of elemental layer,
lz = vertical strain influence factor,
Cj = depth correction factor,
C2 = creep factor.
The equations for Cl and C2 are
c

i = 1 ~0-5 -7-

(13.24)

C2 = l + 0.21og10

(13>2 5)

where t is time in years for which period settlement is required.

Equation (13.25) is also applicable for LIB > 10 except that the summation is from 0 to 4B.
The modulus of elasticity to be used in Eq. (13.25) depends upon the type of foundation as
follows:
For a square footing,
Es = 2.5qc

(13.26)

For a strip footing, LIB > 10,

E=3.5fl

(13.27)

Chapter 13

570

Rigid foundation vertical strain

influence factor Iz
0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

tfl

to

> P e a k / = 0.5 + 0.1.

N>

Co

D
L/B > 10

>

3B

- 1,,
/; I H m ill
>

. BB/2forforLIBLIB>=101

HI

Depth to peak /,

C*

4B L

Figure 13.10

Vertical strain Influence factor diagrams (after Schmertmann et al., 1978)

Fig. 13.10 gives the vertical strain influence factor /z distribution for both square and strip
foundations if the ratio LIB > 10. Values for rectangular foundations for LIB < 10 can be obtained by
interpolation. The depths at which the maximum /z occurs may be calculated as follows
(Fig 13.10),

(13.28)
where

p'Q

= effective overburden pressure at depths B/2 and B for square and strip
foundations respectively.
Further, / is equal to 0.1 at the base and zero at depth 2B below the base for square footing;
whereas for a strip foundation it is 0.2 at the base and zero at depth 4B.
Values of E5 given in Eqs. (13.26) and (13.27) are suggested by Schmertmann (1978). Lunne
and Christoffersen (1985) proposed the use of the tangent modulus on the basis of a comprehensive
review of field and laboratory tests as follows:
For normally consolidated sands,

5 = 4 4c for 9c < 10

(13.29)

Es = (2qc + 20)for\0<qc<50

(13.30)

Es= 120 for qc > 50

(13.31)

For overconsolidated sands with an overconsolidation ratio greater than 2,

(13.32a)
Es = 250 for qc > 50

(13.32b)

where Es and qc are expressed in MPa.

The cone resistance diagram is divided into layers of approximately constant values of qc and
the strain influence factor diagram is placed alongside this diagram beneath the foundation which is

Shallow Foundation II: Safe Bearing Pressure and Settlement Calculation

571

drawn to the same scale. The settlements of each layer resulting from the net contact pressure qn are
then calculated using the values of Es and /z appropriate to each layer. The sum of the settlements in
each layer is then corrected for the depth and creep factors using Eqs. (13.24) and (13.25)
respectively.

Example 13.8
Estimate the immediate settlement of a concrete footing 1.5 x 1.5 m in size founded at a depth of
1 m in silty soil whose modulus of elasticity is 90 kg/cm2. The footing is expected to transmit a unit
pressure of 200 kN/m2.
Solution

Use Eq. (13.20a)

Immediate settlement,
s

=
E

Assume n = 0.35, /,= 0.82 for a rigid footing.

Given: q = 200 kN/m2, B = 1.5 m, Es = 90 kg/cm2 9000 kN/m2.
By substituting the known values, we have
1-0352
S =200xl.5x -:- x 0.82 = 0.024 m = 2.4 cm
9000

Example 13.9
A square footing of size 8 x 8 m is founded at a depth of 2 m below the ground surface in loose to
medium dense sand with qn = 120 kN/m2. Standard penetration tests conducted at the site gave the
following corrected N6Q values.
Depth below G.L. (m)

"cor

2
4
6
8

8
8
12
12

Depth below G.L.

10
12
14
16
18

cor
11

16
18
17
20

The water table is at the base of the foundation. Above the water table y = 16.5 kN/m3, and
submerged yb = 8.5 kN/m3.
Compute the elastic settlement by Eq. (13.20a). Use the equation Es = 250 (Ncor + 15) for
computing the modulus of elasticity of the sand. Assume ]U = 0.3 and the depth of the compressible
layer = 2B= 16 m ( = //)
Solution

For computing the elastic settlement, it is essential to determine the weighted average value ofNcor.
The depth of the compressible layer below the base of the foundation is taken as equal to
16 m (= H). This depth may be divided into three layers in such a way that Ncor is approximately
constant in each layer as given below.

