Circuit Theory

Circuit Theory
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March 16, 2013
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Contents
1
Preface
Introduction
Basic Terminology
3.1 Basic Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7
7
8
Variables and Standard Units

4.1 Electric Charge (Coulombs)
4.2 Voltage (Volts) . . . . . . .
4.3 Current (Amperes) . . . . .
4.4 Energy and Power . . . . .
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9
9
9
10
11
Electric Circuit Basics

5.1 Circuits . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 Ideal Wires . . . . . . . .
5.3 Ideal Junctions or Nodes .
5.4 Measuring instruments . .
5.5 Active Passive & ReActive
5.6 Open and Short Circuits .
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13
13
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14
14
15
15
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Resistors and Resistance
17
Resistive Circuit Analysis Techniques
21
Source Transformations
8.1 Source Transformations . . . .
8.2 Black Boxes . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3 Thevenin's Theorem . . . . . .
8.4
Norton's Theorem . . . . . . .
8.5
Circuit Transforms . . . . . . .
8.6
Open Circuit Voltage and Short
8.7
Why Transform Circuits? . . .
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23
23
23
23
25
26
27
28
Maximum Power Transfer

9.1
Maximum Power Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
29
10 Resistive Circuit Analysis Methods

10.1 Analysis Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2 Superposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
33
33
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Circuit Current
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III
Contents
10.3
10.4
Impulse Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Convolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11 Energy Storage Elements

12 First-Order Circuits
12.1 First Order Circuits
12.2 RL Circuits . . . . .
12.3 RC Circuits . . . . .
12.4 First Order Solution
34
35
37
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39
39
39
40
41
13 RLC
13.1
13.2
13.3
Circuits
Series RLC Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
43
46
47
14 The
14.1
14.2
14.3
14.4
14.5
14.6
14.7
14.8
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Second-Order Circuit Solution

Second-Order Solution . . . . . . .
Finding Differential Equations . . .
Zero-Input Response . . . . . . . .
Characteristic Equation . . . . . .
Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Series RLC . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Parallel RLC . . . . . . . . . . . .
Circuit Response . . . . . . . . . .
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49
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56
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15 Mutual Inductance
15.1 Magnetic Fields . . . . .
15.2 Mutual Inductance . . .
15.3 Ideal Transformers . . .
15.4 Modern Inductors . . . .
15.5 Step Up and Step Down
15.6 further reading . . . . .
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59
59
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62
63
16 State-Variable Approach
16.1 State Variables . . . . .
16.2 Aim of State Variables .
16.3 State Variable Selection
16.4 System of Equations . .
16.5 Further Reading . . . .
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65
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66
17 Sinusoidal Sources
17.1 Steady State . . . . . . . . . .
17.2 Sinusoidal Forcing Functions .
17.3 Other Terms . . . . . . . . . .
17.4 Lead and Lag . . . . . . . . .
17.5 Sinusoidal Response . . . . .
17.6 Sinusoidal Conventions . . . .
17.7 Sinusoidal Sources . . . . . .
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67
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68
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69
69
IV
Contents
18 Phasor Representation
71
19 Phasors
19.1 Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.2 Passive circuit output is similar to input . . .
19.3 Phasor Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.4 Euler's Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.5 Phasor Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.6 Not Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.7 Cosine Convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.8 Phasor Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.9 Phasor Math . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.10 Function transformation Derivation . . . . . .
19.11 Transforming calculus operators into phasors
19.12 Phasor Domain to Time Domain . . . . . . .
19.13 What is not covered . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.14 Phasor Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.15 Phasor symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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73
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20 Differential Equations
20.1 Phasors Generate the Particular Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.2 Phasors Don't Generate Integration Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.3 Differential Equations Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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87
87
21 Phasor Circuit Analysis

21.1 Phasor Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.2 Resistance, Impedance and Admittance .
21.3 Resistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.4 Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.5 Inductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.6 Impedances Connected in Series . . . . . .
21.7 Impedances in Parallel . . . . . . . . . . .
21.8 Steps For Solving a Circuit With Phasors
21.9 Network Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.10 Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.11 Phase Shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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22 Phasor Theorems
22.1 Circuit Theorems . . . . . . .
22.2 Ohm's Law . . . . . . . . . .
22.3 Kirchoff's Laws . . . . . . . .
22.4 Superposition . . . . . . . . .
22.5 Thevenin and Norton Circuits
22.6 Maximum Power Transfer . .
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23 Complex Power
101
23.1 Laplace Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
23.2 Laplace Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Contents
23.3
23.4
23.5
23.6
23.7
23.8
23.9
23.10
23.11
23.12
23.13
23.14
23.15
23.16
23.17
23.18
23.19
23.20
23.21
23.22
23.23
23.24
23.25
23.26
23.27
23.28
23.29
23.30
23.31
23.32
23.33
23.34
23.35
23.36
23.37
23.38
23.39
23.40
23.41
23.42
23.43
The Transform . . . . . . . . . .
The Inverse Transform . . . . . .
Transform Properties . . . . . . .
Initial Value Theorem . . . . . .
Final Value Theorem . . . . . . .
Transfer Function . . . . . . . . .
Convolution Theorem . . . . . .
Resistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ohm's Law . . . . . . . . . . . .
Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Inductors . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Laplace Circuit Solution . . . . .
Steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fourier Transform . . . . . . . .
Radial Frequency . . . . . . . . .
Fourier Domain . . . . . . . . . .
Impedance and Reactance . . . .
Frequency Domain Analysis . . .
Frequency Response . . . . . . .
Decibel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Notes on Decibels . . . . . . . . .
Bode Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bode Plots by Different Methods
Bode Analysis . . . . . . . . . . .
Log Magnitude Graph . . . . . .
Phase Graph . . . . . . . . . . .
Poles and Zeros . . . . . . . . . .
Bode Equation Format . . . . . .
DC Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Break Frequencies . . . . . . . .
At Zero Radial Frequency . . . .
At a Break Point . . . . . . . . .
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . .
See Also . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Susceptance and Admittance . .
Parallel Components . . . . . . .
Series Components . . . . . . . .
Solving Circuits . . . . . . . . . .
24 Circuit Functions
24.1 Circuit Functions . . . . .
24.2 The "Impulse Response" .
24.3 The "Network Function" .
24.4 The "Transfer Function" .
24.5 The "Frequency Response"
VI
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102
102
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110
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112
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113
114
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122
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123
123
123
123
124
124
Contents
25 Phasor Arithmetic
25.1 Phasor Arithmetic . . . .
25.2 Forms . . . . . . . . . . .
25.3 Converting between Forms
25.4 Addition . . . . . . . . . .
25.5 Subtraction . . . . . . . .
25.6 Multiplication . . . . . . .
25.7 Division . . . . . . . . . .
25.8 Inversion . . . . . . . . . .
25.9 Complex Conjugation . .
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125
125
125
125
126
126
126
127
127
127
26 Decibels
26.1 Definition . . . . .
26.2 Voltage Calculation
26.3 Inverse Calculation
26.4 Reference Units . .
26.5 Decibel Arithmetic
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129
129
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130
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130
27 Transform Tables
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133
28 Resources
135
28.1 Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
29 Contributors
137
List of Figures
141
30 Licenses
145
30.1 GNU GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
30.2 GNU Free Documentation License . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
30.3 GNU Lesser General Public License . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
1 Preface
This wikibook is going to be an introductory text about electric circuits. It will cover
some the basics of electric circuit theory, circuit analysis, and will touch on circuit design.
This book will serve as a companion reference for a 1st year of an Electrical Engineering
undergraduate curriculum. Topics covered include AC and DC circuits, passive circuit
components, phasors, and RLC circuits. The focus is on students of an electrical engineering
undergraduate program. Hobbyists would benefit more from reading Electronics1 instead.
This book is not nearly completed, and could still be improved. People with knowledge of the
subject are encouraged to contribute.
The main editable text of this book is located at http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Circuit_
Theory. The wikibooks version of this text is considered the most up-to-date version, and
is the best place to edit this book and contribute to it.
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Electronics
2 Introduction
3 Basic Terminology
3.1 Basic Terminology
There are a few key terms that need to be understood at the beginning of this book, before
we can continue. This is only a partial list of all terms that will be used throughout this
book, but these key words are important to know before we begin the main narrative of this
text.
Time domain
The time domain is described by graphs of power, voltage and current that depend upon
time. The "Time domain" is simply another way of saying that our circuits change with
time, and that the major variable used to describe the system is time. Another name is
"Temporal".
Frequency domain
The frequency domain are graphs of power, voltage and/or current that depend upon
frequency such as Bode plots1 . Variable frequencies in wireless communication can represent
changing channels or data on a channel. Another name is the "Fourier domain2 ". Other
domains that an engineer might encounter are the "Laplace domain" (or the "s domain" or
"complex frequency domain"), and the "Z domain". When combined with the time, it is
called a "Spectral" or "Waterfall3 ."
Circuit Response
Circuits generally have inputs and outputs. In fact, it is safe to say that a circuit isn't
useful if it doesn't have one or the other (usually both). Circuit response is the relationship
between the circuit's input to the circuit's output. The circuit response may be a measure
of either current or voltage.
Steady State
The final value, when all elements have a constant or periodic behaviour, is known as the
steady-state value of the circuit. The circuit response at steady state (when things aren't
changing) is also known as the "steady state response". The steady state solution is called
the particular solution4 .
Transient Response
A transient response occurs when:
1
2
3
4
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/%3Aw%3ABode_plot
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/%3Aw%3AFourier_transform
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectrogram
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Ordinary_Differential_Equations%2FNon_Homogenous_1
Basic Terminology
a circuit is turned on or off
a sensor responds to the physical world changes
static electricity is discharged
an old car with old spark plugs (before resistors were put in spark plugs) drives by
Transient means momentary, or a short period of time. Transient means that the energy in
a circuit suddenly changes which causes the energy storage elements to react. The circuit's
energy state is forced to change. When a car goes over a bump, it can fly apart, feel like a
rock, or cushion the impact in a designed manner. The goal of most circuit design is to
plan for transients, whether intended or not.
Transient solutions are determined using a homogeneous solution5 technique.
3.2 Summary
When something changes in a circuit, there is a certain transition period before a circuit
"settles down", and reaches its final value. The response that a circuit has before settling into
its steady-state response is known as the transient response. Using using Euler's formula6 ,
complex numbers7 , phasors8 and the s-plane9 , a homogeneous solution10 technique
will be developed that captures the transient response by assuming the final state has no
energy. In addition, a particular solution11 technique will be developed that finds the
final energy state. Added together, they predict the circuit response.
The related Differential equation12 development of homogeneous and particular solutions
will be avoided.
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Ordinary_Differential_Equations%2FHomogenous_1
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/%3Aw%3AEuler%2527s_formula
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Arithmetic_Course%2FTypes_of_Number%2FComplex_Number
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/%3Aw%3APhasors
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/%3Aw%3AS-plane
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Ordinary_Differential_Equations%2FHomogenous_1
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Ordinary_Differential_Equations%2FNon_Homogenous_1
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Ordinary_Differential_Equations
4 Variables and Standard Units