572

Chapter 13

Layer No.

Thickness
(m)
3
6
7

Depth (m)
From
To
2
5
5
11
11
18

1
2
3

"cor

9
12
17

The weighted average

9x3 + 12x6 + 17x7
^ or say 14
= 1103.6
ID

From equation Es = 250 (Ncor + 15) we have

Es = 250(14 + 15) = 7250 kN/m2
The total settlement of the center of the footing of size 8 x 8 m is equal to four times the
settlement of a corner of a footing of size 4 x 4 m.
In the Eq. (13.20a), B = 4 m, qn = 120 kN/m2, p = 0.3.
Now from Fig. 13.7, for HIB = 16/4 = 4, LIB = 1
F2 = 0.03 for n = 0.5

Now from Eq. (13.20 b) T^for /* = 0.3 is

q-,-2

1-0.32

I-//

From Eq. (13.20a) we have settlement of a corner of a footing of size 4 x 4 m as

s =

"

725

With the correction factor, the final elastic settlement from Eq. (13.21) is

sef = crdfse
where Cr = rigidity factor = 1 for flexible footing d, = depth factor
From Fig. 13.8 for
Df

2
L 4
= 0.5, = -=1 we have d r =0.85
V4x4
B 4
f
/

r*

VV \s 1 1 U . V W L*r "

Now 5^= 1 x 0.85 x 2.53 = 2.15 cm

The total elastic settlement of the center of the footing is

Se = 4 x 2.15 = 8.6 cm = 86 mm

Per Table 13.la, the maximum permissible settlement for a raft foundation in sand is
62.5 mm. Since the calculated value is higher, the contact pressure qn has to be reduced.

Shallow Foundation II: Safe Bearing Pressure and Settlement Calculation

573

Example 13.10
It is proposed to construct an overhead tank at a site on a raft foundation of size 8 x 12 m with the
footing at a depth of 2 m below ground level. The soil investigation conducted at the site indicates
that the soil to a depth of 20 m is normally consolidated insensitive inorganic clay with the water
table 2 m below ground level. Static cone penetration tests were conducted at the site using a
mechanical cone penetrometer. The average value of cone penetration resistance qc was found to
be 1540 kN/m2 and the average saturated unit weight of the soil = 1 8 kN/m3. Determine the
immediate settlement of the foundation using Eq. (13.22). The contact pressure qn = 100 kN/m2
(= 0.1 MPa). Assume that the stratum below 20 m is incompressible.
Solution

Computation of the modulus of elasticity

Use Eq. (13. 19) with A = 500
where cu = the undrained shear strength of the soil
From Eq. (9.14)

qc = average static cone penetration resistance = 1540 kN/m2

po = average total overburden pressure = 1 0 x 1 8 = 1 80 kN/m2
Nk = 20 (assumed)

where

Therefore

c = 154~18 = 68 kN/m2
20

Es = 500 x 68 = 34,000 kN/m2 = 34 MPa

Eq. (13.22)forS e is
_

~
From Fig. 13.9 for DjE = 2/8 = 0.25, ^0 = 0.95, for HIB = 16/8 = 2 and UB = 12/8 = 1 .5, ^ = 0.6.
Substituting
. 0.95x0.6x0.1x8
Se (average) = - = 0.0134 m = 13.4 mm
From Fig. 13.8 for Df/</BL = 2/V8xl2 = 0.2, L/B = 1.5 the depth factor df= 0.94
The corrected settlement Sef is
S =0.94x1 3.4 = 12.6 mm

Example 13.11
Refer to Example 13.9. Estimate the elastic settlement by Schmertmann's method by making use of
the relationship qc = 4 Ncor kg/cm2 where qc = static cone penetration value in kg/cm2. Assume
settlement is required at the end of a period of 3 years.

Chapter 13

574

5 x L = 8x8 m

y = 16.5 kN/m 3

Sand

0.1

0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Strain influence factor, /,

0.6

0.7

Figure Ex. 13.11

Solution
The average value of for Ncor each layer given in Ex. 13.9 is given below
Layer No

Average
N

9
12
17

Average qc
kg/cm
MPa
2

36
48
68

3.6
4.8
6.8

The vertical strain influence factor / with respect to depth is calculated by making use of
Fig. 13.10.
At the base of the foundation 7 = 0 . 1

At depth B/2,

; = -5 +0'\H"
V rO

where qn
p'g

= 120 kpa
= effective average overburden pressure at depth = (2 + B/2) = 6 m below ground level.
= 2 x 16.5 + 4 x 8 . 5 = 67 kN/m 2 .