4.1 Electric Charge (Coulombs)
Note:
An electron has a charge of
-1.60210E-19 C.
Electric charge1 is a physical property2 of matter3 that causes it to experience a force4
when near other electrically charged matter. Electric Charge (symbol q) is measured in SI
units called "Coulombs", which are abbreviated with the letter capital C.
We know that q=n*e, where n = number of electrons and e= 1.6*10-19 . Hence n=1/e
coulombs. A Coulomb is the total charge of 6.241509629152651018 electrons, thus a single
electron has a charge of 1.602 1019 .
It is important to understand that this concept of "charge" is associated with static electricity.
Charge, as a concept, has a physical boundary that is related to counting a group of electrons.
"Flowing" electricity is an entirely different situation5 . "Charge" and electrons separate.
Charge moves at the speed of light while electrons move at the speed of 1 meter/hour6 .
Thus in most circuit analysis, "charge" is an abstract concept unrelated to energy or an
electron and more related to the flow of information7 .
Electric charge is the subject of many fundamental laws, such as Coulomb's Law8 and
Gauss' Law9 (static electricity) but is not used much in circuit theory.
4.2 Voltage (Volts)

Voltage is a measure of the work required to move a charge from one point to another in a
electric field. Thus the unit "volt" is defined as a Joules (J) per Coulomb (C).
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
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http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/%3Aw%3Aphysical%20property
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/%3Aw%3Amatter
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/%3Aw%3Aforce
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/%3Aw%3AElectric_charge%23Static_electricity_and_
electric_current
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/%3Aw%3ADrift_velocity
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V =
W
q
W represents work, q represents an amount of charge. Charge is a static electricity concept.

The definition of a volt is shared between static and "flowing" electronics.
Voltage is sometimes called "electric potential", because voltage represents the a difference
in Electro Motive Force (EMF) that can produce current in a circuit. More voltage means
more potential for current. Voltage also can be called "Electric Pressure", although this is
far less common.
Voltage is not measured in absolutes but in relative terms. The English language tradition
obscures this. For example we say "What is the distance to New York?" Clearly implied is
the relative distance from where we are standing to New York. But if we say "What is the
voltage at ______?" What is the starting point?
Voltage is defined between two points. Voltage is relative to where 0 is defined. We say "The
voltage from point A to B is 5 volts." It is important to understand EMF and voltage are
two different things.
When the question is asked "What is the voltage at ______?", look for the ground symbol
on a circuit diagram. Measure voltage from ground to _____. If the question is asked
"What is the voltage from A to B?" then put the red probe on A and the black probe on B
(not ground).
The absolute is referred to as "EMF" or Electro Motive Force. The difference between the
two EMF's is a voltage.
4.3 Current (Amperes)

Current is a measurement of the flow of electricity. Current is measured in units called
Amperes (or "Amps"). An ampere is "charge volume velocity" in the same way water
current could be measured in "cubic feet of water per second." But current is a base SI
unit10 , a fundamental dimension of reality like space, time and mass. A coulomb or charge
is not. A coulomb is actually defined in terms of the ampere. "Charge or Coulomb" is a
derived SI Unit11 . The coulomb is a fictitious entity left over from the one fluid /two
fluid12 philosophies of the 18th century.
This course is about flowing electrical energy that is found in all modern electronics. Charge
volume velocity (defined by current) is a useful concept, but understand it has no basis
in reality. Do not think of current as a bundle electrons carrying energy through a wire.
Special relativity13 and quantum mechanics14 concepts are necessary to understand how
10
11
12
13
14
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Energy and Power

electrons move at 1 meter/hour15 through copper, yet electromagnetic energy moves at
near the speed of light.
Chargea is similar to the rest massb concept of relativity and generates the U(1)
symmetryc of electromagnetism
a
b
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Amperes are abbreviated with an "A" (upper-case A), and the variable most often associated
with current is the letter "i" (lower-case I). In terms of coulombs, an ampere is:
i=
dq
dt
For the rest of this book, the lower-case J ( j ) will be used to denote an imaginary
number, and the lower-case I ( i ) will be used to denote current.
Because of the widespread use of complex numbers in Electrical Engineering, it is common
for electrical engineering texts to use the letter "j" (lower-case J) as the imaginary number,
instead of the "i" (lower-case I) commonly used in math texts. This wikibook will adopt the
"j" as the imaginary number, to avoid confusion.
4.4 Energy and Power

Electrical theory is about energy storage and the flow of energy in circuits. Energy is chopped
up arbitrarily into something that doesn't exist but can be counted called a coulomb. Energy
per coulomb is voltage. The velocity of a coulomb is current. Multiplied together, the units
are energy velocity or power ... and the unreal "coulomb" disappears.
4.4.1 Energy
Energy is measured most commonly in Joules, which are abbreviated with a "J" (upper-case
J). The variable most commonly used with energy is "w" (lower-case W). The energy symbol
is w which stands for work. Work is something good that we, as humans value.
From a thermodynamics point of view, all energy consumed by a circuit is work ... all
the heat is turned into work. Practically speaking, this can not be true. If it were true,
computers would never consume any energy and never heat up.
The reason that all the energy going into a circuit and leaving a circuit is considered "work"
is because from a thermodynamic point of view, electrical energy is ideal. All of it can
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11

be used. Ideally all of it can be turned into work. Most introduction to thermodynamics
courses assume that electrical energy is completely organized (and has entropy of 0).
4.4.2 Power
A corollary to the concept of energy being work, is that all the energy/power of a circuit
(ideally) can be accounted for. The sum of all the power entering and leaving a circuit should
add up to zero. No energy should be accumulated (theoretically). Of course capacitors will
charge up and may hold onto their energy when the circuit is turned off. Inductors will
create a magnetic field containing energy that will instantly disappear back into the source
through the switch that turns the circuit off.
This course uses what is called the "passive16 " sign convention for power. Energy put into a
circuit by a power supply is negative, energy leaving a circuit is positive.
Power (the flow of energy) computations are an important part of this course. The symbol
for power is w (for work) and the units are Watts or W.
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5 Electric Circuit Basics

5.1 Circuits
Circuits (also known as "networks") are collections of circuit elements and wires. Wires are
designated on a schematic as being straight lines. Nodes are locations on a schematic where
2 or more wires connect, and are usually marked with a dark black dot. Circuit Elements
are "everything else" in a sense. Most basic circuit elements have their own symbols so as
to be easily recognizable, although some will be drawn as a simple box image, with the
specifications of the box written somewhere that is easy to find. We will discuss several
types of basic circuit components in this book.
5.2 Ideal Wires

For the purposes of this book, we will assume that an ideal wire has zero total resistance, no
capacitance, and no inductance. A consequence of these assumptions is that these ideal wires
have infinite bandwidth, are immune to interference, and are in essence completely
uncomplicated. This is not the case in real wires, because all wires have at least some
amount of associated resistance. Also, placing multiple real wires together, or bending real
wires in certain patterns will produce small amounts of capacitance and inductance, which
can play a role in circuit design and analysis. This book will assume that all wires are ideal.
13
5.3 Ideal Junctions or Nodes
Figure 1
Nodes are areas where the Electromotive Force is the same.
Nodes are also called "junctions" in this book in order to make a distinction between Node
analysis, Kirchhoff's current law and discussions about a physical node itself. Here a physical
node is discussed.
A junction is a group of wires that share the same electromotive force1 (not voltage). Wires
ideally have no resistance, thus all wires that touch wire to wire somewhere are part of the
same node. The diagram on the right shows three big blue nodes, two smaller green nodes
and two trivial (one wire touching another) nodes.
Sometimes a node is described as where two or more wires touch and students circle where
wires intersect and call this a node. This only works on simple circuits.
One node has to be labeled ground in any circuit drawn before voltage can be computed or
the circuit simulated. Typically this is the node having the most components connected to
it. Logically it is normally placed at the bottom of the circuit logic diagram.
Ground is not always needed physically. Some circuits are floated2 on purpose.
Node Quiz3
5.4 Measuring instruments

Voltmeters and Ammeters are devices that are used to measure the voltage across an
element, and the current flowing through a wire, respectively.
1
2
3
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Active Passive & ReActive
5.4.1 Ideal Voltmeters

An ideal voltmeter has an infinite resistance (in reality, several megaohms), and acts like an
open circuit. A voltmeter4 is placed across the terminals of a circuit element, to determine
the voltage across that element. In practice the voltmeter siphons a enough energy to move a
needle, cause thin strips of metal to separate or turn on a transistor so a number is displayed.
5.4.2 Ideal Ammeters

An ideal ammeter has zero resistance and acts like a short circuit. Ammeters require cutting
a wire and plugging the two ends into the Ammeter. In practice an ammeter places a tiny
resistor in a wire and measures the tiny voltage across it or the ammeter measures the
magnetic field strength5 generated by current flowing through a wire. Ammeters are not
used that much because of the wire cutting, or wire disconnecting they require.
5.5 Active Passive & ReActive

The elements which are capable of delivering energy or which are capable to amplify the
signal are called "Active elements". All power supplies fit into this category.
The elements which will receive the energy and dissipate it are called "Passive elements".
Resistors model these devices.
Reactive elements store and release energy into a circuit. Ideally they don't either consume
or generate energy. Capacitors, and inductors fall into this category.
5.6 Open and Short Circuits

5.6.1 Open
No current flows through an open. Normally an open is created by a bad connector. Dust,
bad solder joints, bad crimping, cracks in circuit board traces, create an open. Capacitors
respond to DC by turning into opens after charging up. Uncharged inductors appear as
opens immediately after powering up a circuit. The word open can refer to a problem
description. The word open can also help develop an intuition about circuits.
Typically the circuit stops working with opens because 99% of all circuits are driven by
voltage power sources. Voltage sources respond to an open with no current. Opens are the
equivalent of clogs in plumbing .. which stop water from flowing.
On one side of the open, EMF will build up, just like water pressure will build up on one
side of a clogged pipe. Typically a voltage will appear across the open.
4
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5.6.2 Short
A voltage source responds to a short by delivering as much current as possible. An extreme
example of this can be seen in this ball bearing motor video6 . The motor appears as a short
to the battery. Notice he only completes the short for a short time because he is worried
about the car battery exploding.
Maximum current flows through a short. Normally a short is created by a wire, a nail, or
some loose screw touching parts of the circuit unintentionally. Most component failures start
with heat build up. The heat destroys varnish, paint, or thin insulation creating a short.
The short causes more current to flow which causes more heat. This cycle repeats faster
and faster until there is a puff of smoke and everything breaks creating an open. Most
component failures start with a short and end in an open as they burn up. Feel the air
temperature above each circuit component after power on. Build a memory of what normal
operating temperatures are. Cold can indicate a short that has already turned into an open.
An uncharged capacitor initially appears as a short immediately after powering on a circuit.
An inductor appears as a short to DC after charging up. The short concept also helps
build our intuition, provides an an opportunity to talk about electrical safety and helps
describe component failure modes.
A closed switch can be thought of as short. Switches7 are surprisingly complicated. It is in
a study of switches that the term closed begins to dominate that of short.
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7
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6 Resistors and Resistance

6.0.3 Resistors
Mechanical engineers seem to model everything with a spring. Electrical engineers compare
everything to a Resistor. Resistors are circuit elements that resist the flow of current.
When this is done a voltage appears across the resistor's two wires.
A pure resistor1 turns electrical energy into heat. Devices similar to resistors turn this
energy into light, motion, heat, and other forms of energy.
Figure 2
Current in the drawing above is shown entering the + side of the resistor. Resistors don't
care which leg is connected to positive or negative. The + means where the positive or red
probe of the volt meter is to be placed in order to get a positive reading. This is called the
"positive charge2 " flow sign convention. Some circuit theory classes (often within a physics
oriented curriculum) are taught with an "electon flow" sign convention.
In this case, current entering the + side of the resistor means that the resistor is removing
energy from the circuit. This is good. The goal of most circuits is to send energy out into
the world in the form of motion, light, sound, etc.
1
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6.0.4 Resistance
Resistance3 is measured in terms of units called "Ohms" (volts per ampere), which is
commonly abbreviated with the Greek letter ("Omega"). Ohms are also used to measure
the quantities of impedance and reactance, as described in a later chapter. The variable
most commonly used to represent resistance is "r" or "R".
Resistance is defined as:
r=
L
A
where is the resistivity of the material, L is the length of the resistor, and A is the
cross-sectional area of the resistor.
6.0.5 Conductance
Conductance is the inverse of resistance. Conductance has units of "Siemens" (S), sometimes referred to as mhos (ohms backwards, abbreviated as an upside-down ). The
associated variable is "G":
G=
1
r
Before calculators and computers, conductance helped reduce4 the number of hand calculations that had to be done. Now conductance and it's related concepts of admittance5 and
susceptance can be skipped with matlab, octave, wolfram alpha and other computing tools.
Learning one or more these computing tools is now absolutely necessary in order to get
through this text.
3
4
5
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Open and Short Circuits
6.0.6 Resistor terminal relation
Figure 3
A simple circuit diagram relating current, voltage, and resistance
The drawing on the right is of a battery and a resistor. Current is leaving the + terminal of
the battery. This means this battery is turning chemical potential energy into electromagnetic
potential energy and dumping this energy into the circuit. The flow of this energy or power
is negative.
Current is entering the positive side of the resistor even though a + has not been put on the
resistor. This means electromagnetic potential energy is being converted into heat, motion,
light, or sound depending upon the nature of the resistor. Power flowing out of the circuit is
given a positive sign.
The relationship of the voltage across the resistor V, the current through the resistor I and
the value of the resistor R is related by ohm's law6 :
[Resistor Terminal Relation]
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V = RI
A resistor, capacitor and inductor all have only two wires attached to them. Sometimes it is
hard to tell them apart. In the real world, all three have a bit of resistance, capacitance
and inductance in them. In this unknown context, they are called two terminal devices. In
more complicated devices, the wires are grouped into ports7 . A two terminal device that
expresses Ohm's law when current and voltage are applied to it, is called a resistor.
6.0.7 Resistor Safety

Resistors come in all forms. Most have a maximum power rating in watts. If you put too
much through them, they can melt, catch on fire, etc.
6.0.8 Example
Suppose the voltage across a resistor's two terminals is 10 volts and the measured current
through it is 2 amps. What is the resistance?
If v = iR then R = v/i = 10V /2A = 5ohms
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7 Resistive Circuit Analysis Techniques
21
8 Source Transformations
8.1 Source Transformations
Independent current sources can be turned into independent voltage sources, and vice-versa,
by methods called "Source Transformations." These transformations are useful for solving
circuits. We will explain the two most important source transformations, Thevenin's
Source, and Norton's Source, and we will explain how to use these conceptual tools for
solving circuits.
8.2 Black Boxes

A circuit (or any system, for that matter) may be considered a black box if we don't know
what is inside the system. For instance, most people treat their computers like a black box
because they don't know what is inside the computer (most don't even care), all they know
is what goes in to the system (keyboard and mouse input), and what comes out of the
system (monitor and printer output).
Black boxes, by definition, are systems whose internals aren't known to an outside observer.
The only methods that an outside observer has to examine a black box is to send input into
the systems, and gauge the output.
8.3 Thevenin's Theorem

Let's start by drawing a general circuit consisting of a source and a load, as a block diagram:
23
Figure 4
Let's say that the source is a collection of voltage sources, current sources and resistances,
while the load is a collection of resistances only. Both the source and the load can be
arbitrarily complex, but we can conceptually say that the source is directly equivalent to a
single voltage source and resistance (figure (a) below).
Figure 6
Figure 5
(a)
(b)
We can determine the value of the resistance Rs and the voltage source, vs by attaching an
independent source to the output of the circuit, as in figure (b) above. In this case we are
using a current source, but a voltage source could also be used. By varying i and measuring
v, both vs and Rs can be found using the following equation:
v = vs + iRs
24
Norton's Theorem
There are two variables, so two values of i will be needed. See Example 11 for more details.
We can easily see from this that if the current source is set to zero (equivalent to an open
circuit), then v is equal to the voltage source, vs . This is also called the open-circuit voltage,
voc .
This is an important concept, because it allows us to model what is inside a unknown
(linear) circuit, just by knowing what is coming out of the circuit. This concept is known as
Thvenin's Theorem after French telegraph engineer Lon Charles Thvenin2 , and the
circuit consisting of the voltage source and resistance is called the Thvenin Equivalent
Circuit.
8.4 Norton's Theorem