Shallow Foundation II: Safe Bearing Pressure and Settlement Calculation

575

Iz (max) = 0.5 + 0.1 J = 0.63

/z = 0 a t z = / f = 16m below base level of the foundation. The distribution of Iz is given in
Fig. Ex. 13.11. The equation for settlement is
2B I

-^Az
o Es

where C, = 1-0.5

qn

= 1-0.5

120

=0.86

C2 = l + 0.21og^- = l + 0.21og^- =1.3

where t = 3 years.
The elastic modulus Es for normally consolidated sands may be calculated by Eq. (13.29).
Es = 4qc forqc <10MPa
where qc is the average for each layer.
Layer 2 is divided into sublayers 2a and 2b for computing / . The average of the influence
factors for each of the layers given in Fig. Ex. 13.11 are tabulated along with the other calculations

Layer No.

Az (cm)

qc (MPa)

Es (MPa)

Iz (av)

^T

1
2a
2b
3

300
100
500
700

3.6
4.8
4.8
6.8

14.4
19.2
19.2
27.2

0.3
0.56
0.50
0.18

6.25
2.92
13.02
4.63

Total

26.82

Substituting; in the equation for settlement 5, we have

5 = 0.86x1.3x0.12x26.82 = 3.6 cm = 36 mm

13.13 ESTIMATION OF CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT BY

USING OEDOMETER TEST DATA
Equations for Computing Settlement

Settlement calculation from e-logp curves

A general equation for computing oedometer consolidation settlement may be written as
follows.
Normally consolidated clays
sr,

,_/?0+AP

c = //-log

Po

(13.33)

576

Chapter 13

Overconsolidated clays
for pQ +Ap < pc
c _ LJ

O,, ti

s i1O2 PQ + /V

/17 O/IN

for/? 0 < pc<pQ + Ap

C,log-^- + Cclog-^-

(13 _ 35)

where Cs = swell index, and C, = compression index

If the thickness of the clay stratum is more than 3 m the stratum has to be divided into layers
of thickness less than 3 m. Further, <?0 is the initial void ratio and pQ, the effective overburden
pressure corresponding to the particular layer; Ap is the increase in the effective stress at the middle
of the layer due to foundation loading which is calculated by elastic theory. The compression index,
and the swell index may be the same for the entire depth or may vary from layer to layer.
Settlement calculation from e-p curve
Eq. (13.35) can be expressed in a different form as follows:
Sc=ZHmvkp
where

(13.36)

= coefficient of volume compressibility

13.14 SKEMPTOIM-BJERRUM METHOD OF CALCULATING

CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT (1957)
Calculation of consolidation settlement is based on one dimensional test results obtained from
oedometer tests on representative samples of clay. These tests do not allow any lateral yield during the
test and as such the ratio of the minor to major principal stresses, KQ, remains constant. In practice, the
condition of zero lateral strain is satisfied only in cases where the thickness of the clay layer is small
in comparison with the loaded area. In many practical solutions, however, significant lateral strain
will occur and the initial pore water pressure will depend on the in situ stress condition and the value
of the pore pressure coefficient A, which will not be equal to unity as in the case of a one-dimensional
consolidation test. In view of the lateral yield, the ratios of the minor and major principal stresses due
to a given loading condition at a given point in a clay layer do not maintain a constant KQ.
The initial excess pore water pressure at a point P (Fig. 13.1 1) in the clay layer is given by the
expression
Aw = Acr3 + A(Acr, - A<73)

ACT,

where Ao^ and Acr3 are the total principal stress increments due to surface loading. It can be seen
from Eq. (13.37)
Aw > A<73 if A is positive
and

Aw = ACT, ifA = \

Shallow Foundation II: Safe Bearing Pressure and Settlement Calculation

577

The value of A depends on the type of clay, the stress levels and the stress system.
Fig. 13.1 la presents the loading condition at a point in a clay layer below the central line of
circular footing. Figs. 13.11 (b), (c) and (d) show the condition before loading, immediately after
loading and after consolidation respectively.
By the one-dimensional method, consolidation settlement S is expressed as