Recall from above that the output voltage, v, of a Thvenin equivalent circuit can be
expressed as
v = vs + iRs
Now, let's rearrange it for the output current, i:
i=
vs
v
+
Rs Rs
This is equivalent to a KCL description of the following circuit. We can call the constant
term vs /Rs the source current, is .
Figure 7
1
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The equivalent current source and the equivalent resistance can be found with an independent
source as before (see Example 23 ).
When the above circuit (the Norton Equivalent Circuit, after Bell Labs engineer E.L.
Norton4 ) is disconnected from the external load, the current from the source all flows through
the resistor, producing the requisite voltage across the terminals, voc . Also, if we were to
short the two terminals of our circuit, the current would all flow through the wire, and none
of it would flow through the resistor (current divider rule). In this way, the circuit would
produce the short-circuit current isc (which is exactly the same as the source current is ).
8.5 Circuit Transforms

We have just shown turns out that the Thvenin and Norton circuits are just different
representations of the same black box circuit, with the same Ohm's Law/KCL equations.
This means that we cannot distinguish between Thvenin source and a Norton source from
outside the black box, and that we can directly equate the two as below:
Figure 8
Figure 9
We can draw up some rules to convert between the two:

The values of the resistors in each circuit are conceptually identical, and can be called
the equivalent resistance, Req :
Rsn = Rst = Rs = Req
The value of a Thvenin voltage source is the value of the Norton current source times
the equivalent resistance (Ohm's law):
vs = is r
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4
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Open Circuit Voltage and Short Circuit Current

If these rules are followed, the circuits will behave identically. Using these few rules, we can
transform a Norton circuit into a Thvenin circuit, and vice versa. This method is called
source transformation. See Example 35 .
8.6 Open Circuit Voltage and Short Circuit Current

The open-circuit voltage, voc of a circuit is the voltage across the terminals when the current
is zero, and the short-circuit current isc is the current when the voltage across the terminals
is zero:
Figure 11
Figure 10
The open circuit voltage
The short circuit current
We can also observe the following:

The value of the Thvenin voltage source is the open-circuit voltage:
vs = voc
The value of the Norton current source is the short-circuit current:
is = isc
We can say that, generally,
Req =
voc
isc
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8.7 Why Transform Circuits?

How are Thevenin and Norton transforms useful?
Describe a black box characteristics in a way that can predict its reaction to any load.
Find the current through and voltage across any device by removing the device from the
circuit! This can instantly make a complex circuit much simpler to analyze.
Stepwise simplification of a circuit is possible if voltage sources have a series impedance
and current sources have a parallel impedance.
28
9 Maximum Power Transfer

9.1 Maximum Power Transfer
Often we would like to transfer the most power from a source to a load placed across the
terminals as possible. How can we determine the optimum resistance of the load for this to
occur?
Let us consider a source modelled by a Thvenin equivalent (a Norton equivalent will lead to
the same result, as the two are directly equivalent), with a load resistance, RL . The source
resistance is Rs and the open circuit voltage of the source is vs :
Figure 12
The current in this circuit is found using Ohm's Law:

i=
vs
Rs + RL
The voltage across the load resistor, vL , is found using the voltage divider rule:
29
vL = vs
RL
Rs + RL
We can now find the power dissipated in the load, PL as follows:

PL = vL i =
RL vs2
(Rs + RL )2
We can now rewrite this to get rid of the RL on the top:

PL =
Rs
RL
vs2
vs2

2
2 =
Rs
L
R s R
+ RL
+ R
R
L
Assuming the source resistance is not changeable, then we obtain maximum power by
minimising the bracketed part of the denominator in the above equation. It is an elementary
mathematical result that x + x1 is at a minimum when x=1. In this case, it is equal to 2.
Therefore, the above expression is minimum under the following condition:
R
s =1
RL
This leads to the condition that:
{|style=" border: solid 2px #D6D6FF; padding: 1em;" valign="top"
|align="left"|RL = Rs |}
We will get maximum power out of the source if the load resistance is identical to the
internal source resistance. This is the Maximum Power Transfer Theorem.
9.1.1 Efficiency
The efficiency, of the circuit is the proportion of all the energy dissipated in the circuit
that is dissipated in the load. We can immediately see that at maximum power transfer to
the load, the efficiency is 0.5, as the source resistor has half the voltage across it. We can
also see that efficiency will increase as the load resistance increases, even though the power
transferred will fall.
The efficiency can be calculated using the following equation:
=
PL
PL + Ps
where Ps is the power in the source resistor. This can be found using a simple modification
to the equation for PL :
30
Ps =
RL
vs2
Rs
RL
2
RL
Rs
The graph below shows the power in the load (as a proportion of the maximum power, Pmax )
and the efficiency for values of RL between 0 and 5 times Rs .
Figure 13
It is important to note that under conditions of maximum power transfer as much power
is dissipated in the source as in the load. This is not a desirable condition if, for example,
the source is the electricity supply system and the load is your electric heater. This would
mean that the electricity supply company would be wasting half the power it generates. In
this case, the generators, power lines, etc. are designed to give the lowest source resistance
possible, giving high efficiency. The maximum power transfer condition is used in (usually
high-frequency) communications systems where the source resistance can not be made low,
the power levels are relatively low and it is paramount to get as much signal power as
possible to the receiving end of the system (the load).
31
10 Resistive Circuit Analysis Methods

10.1 Analysis Methods
When circuits get large and complicated, it is useful to have various methods for simplifying
and analyzing the circuit. There is no perfect formula for solving a circuit. Depending on the
type of circuit, there are different methods that can be employed to solve the circuit. Some
methods might not work, and some methods may be very difficult in terms of long math
problems. Two of the most important methods for solving circuits are Nodal Analysis,
and Mesh Current Analysis. These will be explained below.
10.2 Superposition
One of the most important principals in the field of circuit analysis is the principal of
superposition. It is valid only in linear circuits.
The superposition principle states that the total effect of multiple contributing sources
on a linear circuit is equal to the sum of the individual effects of the sources, taken one
at a time.
What does this mean? In plain English, it means that if we have a circuit with multiple
sources, we can "turn off" all but one source at a time, and then investigate the circuit
with only one source active at a time. We do this with every source, in turn, and then add
together the effects of each source to get the total effect. Before we put this principle to use,
we must be aware of the underlying mathematics.
10.2.1 Necessary Conditions

Superposition can only be applied to linear circuits; that is, all of a circuit's sources hold
a linear relationship with the circuit's responses. Using only a few algebraic rules, we can
build a mathematical understanding of superposition. If f is taken to be the response, and a
and b are constant, then:
f (ax1 + bx2 ) = f (ax1 ) + f (bx2 )
In terms of a circuit, it clearly explains the concept of superposition; each input can be
considered individually and then summed to obtain the output. With just a few more
algebraic properties, we can see that superposition cannot be applied to non-linear circuits.
33
Resistive Circuit Analysis Methods

In this example, the response y is equal to the square of the input x, i.e. y=x2 . If a and b
are constant, then:
y = (ax1 + bx2 )2 6= (ax1 )2 + (bx2 )2 = y1 + y2
Note that this is only one of an infinite number of counter-examples...
10.2.2 Step by Step

Using superposition to find a given output can be broken down into four steps:
1. Isolate a source - Select a source, and set all of the remaining sources to zero. The
consequences of "turning off" these sources are explained in Open and Closed Circuits1 .
In summary, turning off a voltage source results in a short circuit, and turning off a
current source results in an open circuit. (Reasoning - no current can flow through a
open circuit and there can be no voltage drop across a short circuit.)
2. Find the output from the isolated source - Once a source has been isolated, the response
from the source in question can be found using any of the techniques we've learned
thus far.
3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 for each source - Continue to choose a source, set the remaining
sources to zero, and find the response. Repeat this procedure until every source has
been accounted for.
4. Sum the Outputs - Once the output due to each source has been found, add them
together to find the total response.
10.3 Impulse Response

An impulse response of a circuit can be used to determine the output of the circuit:
Figure 14
The output y is the convolution h * x of the input x and the impulse response:
[Convolution]
34
Chapter 5.6.2 on page 16
Convolution
y(t) = (h x)(t) =
Z +
h(t s)x(s)ds
If the input, x(t), was an impulse ((t)), the output y(t) would be equal to h(t).
By knowing the impulse response of a circuit, any source can be plugged-in to the circuit,
and the output can be calculated by convolution.
10.4 Convolution
The convolution operation is a very difficult, involved operation that combines two
equations into a single resulting equation. Convolution is defined in terms of a definite
integral, and as such, solving convolution equations will require knowledge of integral calculus.
This wikibook will not require a prior knowledge of integral calculus, and therefore will not
go into more depth on this subject then a simple definition, and some light explanation.
10.4.1 Definition
The convolution a * b of two functions a and b is defined as:
(a b)(t) =
a( )b(t )d
Remember:
Asterisks mean convolution, not multiplication
The asterisk operator is used to denote convolution. Many computer systems, and people
who frequently write mathematics on a computer will often use an asterisk to denote simple
multiplication (the asterisk is the multiplication operator in many programming languages),
however an important distinction must be made here: The asterisk operator means
convolution.
10.4.2 Properties
Convolution is commutative, in the sense that a b = b a. Convolution is also distributive
over addition, i.e. a (b + c) = a b + a c, and associative, i.e. a (b c) = (a b) c.
10.4.3 Systems, and convolution

Let us say that we have the following block-diagram system:
35
Resistive Circuit Analysis Methods
Figure 15
x(t) = system input

h(t) = impulse response
y(t) = system output
Where x(t) is the input to the circuit, h(t) is the circuit's impulse response, and y(t) is the
output. Here, we can find the output by convoluting the impulse response with the input
to the circuit. Hence we see that the impulse response of a circuit is not just the ratio of
the output over the input. In the frequency domain however, component in the output
with frequency is the product of the input component with the same frequency and the
transition function at that frequency. The moral of the story is this: the output to a circuit
is the input convolved with the impulse response.
36
11 Energy Storage Elements
37
12 First-Order Circuits
12.1 First Order Circuits
First order circuits are circuits that contain only one energy storage element (capacitor or
inductor), and that can therefore be described using only a first order differential equation.
The two possible types of first-order circuits are:
1. RC (resistor and capacitor)
2. RL (resistor and inductor)
RL and RC circuits is a term we will be using to describe a circuit that has either a) resistors
and inductors (RL), or b) resistors and capacitors (RC).
12.2 RL Circuits
Figure 16
An RL parallel circuit
An RL Circuit has at least one resistor (R) and one inductor (L). These can be arranged in
parallel, or in series. Inductors are best solved by considering the current flowing through
the inductor. Therefore, we will combine the resistive element and the source into a Norton
Source Circuit. The Inductor then, will be the external load to the circuit. We remember
the equation for the inductor:
v(t) = L
di
dt
39
First-Order Circuits
w:RL circuit1
If we apply KCL on the node that forms the positive terminal of the voltage source, we can
solve to get the following differential equation:
isource (t) =
L diinductor (t)
+ iinductor (t)
Rn
dt
We will show how to solve differential equations in a later chapter.
12.3 RC Circuits
w:RC circuit2
Figure 17
A parallel RC Circuit
An RC circuit is a circuit that has both a resistor (R) and a capacitor (C). Like the RL
Circuit, we will combine the resistor and the source on one side of the circuit, and combine
them into a thevenin source. Then if we apply KVL around the resulting loop, we get the
following equation:
vsource = RC
1
2
40
dvcapacitor (t)
+ vcapacitor (t)
dt
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RL%20circuit
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RC%20circuit
First Order Solution
12.4 First Order Solution

12.4.1 Series RL
The differential equation of the series RL circuit
L dI
dt + IR = 0
dI
dt
= I R
L
1
I dI
= R
L dt
R 1
RR
I dI = L dt
lnI = R
Lt+C
I = e( R
L t + C)
C
I = Ae( R
L t) . A = e
t
0
1
2
3
4
5
I(t)
A
36% A
A
A
A
1% A
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
12.4.2 Series RC
The differential equation of the series RC circuit
V
C dV
dt + R = 0
dV
dt
1
V
= V
1
RC
1
dV = RC
dt
R 1
1 R
V dV = RC dt
1
lnV = RC
t+C
1
t + C)
V = e( RC
1
V = Ae( RC
t) . A = eC
t
0
1
2
3
4
1
RC
1
RC
1
RC
1
RC
V(t)
A
36% A
A
A
A
41
First-Order Circuits
t
5
1
RC
V(t)
1% A
12.4.3 Time Constant

The series RL and RC has a Time Constant
T=
T=
L
R
RC
1
In general, from an engineering standpoint, we say that the system is at steady state (
Voltage or Current is almost at Ground Level ) after a time period of five Time Constants.
42
13 RLC Circuits
w:RLC Circuit1
13.1 Series RLC Circuit
Figure 18
13.1.1 Second Order Differential Equation

dI
1
L + IR +
dt
C
Idt = 0
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RLC%20Circuit
43
RLC Circuits
d2 I R dI
I
+
+
=0
2
dt
L dt LC
The characteristic equation is
s2 +
R
1
s+
=0
L
LC
s =
2 2
Where
=
R
2L
=
When
1
LC
2 2 = 0
2 = 2 ; R = 2
L
C
R
The equation only has one real root . s = = 2L
R
The solution for I(t) = Ae( 2L
t)
The I - t curve would look like

When
2 2 > 0
2 > 2 . R >
L
C
The equation only has two real root . s = 2 2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
The solution for I(t) = e+ t + e t = e ej( + ej( )
When
2 2 < 0
2 < 2 . R <
L
C
The equation has two complex root . s = j 2 2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
The solution for I(t) = e(+ t) + e( t) = e ej( ) + ej( )
13.1.2 Damping Factor

The damping factor is the amount by which the oscillations of a circuit gradually decrease
over time. We define the damping ratio to be:
44
Series RLC Circuit

Circuit Type
Damping Factor
Resonance Frequency
Series RLC
R
= 2L
1
o = LC
Parallel RLC
1
= 2RC
1
o = LC
Compare The Damping factor with The Resonance Frequency give rise to different types of
circuits: Overdamped, Underdamped, and Critically Damped.
13.1.3 Bandwidth
[Bandwidth]
= 2
For series RLC circuit:
= 2 =
R
L
For Parallel RLC circuit:

= 2 =
1
RC
13.1.4 Quality Factor

[Quality Factor]
Q=
o
o
=
2
For Series RLC circuit:

o
o
L
1
Q=
=
=
=
2
R
R LC
L
C
For Parallel RLC circuit:

o
o
RC
Q=
=
=
=R
2
LC
C
L
45
RLC Circuits
13.1.5 Stability
Because inductors and capacitors act differently to different inputs, there is some potential
for the circuit response to approach infinity when subjected to certain types and amplitudes
of inputs. When the output of a circuit approaches infinity, the circuit is said to be unstable.
Unstable circuits can actually be dangerous, as unstable elements overheat, and potentially
rupture.
A circuit is considered to be stable when a "well-behaved" input produces a "well-behaved"
output response. We use the term "Well-Behaved" differently for each application, but
generally, we mean "Well-Behaved" to mean a finite and controllable quantity.
13.2 Resonance
13.2.1 With R = 0
When R = 0 , the circuit reduces to a series LC circuit. When the circuit is in resonance,
the circuit will vibrate at the resonant frequency.
ZL = ZC
L =
1
C
f=
1
LC
1 1
2 LC
The circuit vibrates and has the capability of producing a Standing Wave when R = 0 , L =
C
13.2.2 With R 0
When R 0 and the circuit operates in resonance .
The frequency dependent components L , C cancel out ie ZL - ZC = 0 so that the total
impedance of the circuit is ZR + ZL + ZC = R + [ZL ZC ] = R + 0 = R
The current of the circuit is I =
The Operating Frequency is =
V
R
1
LC
If the current is halved by doubling the value of resistance then

I=
46
V
2R
Conclusion
Circuit will be stable over the range of frquencies from 1 2
The circuit has the capability to select bandwidth where the circuit is stable . Therefore, it is
best suited for Tuned Resonance Select Bandwidth Filter
Once using L or C to tune circuit into resonance at resonance frequency f =
1 1
2 LC The
V
current is at its maximum value I = VR . Reduce current above I = 2R
circuit will respond
V
to narrower bandwidth than 1 2 . Reduce current below I = 2R circuit will respond to
wider bandwidth than 1 2 .
13.3 Conclusion
Circuit
General
Series RLC
Parallel RLC
Circuit
Figure 20
Impedance
Figure 19
Z = (j)2 + (j) R
L+
1
LC
Roots
I(t)
Damping Factor
Resonant Frequency
Band Width
Quality factor
= 2 o2
p
1 t
Ae + Be
o
= 2
Q=
2 t
o
2
Ae1 t + Be2 t
R
= 2L
1
o = LC
R
L
Q=
L
R LC
1
R
Z =
1
1
RLC (j)2 +j 1 + 1
p RC LC
= 2 o2
Ae1 t + Be2 t
1
= 2RC
1
o = LC
1
CR
L
C
Q=
CR
LC
=R
C
L
47
14 The Second-Order Circuit Solution

14.1 Second-Order Solution
This page is going to talk about the solutions to a second-order, RLC circuit. The secondorder solution is reasonably complicated, and a complete understanding of it will require
an understanding of differential equations. This book will not require you to know about
differential equations, so we will describe the solutions without showing how to derive them.
The derivations may be put into another chapter, eventually.
The aim of this chapter is to develop the complete response of the second-order circuit.
There are a number of steps involved in determining the complete response:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Obtain the differential equations of the circuit

Determine the resonant frequency and the damping ratio
Obtain the characteristic equations of the circuit
Find the roots of the characteristic equation
Find the natural response
Find the forced response
Find the complete response
We will discuss all these steps one at a time.
14.2 Finding Differential Equations

A Second-order circuit cannot possibly be solved until we obtain the second-order differential equation that describes the circuit. We will discuss here some of the techniques used
for obtaining the second-order differential equation for an RLC Circuit.
Note
Parallel RLC Circuits are easier to solve in terms of current. Series RLC circuits are easier
to solve in terms of voltage.
14.2.1 The Direct Method