(13.38)
By the Skempton-Bejerrum method, consolidation settlement is expressed as

(13.39)

or

ACT,

S=

(13.40)

A settlement coefficient (3 is used, such that Sc = (3So

The expression for (3 is

H
T

Acr3
"
+ -(1-A) <fe

qn

a0' + Aa, - L

K o'0+ Aa3- AM 1

t73 1Wo

o\

/
i
/
/

-a, - a L

ii

71i
)

^
\
^f h*

\>

Arr.

*s\
L^u

(b) 1

_ L
a; Aa
r1 l(o

K0 a'0+ Aa3

(a)

(a) Physical plane (b) Initial conditions

(c) Immediately after loading (d) After consolidation
Figure 13.11

In situ effective stresses

Chapter 13

578

0.2

Figure 13.12

Circle
Very
Strip
sensitive
clays
Normally consolidated
~
I
~*
1.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Pore pressure coefficient A

Settlement coefficient versus pore-pressure coefficient for circular

and strip footings (After Skempton and Bjerrum, 1957)
Table 13.5

Values of settlement coefficient

Type of clay
Very sensitive clays (soft alluvial and marine clays)
Normally consolidated clays
Overconsolidated clays
Heavily Overconsolidated clays
r

1.0 to 1.2
0.7 to 1.0
0.5 to 0.7
0.2 to 0.5

(13.41)

Sc=ftSoc

where ft is called the settlement coefficient.

If it can be assumed that mv and A are constant with depth (sub-layers can be used in the
analysis), then ft can be expressed as
(13.42)

where

a=
dz

(13.43)

Taking Poisson's ratio (Ji as 0.5 for a saturated clay during loading under undrained
conditions, the value of (3 depends only on the shape of the loaded area and the thickness of the clay
layer in relation to the dimensions of the loaded area and thus ft can be estimated from elastic
theory.
The value of initial excess pore water pressure (Aw) should, in general, correspond to the in
situ stress conditions. The use of a value of pore pressure coefficient A obtained from the results of

Shallow Foundation II: Safe Bearing Pressure and Settlement Calculation

579

a triaxial test on a cylindrical clay specimen is strictly applicable only for the condition of axial
symmetry, i e., for the case of settlement under the center of a circular footing. However, the value
of A so obtained will serve as a good approximation for the case of settlement under the center of a
square footing (using the circular footing of the same area).
Under a strip footing plane strain conditions prevail. Scott (1963) has shown that the value of
AM appropriate in the case of a strip footing can be obtained by using a pore pressure coefficient As
as
As =0.866 A + 0.211

(13.44)

The coefficient AS replaces A (the coefficient for the condition of axial symmetry) in
Eq. (13.42) for the case of a strip footing, the expression for a being unchanged.
Values of the settlement coefficient /3 for circular and strip footings, in terms of A and ratios
H/B, are given in Fig 13.12.
Typical values of /3 are given in Table 13.5 for various types of clay soils.
Example 13.12
For the problem given in Ex. 13.10 compute the consolidation settlement by the SkemptonBjerrum method. The compressible layer of depth 16m below the base of the foundation is divided
into four layers and the soil properties of each layer are given in Fig. Ex. 13.12. The net contact
pressure qn = 100 kN/m2.
Solution

From Eq. (13.33), the oedometer settlement for the entire clay layer system may be expressed as
C

p + Ap

From Eq. (13.41), the consolidation settlement as per Skempton-Bjerrum may be expressed
as
c - fiSoe

where

/3

= settlement coefficient which can be obtained from Fig. 13.12 for various values
of A and H/B.
po = effective overburden pressure at the middle of each layer (Fig. Ex. 13.12)
Cc = compression index of each layer
//. = thickness of i th layer
eo - initial void ratio of each layer
Ap = the excess pressure at the middle of each layer obtained from elastic theory
(Chapter 6)
The average pore pressure coefficient is
0.9 + 0.75 + 0.70 + 0.45 _ _
A=
= 0.7
4
The details of the calculations are tabulated below.

580

Chapter 13

flxL=8x

12m

G.L.