The most direct method for finding the differential equations of a circuit is to perform a
nodal analysis, or a mesh current analysis on the circuit, and then solve the equation for the
input function. The final equation should contain only derivatives, no integrals.
49
The Second-Order Circuit Solution
14.2.2 The Variable Method

If we create two variables, g and h, we can use them to create a second-order differential
equation. First, we set g and h to be either inductor currents, capacitor voltages, or both.
Next, we create a single first order differential equation that has g = f(g, h). Then, we write
another first-order differential equation that has the form:
dh
dt
= Kg or
1 dh
K dt
=g
Next, we substitute in our second equation into our first equation, and we have a second-order
equation.
14.3 Zero-Input Response

The zero-input response of a circuit is the state of the circuit when there is no forcing
function (no current input, and no voltage input). We can set the differential equation as
such:
di
d2 i
+ 2 + o2 i(t) = 0
2
dt
dt
This gives rise to the characteristic equation of the circuit, which is explained below.
14.4 Characteristic Equation

The characteristic equation of an RLC circuit is obtained using the "Operator Method"
described below, with zero input. The characteristic equation of an RLC circuit (series or
parallel) will be:
s2 i +
R
1
si +
i=0
L
LC
The roots to the characteristic equation are the "solutions" that we are looking for.
14.4.1 Finding the Characteristic Equation

This method of obtaining the characteristic equation requires a little trickery. First, we
create an operator s such that:
sx =
dx
dt
Also, we can show higher-order operators as such:

s2 x =
50
d2 x
dt2
Damping
Where x is the voltage (in a series circuit) or the current (in a parallel circuit) of the
circuit source. We write 2 first order differential equations for the inductor currents and/or
the capacitor voltages in our circuit. We convert all the differentiations to s, and all the
integrations (if any) into (1/s). We can then use Cramer's rule to solve for a solution.
14.4.2 Solutions
The solutions of the characteristic equation are given in terms of the resonant frequency
and the damping ratio:
[Characteristic Equation Solution]
s =
2 o2
If either of these two values are used for s in the assumed solution x = Aest and that solution
completes the differential equation then it can be considered a valid solution. We will discuss
this more, below.
14.5 Damping
The solutions to a circuit are dependant on the type of damping that the circuit exhibits,
as determined by the relationship between the damping ratio and the resonant frequency.
The different types of damping are Overdamping, Underdamping, and Critical Damping.
51
14.5.1 Overdamped
Figure 21
RLC series Over-Damped Response
A circuit is called Overdamped when the following condition is true:

> 0
In this case, the solutions to the characteristic equation are two distinct, positive numbers,
and are given by the equation:
I(t) = Ae
s1 t + Be s2 t ,
s1 , s2 =
where
2 02
In a parallel circuit:
= 1/(2RC)
0 = 1/sqrt(LC)
In a series circuit:
= R/(2L)
52
Damping
0 = 1/sqrt(LC)
Overdamped circuits are characterized as having a very large settling time, and possibly a
large steady-state error.
14.5.2 Underdamped
A Circuit is called Underdamped when the damping ratio is less than the resonant
frequency.
< 0
In this case, the characteristic polynomial's solutions are complex conjugates. This results
in oscillations or ringing in the circuit. The solution consists of two conjugate roots:
1 = + ic
and
2 = ic
where
c =
o2 2
The solutions are:

i(t) = Ae(+ic )t + Be(ic )t
for arbitrary constants A and B. Using Euler's formula, we can simplify the solution as:
i(t) = et [C sin(c t) + D cos(c t)]
for arbitrary constants C and D. These solutions are characterized by exponentially decaying
sinusoidal response. The higher the Quality Factor (below), the longer it takes for the
oscillations to decay.
53
14.5.3 Critically Damped
Figure 22
RLC series Critically Damped
A circuit is called Critically Damped if the damping factor is equal to the resonant
frequency:
= 0
In this case, the solutions to the characteristic equation is a double root. The two roots are
identical (1 = 2 = ), the solutions are:
I(t) = (A + Bt)et
for arbitrary constants A and B. Critically damped circuits typically have low overshoot, no
oscillations, and quick settling time.
54
Series RLC
14.6 Series RLC
Figure 23
A series RLC circuit.
The differential equation to a simple series circuit with a constant voltage source V, and a
resistor R, a capacitor C, and an inductor L is:
d2 i
di 1
+R + i = 0
2
dt
dt C
The characteristic equation then, is as follows:
55
Ls2 + Rs +
1
=0
C
With the two roots:

R
+
s1 =
2L
R
s2 =
2L
R 2
1
)
2L
LC
R 2
1
)
2L
LC
and
14.7 Parallel RLC
Figure 24
A parallel RLC Circuit.
The differential equation to a parallel RLC circuit with a resistor R, a capacitor C, and an
inductor L is as follows:
C
d2 v 1 dv 1
+
+ v=0
dt2 R dt L
Where v is the voltage across the circuit. The characteristic equation then, is as follows:
Cs2 +
1
1
s+ = 0
R
L
With the two roots:

1
s1 =
+
2RC
56
1 2
1
)
2RC
LC
Circuit Response
and
1
s2 =
2RC
1 2
1
)
2RC
LC
14.8 Circuit Response

Once we have our differential equations, and our characteristic equations, we are ready to
assemble the mathematical form of our circuit response. RLC Circuits have differential
equations in the form:
a2
d2 x
dx
+ a1 + a0 x = f (t)
dt2
dt
Where f(t) is the forcing function of the RLC circuit.
14.8.1 Natural Response

The natural response of a circuit is the response of a given circuit to zero input (i.e.
depending only upon the initial condition values). The natural Response to a circuit will be
denoted as xn (t). The natural response of the system must satisfy the unforced differential
equation of the circuit:
[Unforced function]
a2
d2 x
dx
+ a1 + a0 x = 0
dt2
dt
We remember this equation as being the "zero input response", that we discussed above. We
now define the natural response to be an exponential function:
xn = A1 est + A2 est
Where s are the roots of the characteristic equation of the circuit. The reasons for choosing
this specific solution for xn is based in differential equations theory, and we will just accept
it without proof for the time being. We can solve for the constant values, by using a system
of two equations:
x(0) = A1 + A2
dx(0)
= s 1 A1 + s 2 A2
dt
Where x is the voltage (of the elements in a parallel circuit) or the current (through the
elements in a series circuit).
57
14.8.2 Forced Response

The forced response of a circuit is the way the circuit responds to an input forcing function.
The Forced response is denoted as xf (t).
Where the forced response must satisfy the forced differential equation:
[Forced function]
a2
d2 x
dx
+ a1 + a0 x = f (t)
2
dt
dt
The forced response is based on the input function, so we can't give a general solution to it.
However, we can provide a set of solutions for different inputs:
Input Form
K (constant)
M sin(t)
M eat
Output Form
A (constant)
A sin(t) + B cos(t)
Aeat
14.8.3 Complete Response

The Complete response of a circuit is the sum of the forced response, and the natural
response of the system:
[Complete Response]
xc (t) = xt (t) + xs (t)
Once we have derived the complete response of the circuit, we can say that we have "solved"
the circuit, and are finished working.
58
15 Mutual Inductance
15.1 Magnetic Fields
Figure 25
Inductors store energy in the form of a magnetic field. The magnetic field of an inductor
actually extends outside of the inductor, and can be affected (or can affect) another inductor
close by. The image above shows a magnetic field (red lines) extending around an inductor.
15.2 Mutual Inductance
Figure 26
59
Mutual Inductance
If we accidentally or purposefully put two inductors close together, we can actually transfer
voltage and current from one inductor to another. This property is called Mutual Inductance. A device which utilizes mutual inductance to alter the voltage or current output is
called a transformer.
The inductor that creates the magnetic field is called the primary coil, and the inductor
that picks up the magnetic field is called the secondary coil. Transformers are designed to
have the greatest mutual inductance possible by winding both coils on the same core. (In
calculations for inductance, we need to know which materials form the path for magnetic
flux. Air core coils have low inductance; Cores of iron or other magnetic materials are better
'conductors' of magnetic flux.)
The voltage that appears in the secondary is caused by the change in the shared magnetic
field, each time the current through the primary changes. Thus, transformers work on A.C.
power, since the voltage and current change continuously.
15.3 Ideal Transformers
Figure 27
60
Modern Inductors
15.4 Modern Inductors
Figure 28
When the coils of number of turns N1 conducts current . There exists a Magnetic Field B
on the coil . Changes of B will generates an Induced Voltage on the turns of coil N1 and N2
as shown
-p = Np dB
dt
-s = Ns dB
dt
The ratio of -2 over -1
- p / - s =
Np
Ns
If Input voltage at coil of turn Np = -p and the Output voltage will be

Vs
Vp
= -s / -p =
Ns
Np
Ns
Vs = Vp N
p
Thus, this device is capable of Increase, Decrease and Conduct Voltage just by changing the
turn ratio of the coils
Therefore, the output voltage can be
Increased or Step Up by increasing number of turns of coil Ns greater than Np
Decreased or Step Down by Decreasing number of turns of coil Ns less than Np
Buffered by setting number of turns of coil Ns equal to Np
The following photo shows several examples of the construction of inductors and transformers.
At the upper right is a toroidal core type (toroid is the mathematical term for a donut
61
Mutual Inductance
shape). This shape very efficiently contains the magnetic flux, so less power (or signal) is
lost to heating up the core.
Figure 29
15.5 Step Up and Step Down