G.L.

moist unit weight

ym=17kN/m3
Submerged unit weight yb is
- Layer 1

Cc = 0.16
A = 0.9

yb = (17.00 - 9.81) = 7.19 kN/m3

e0 = 0.84

, = 7.69 kN/m3

Layer 2
Cc = 0.14
A - 0.75

a,
<u

10

Layer 3

12

C =0.11

14

e0 = 0.73

Layer 4

16 -

yfc = 8.19kN/m 3
A = 0.70

yb = 8.69 kN/m3

Cc = 0.09
A = 0.45

18

Figure Ex. 13.12

Layer No.

H. (cm)

po (kN/m^)

A/? (kN/m z

1
2
3
4

400
400
300
500

48.4
78.1
105.8
139.8

75
43
22
14

ltj
6

0.16
0.14
0.11
0.09

0.93
0.84
0.76
0.73

4^ (cm)

0.407
0.191
0.082
0.041
Total

13.50
5.81
1.54
1.07
21.92

PorH/B = 16/8 = 2, A = 0.7, from Fig. 13.12 we have 0= 0.8.

The consolidation settlement 5C is
5 = 0.8 x 21.92 = 17.536 cm = 175.36 mm

13.15

PROBLEMS

13.1 A plate load test was conducted in a medium dense sand at a depth of 5 ft below ground
level in a test pit. The size of the plate used was 12 x 12 in. The data obtained from the test
are plotted in Fig. Prob. 13.1 as a load-settlement curve. Determine from the curve the net
safe bearing pressure for footings of size (a) 10 x 10 ft, and (b) 15 x 15 ft. Assume the
permissible settlement for the foundation is 25 mm.

Shallow Foundation II: Safe Bearing Pressure and Settlement Calculation

Plate bearing pressure, lb/ft2

2
4
6

581

8xl03

0.5

1.0

1.5
Figure Prob. 13.1

13.2 Refer to Prob. 13.1. Determine the settlements of the footings given in Prob 13.1. Assume
the settlement of the plate as equal to 0.5 in. What is the net bearing pressure from
Fig. Prob. 13.1 for the computed settlements of the foundations?
13.3 For Problem 13.2, determine the safe bearing pressure of the footings if the settlement is
limited to 2 in.
13.4 Refer to Prob. 13.1. If the curve given in Fig. Prob. 13.1 applies to a plate test of 12 x 12 in.
conducted in a clay stratum, determine the safe bearing pressures of the footings for a
settlement of 2 in.
13.5 Two plate load tests were conducted in a c-0 soil as given below.
Size of plates (m)
0.3 x 0.3
0.6 x 0.6

Load kN
40
100

Settlement (mm)
30
30

Determine the required size of a footing to carry a load of 1250 kN for the same settlement
of 30 mm.
13.6 A rectangular footing of size 4 x 8 m is founded at a depth of 2 m below the ground surface
in dense sand and the water table is at the base of the foundation. NCQT = 30
(Fig. Prob. 13.6). Compute the safe bearing pressure q using the chart given in Fig. 13.5.
5xL=4x8m

I
Df=2m

Dense sand Ncor(av) = 30

Figure Prob. 13.6

582

Chapter 13

13.7

Refer to Prob. 13.6. Compute qs by using modified (a) Teng's formula, and (b) Meyerhof 's
formula.

13.8

Refer to Prob. 13.6. Determine the safe bearing pressure based on the static cone
penetration test value based on the relationship given in Eq. (13.7b) for q = 120 kN/m2.
Refer to Prob. 13.6. Estimate the immediate settlement of the footing by using
Eq. (13.20a). The additional data available are:
H = 0.30, If= 0.82 for rigid footing and Es = 11,000 kN/m2. Assume qn = qs as obtained
from Prob. 13.6.

13.9

13.10 Refer to Prob 13.6. Compute the immediate settlement for a flexible footing, given ^ = 0.30
and Es = 1 1,000 kN/m2. Assume qn = qs
13.11 If the footing given in Prob. 13.6 rests on normally consolidated saturated clay, compute
the immediate settlement using Eq. (13.22). Use the following relationships.
qc = 120 kN/m2

Es = 600ctt kN/m2
Given: ysat = 18.5 kN/m3,^ = 150 kN/m2 . Assume that the incompressible stratum lies
at at depth of 10 m below the base of the foundation.
13.12 A footing of size 6 x 6 m rests in medium dense sand at a depth of 1 .5 below ground level.
The contact pressure qn = 175 kN/m2. The compressible stratum below the foundation base
is divided into three layers. The corrected Ncor values for each layer is given in
Fig. Prob. 13.12 with other data . Compute the immediate settlement using Eq. (13.23).
Use the relationship qc = 400 Ncor kN/m 2 .
'"cor
0
1 e

1U
//A> V

7sat =

2-

10

oxom
2U

"* qn = 175 kN/m 2

19/kN/m

Layer 1

1 1 1 1 1

dense sand

415

Layer 2

dense sand
y s a t = 19.5 kN/m3

6810-

20

Layer 3

dense sand

10 -

Figure Prob. 13.12

G.L.
^^ !:i^5rn

Shallow Foundation II: Safe Bearing Pressure and Settlement Calculation

583

13.13 It is proposed to construct an overhead tank on a raft foundation of size 8 x 16 m with the
foundation at a depth of 2 m below ground level. The subsoil at the site is a stiff
homogeneous clay with the water table at the base of the foundation. The subsoil is divided
into 3 layers and the properties of each layer are given in Fig. Prob. 13.13. Estimate the
consolidation settlement by the Skempton-Bjerrum Method.
5 x L = 8 x16m

G.L.

G.L.

qn = 150 kN/m2

y m =18.5kN/m 3

Df=2m

e0 = 0.85
y sat = 18.5 kN/m3
Cc = 0.18
A = 0.74

Layer 1

e s
JS

a,

y sat = 19.3 kN/m3

Cc = 0.16
A = 0.83

Layer 2

e0 = 0.68
ysat = 20.3 kN/m3

Layer 3

Cc = 0.13
A = 0.58

Figure Prob. 13.13

13.14 A footing of size 10 x 10 m is founded at a depth of 2.5 m below ground level on a sand
deposit. The water table is at the base of the foundation. The saturated unit weight of soil
from ground level to a depth of 22.5 m is 20 kN/m3. The compressible stratum of 20 m
below the foundation base is divided into three layers with corrected SPT values (/V) and
CPT values (qc} constant in each layer as given below.
Layer No

q (av) MPa

Depth from (m)

foundation level
From

"

To

20

8.0

5
11.0

11.0
20.0

25
30

10.0
12.0

Compute the settlements by Schmertmann's method.

Assume the net contact pressure at the base of the foundation is equal to 70 kPa, and
t- 10 years

584

Chapter 13

13.15 A square rigid footing of size 10 x 10 m is founded at a depth of 2.0 m below ground level.
The type of strata met at the site is
Depth below G. L. (m)

Type of soil

Oto5

Sand

5 to 7m

Clay
Sand

Below 7m

The water table is at the base level of the foundation. The saturated unit weight of soil
above the foundation base is 20 kN/m3. The coefficient of volume compressibility of clay,
mv, is 0.0001 m2 /kN, and the coefficient of consolidation cv, is 1 m2/year. The total contact
pressure q = 100 kN/m 2 . Water table is at the base level of foundation.
Compute primary consolidation settlement.
13.16 A circular tank of diameter 3 m is founded at a depth of 1 m below ground surface on a 6 m
thick normally consolidated clay. The water table is at the base of the foundation. The
saturated unit weight of soil is 19.5 kN/m3, and the in-situ void ratio eQ is 1.08. Laboratory
tests on representative undisturbed samples of the clay gave a value of 0.6 for the pore
pressure coefficient A and a value of 0.2 for the compression index Cf. Compute the
consolidation settlement of the foundation for a total contact pressure of 95 KPa. Use 2:1
method for computing Ap.
13.17 A raft foundation of size 10 x 40 m is founded at a depth of 3 m below ground surface and
is uniformly loaded with a net pressure of 50 kN/m2. The subsoil is normally consolidated
saturated clay to a depth of 20 m below the base of the foundation with variable elastic
moduli with respect to depth. For the purpose of analysis, the stratum is divided into three
layers with constant modulus as given below:
Layer No

Depth below ground (m)

Elastic Modulus

From

To

Es (MPa)

20
30

8
18

18

23

25

Compute the immediate settlements by using Eqs (13.20a). Assume the footing is flexible.