The terms 'step-up' and 'step-down' are used to compare the secondary (output) voltage to
the voltage supplied to the primary.
Many transformers are specially designed to operate exclusively as step-up or step-down.
While an ideal transformer could simply be 'turned around', we find that many actual
transformers are built to perform best at certain ranges of voltage and current.
62
further reading
For example, a power transformer may be used to step down household AC (about 120
Volts) to 24V for home heating controls, etc. The output current is higher than the primary
current in this example, so the transformer is made with a heavier gauge of wire in its
secondary windings.
In transformers that deal with very high voltages, special attention is paid to insulation.
The windings that deal with thousands of volts must resist arcing and other problems we do
not see at home.
Finally, some transformers in electronic equipment are designed for a task known as
'impedance matching', rather than for specific in/out voltages. This function is explained in
literature covering audio and radio topics.
15.6 further reading

Electronics/Transformers1
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Electronics%2FTransformers
63
16 State-Variable Approach
16.1 State Variables
A more modern approach to circuit analysis is known as the state variable method, which
we will attempt to describe here. We use variables called state variables to describe the
current state of the energy storage elements (capacitors and inductors). Here, we are using
the word "state" to mean "condition" or "status" of the elements.
16.2 Aim of State Variables

What is the goal of using state variables? We have all sorts of other methods for solving and
describing circuits, so why would we introduce another method for dealing with circuits?
An answer to both these questions lay in the theory of the state variable method: the state
variable approach attempts to describe a circuit using a system of first-order differential
equations instead of a single, higher-order equation. A system of first-order equations can
then be easily manipulated using linear algebra techniques, and can be solved through
brute-force methods such as cramers rule.
16.3 State Variable Selection

We choose state variables to be either the voltage across a capacitor, or the current through
an inductor. If our circuit has multiple irreducible capacitors or inductors, we assign a state
variable to each one.
16.4 System of Equations

Once we have assigned our state variables, we are tasked with finding a first-order differential
equation that describes each one individually. Once we have all of these equations, we can
set them up in matrix form, and use Cramers rule, or another analysis method to solve the
system.
65
State-Variable Approach
16.5 Further Reading

Control Systems/State-Space Equations1
66
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Control%20Systems%2FState-Space%20Equations
17 Sinusoidal Sources
17.1 Steady State
"Steady State" means that we are not dealing with turning on or turning off circuits in this
section. We are assuming that the circuit was turned on a very long time ago and it is
behaving in a pattern. We are computing what the pattern will look like. The "complex
frequency" section models turning on and off a circuit with an exponential.
17.2 Sinusoidal Forcing Functions

Let us consider a general AC forcing function:
v(t) = M sin(t + )
In this equation, the term M is called the "Magnitude", and it acts like a scaling factor that
allows the peaks of the sinusoid to be higher or lower than +/- 1. The term is what is
known as the "Radial Frequency". The term is an offset parameter known as the "Phase".
Sinusoidal sources can be current sources, but most often they are voltage sources.
17.3 Other Terms

There are a few other terms that are going to be used in many of the following sections, so
we will introduce them here:
Period
The period of a sinusoidal function is the amount of time, in seconds, that the sinusoid
takes to make a complete wave. The period of a sinusoid is always denoted with a capital
T. This is not to be confused with a lower-case t, which is used as the independent variable
for time.
Frequency
Frequency is the reciprocal of the period, and is the number of times, per second, that the
sinusoid completes an entire cycle. Frequency is measured in Hertz (Hz). The relationship
between frequency and the Period is as follows:
f=
1
T
67
Sinusoidal Sources
Where f is the variable most commonly used to express the frequency.
Radian Frequency
Radian frequency is the value of the frequency expressed in terms of Radians Per Second,
instead of Hertz. Radian Frequency is denoted with the variable . The relationship
between the Frequency, and the Radian Frequency is as follows:
= 2f
Phase
The phase is a quantity, expressed in radians, of the time shift of a sinusoid. A sinusoid
phase-shifted = +2 is moved forward by 1 whole period, and looks exactly the same.
An important fact to remember is this:
sin( 2 t) = cos(t) or sin(t) = cos(t 2 )
Phase is often expressed with many different variables, including , , , etc... This wikibook
will try to stick with the symbol , to prevent confusion.
17.4 Lead and Lag

A circuit element may have both a voltage across its terminals and a current flowing through
it. If one of the two (current or voltage) is a sinusoid, then the other must also be a sinusoid
(remember, voltage is the derivative of the current, and the derivative of a sinusoid is always
a sinusoid). However, the sinusoids of the voltage and the current may differ by quantities
of magnitude and phase.
If the current has a lower phase angle than the voltage the current is said to lag the voltage.
If the current has a higher phase angle then the voltage, it is said to lead the voltage. Many
circuits can be classified and examined using lag and lead ideas.
17.5 Sinusoidal Response

Reactive components (capacitors and inductors) are going to take energy out of a circuit like
a resistor and then pump some of it back into the circuit like a source. The result is initially
a mess. But after a while (5 time constants), the circuit starts behaving in a pattern. The
capacitors and inductors get in a rhythm that reflects the driving sources. If the source is
sinusoidal, the currents and voltages will be sinusoidal. This is called the "particular" or
"steady state" response. In general:
Ain cos(in t + in ) Aout cos(out t + out )
What happens initially, what happens if the capacitor is initially charged, what happens if
sources are switched in and out of a circuit is that there is an energy imbalance. A voltage
or current source might be charged by the initial energy in a capacitor. The derivative
68
Sinusoidal Conventions
of the voltage across an Inductor might instantaneously switch polarity. Lots of things
are happening. We are going to save this for later. Here we deal with the steady state or
"particular" response first.
17.6 Sinusoidal Conventions

For the purposes of this book we will generally use cosine functions, as opposed to sine
functions. If we absolutely need to use a sine, we can remember the following trigonometric
identity:
cos(t) = sin(/2 t)
We can express all sine functions as cosine functions. This way, we don't have to compare
apples to oranges per se. This is simply a convention that this wikibook chooses to use to
keep things simple. We could easily choose to use all sin( ) functions, but further down the
road it is often more convenient to use cosine functions instead by default.
17.7 Sinusoidal Sources

There are two primary sinusoidal sources: wall outlets and oscillators1 . Oscillators are
typically crystals that electrically vibrate and are found in devices that communicate or
display video such as TV's, computers, cell phones, radios. An electrical engineer or tech's
working area will typically include a "function generator2 " which can produce oscillations at
many frequencies and in shapes that are not just sinusoidal.
RMS or Root mean square3 is a measure of amplitude that compares with DC magnitude in
terms of power, strength of motor, brightness of light, etc. The trouble is that there are
several types of AC amplitude:
peak
peak to peak
average
RMS
Wall outlets are called AC4 or alternating current. Wall outlets are sinusoidal voltage sources
that range from 100 RMS volts, 50 Hz to 240 RMS volts 60 Hz world wide. RMS, rather
than peak (which makes more sense mathematically), is used to describe magnitude for
several reasons:
historical reasons related to the competition between Edison (DC power) and Tesla
(Sinusoidal or AC power)
1
2
3
4
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http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/%3Aw%3AAlternating%20current
69
Sinusoidal Sources
effort to compare/relate AC (wall outlets) to DC (cars, batteries) .. 100 RMS volts is
approximately 100 DC volts.
average sinusoidal is zero
meter movements (physical needles moving5 on measurement devices) were designed to
measure both DC and RMS AC
RMS is a type of average: prms =
2
1 R T2
T2 T1 T1 [p(t)] dt
Electrical power delivery6 is a complicated subject that will not be covered in this course.
Here we are trying to define terms, design devices that use the power and understand clearly
what comes out of wall outlets.
5
6
70
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/%3Aw%3AAmmeter%23Types
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18 Phasor Representation
71
19 Phasors
19.1 Variables
Variables are defined the same way. But there is a difference. Before variables were either
"known" or "unknown." Now there is a sort of in between.
At this point the concept of a constant function (a number) and a variable function (varies
with time) needs to be reviewed. See this /student professor /1 dialogue. Knowns are
described in terms of functions, unknowns are computed based upon the knowns and are
also functions.
For example:
v(t) = Mv cos(t + v ) voltage varying with time
Here v(t) is the symbol for a function. It is assigned a function of the symbols Mv , , v
and t. Typically time is not ever solved for.
Time remains an unknown. Furthermore all power, voltage and current turn into equations
of time. Time is not solved for. Because time is everywhere, it can be eliminated from
the equations. Integrals and derivatives turn into algebra and the answers can be purely
numeric (before time is added back in).
At the last moment, time is put back into voltage, current and power and the final solution
is a function of time.
Most of the math in this course has these steps:
1.
2.
3.
4.
describe knowns and unknowns in the time domain, describe all equations
change knowns into phasors, eliminate derivatives and integrals in the equations
solve numerically or symbolically for unknowns in the phasor domain
transform unknowns back into the time domain
19.2 Passive circuit output is similar to input

If the input to a linear circuit is a sinusoid, then the output from the circuit will be a
sinusoid. Specifically, if we have a voltage sinusoid as such:
v(t) = Mv cos(t + v )
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73
Phasors
Then the current through the linear circuit will also be a sinusoid, although its magnitude
and phase may be different quantities:
i(t) = Mi cos(t + i )
Note that both the voltage and the current are sinusoids with the same radial frequency, but
different magnitudes, and different phase angles. Passive circuit elements cannot change the
frequency of a sinusoid, only the magnitude and the phase. Why then do we need to write
in every equation, when it doesnt change? For that matter, why do we need to write out
the cos( ) function, if that never changes either? The answers to these questions is that we
don't need to write these things every time. Instead, engineers have produced a short-hand
way of writing these functions, called "phasors".
19.3 Phasor Transform

Phasors are a type of "transform." We are transforming the circuit math so that time
disappears. Imagine going to a place where time doesn't exist.
We know that every function can be written as a series of sine waves of various frequencies
and magnitudes added together. (Look up fourier transform animation). The entire world
can be constructed from sin waves2 . Here, one sine wave is looked at, the repeating nature
() is stripped away. Whats left is a phasor. Since time is made of circles, and if we consider
just one of these circles, we can move to a world where time doesn't exist and circles are
"things". Instead of the word "world", use the word "domain" or "plane" as in two dimensions.
Math in the Phasor domain is almost the same as DC circuit analysis. What is different is
that inductors and capacitors have an impact that needs to be accounted for.
The transform into the Phasors plane or domain and transforming back into time is based
upon Euler's equation. It is the reason you studied imaginary numbers in past math class.
74
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Euler's Equation
19.4 Euler's Equation
Figure 30
Euler's Formula
Euler's formula is a mathematical formula that establishes the deep relationship between
the trigonometric functions and the complex exponential function. Euler's formula states
that, for any real number x,
eix = cos x + i sin x
75
Phasors
where e is the base of the natural logarithm3 , i is the square root of a negative one4 , and
cos and sin are the trig functions5 , with the argument x given in radians6 .
Euler's formula is ubiquitous in mathematics, physics, and engineering. The physicist
Richard Feynman7 called the equation "our jewel" and "one of the most remarkable, almost
astounding, formulas in all of mathematics."
A more general version of Euler's equation is:
[Euler's Equation]
M ej(t+) = M cos(t + ) + jM sin(t + )
This equation allows us to view sinusoids as complex exponential functions. The circle
in time of voltage, current or power turns into an arrow have length (magnitude C) and
angle (phase ) or a point having a real (X) and imaginary (Y ) coordinates in the phasor
domain/plane or complex domain/plane.
Generically, the phasor C, (which could be voltage, current or power) can be written:
C = X + jY (rectangular coordinates)
C = Mv (polar coordinates)
We can graph the point (X, Y) on the complex plane and draw an arrow to it showing the
relationship between X, Y, C and .
Using this fact, we can get the angle from the origin of the complex plane to out point (X,
Y) with the function:
[Angle equation]
C = arctan(
Y
)
X
And using the pythagorean theorem, we can find the magnitude of C -- the distance from
the origin to the point (X, Y) -- as:
[Pythagorean Theorem]
MC = |C| =
3
4
5
6
7
76
X2 + Y 2
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Phasor Symbols
19.5 Phasor Symbols

Phasors don't account for the frequency information, so make sure you write down the
frequency some place safe.
Suppose in the time domain:
v(t) = Mv ej(t+)
In the phasor domain, this voltage is expressed like this:
V = Mv
The radial velocity disappears from known functions (not the derivate and integral
operations) and reappears in the time expression for the unknowns.
19.6 Not Vectors

Contrary to the statement made in this heading, phasors (phase vectors), are vectors.
Phasors form a vector space with additional structure, hence they have some properties that
are not common to all vector spaces; these additional properties exist because phasors form
a field - thus you also get division.
For more details see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phasor_(electronics)
Like many kinds of vectors they have additional struct Phasors will always be written out
either with a large bold letter (as above). They are not a vector. Vectors have two or more
real axes that are not related by Euler, but are independent. They share some math in two
dimensions, but this math diverges.
Phasors can be divided, but vectors can not.
Voltage can be divided by current (in the phasor domain), but East can not be divided by
North (vectors can not be divided). Vectors move into three or more dimensions of linear
algebra math that help build complicated structures in the real world such as space frames8 .
Phasors move into more complicated transforms related to differential equation math and
electronics.
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77
Phasors
Figure 31
cross product visualization
The math of phasors is exactly the same as ordinary math, except with imaginary numbers.
Vectors demand new mathematical operations such as dot product and cross product:
The dot product of vectors finds the shadow of one vector on another.
The cross product of vectors combines vectors into a third vector perpendicular to both.
78
Cosine Convention
19.7 Cosine Convention

In this book, all phasors correspond to a cosine function, not a sine function.
It is important to remember which trigonometric function your phasors are mapping to.
Since a phasor only includes information on magnitude and phase angle, it is impossible
to know whether a given phasor maps to a sin( ) function, or a cos( ) function instead.
By convention, this wikibook and most electronic texts/documentation map to the cosine
function.
If you end up with an answer that is sin, convert to cos by subtracting 90 degrees:
sin(t + ) = cos(t + )
2
If your simulator requires the source to be in sin form, but the starting point is cos, then
convert to sin by adding 90 degrees:
cos(t + ) = sin(t + + )
2
19.8 Phasor Concepts

Inside the phasor domain, concepts appear and are named. Inductors and capacitors can be
coupled with their derivative operator transforms and appear as imaginary resistors called
"reactance." The combination of resistance and reactance is called "impedance." Impedance
can be treated algebraically as a phasor although technically it is not. Power concepts such
as real, reactive, apparent and power factor appear in the phasor domain. Numeric math
can be done in the phasor domain. Symbols can be manipulated in the phasor domain.
19.9 Phasor Math

There is more information about Phasors in
The Appendixa
a
Chapter 25 on page 125
Phasor math turns into the imaginary number math which is reviewed below.
Phasor A can be multiplied by phasor B:
[Phasor Multiplication]
A B = (Ma Mb )(a + b )
The phase angles add because in the time domain they are exponents of two things multiplied
together.
79
Phasors
[Phasor Division]
A/B = (Ma /Mb )(a b )
Again the phase angles are treated like exponents ... so they subtract.
The magnitude and angle form of phasors can not be used for addition and subtraction. For
this, we need to convert the phasors into rectangular notation:
C = X + jY
Here is how to convert from polar form (magnitude and angle) to rectangular form (real
and imaginary)
X = M cos()
Y = M sin()
Once in rectangular form:
Real parts get add or subtract
Imaginary parts add or subtract
[Phasor Addition]
C = A + B = (XA + XB ) + j(YA + YB ) = XC + jYC
Here is how to convert from rectangular form to polar form:
C = Mc c =
X 2 + Y 2 arctan(
Y
)
X
Once in polar phasor form, conversion back into the time domain is easy:
Re(M ej(t+) ) = M cos(t + )
19.10 Function transformation Derivation

g(t) represents either voltage, current or power.
g(t) = Gm cos(t + ) starting point
g(t) = Gm Re(ej(t+) ) from Euler's Equation
g(t) = Gm Re(ej ejt ) law of exponents
80
Transforming calculus operators into phasors

g(t) = Re(Gm ej ejt ) .... Gm is a real number so it can be moved inside
g(t) = Re(Gejt ) ....G is the definition of a phasor, here it is an expression substituting for
Gm ej
g(t) G where G = Gm ej
What happens to ejt term? Long Answer9 . It hangs around until it is time to transform
back into the time domain. Because it is an exponent, and all the phasor math is algebra
associated with exponents, the final phasor can be multiplied by it. Then the real part of
the expression will be the time domain solution.
time domain
Acos(t)
Asin(t)
Acos(t) + Bsin(t)
Acos(t) Bsin(t)
Acos(t + )
Asin(t + )
Acos(t )
Asin(t )
transformation
proof10
proof11
proof12
proof13
proof14
proof15
phasor domain
A
Aj
A Bj
A + Bj
Acos() + Asin()j
Asin() Acos()j
Acos() Asin()j
Asin() Acos()j
In all the cases above, remember that is a constant, a known value in most cases. Thus
the phasor is an complex number in most calculations.
There is another transform associated with a derivatives that is discussed in "phasor calculus."
19.11 Transforming calculus operators into phasors

When sinusoids are represented as phasors, differential equations become algebra. This result
follows from the fact that the complex exponential is the eigenfunction16 of the operation:
d jt
(e ) = jejt
dt
That is, only the complex amplitude is changed by the derivative operation. Taking the real
part of both sides of the above equation gives the familiar result:
d
cos t = sin t
dt
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
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81
Phasors
Thus, a time derivative of a sinusoid becomes, when tranformed into the phasor domain,
algebra:
d
dt i(t)
jI j is the square root of -1 or an imaginary number
In a similar way the time integral, when transformed into the phasor domain is:
Z
V (t)dt
V
j
The above is true of voltage, current, and power.

The question is why does this work? Where is the proof? Lets do this three times: once for
a resistor, then inductor, then capacitor. The symbols for the current and voltage going
through the terminals are: Vm cos(t + v ) and Im cos(t + I )
19.11.1 Resistor Terminal Equation

V = RI . terminal relationship
Vm cos(t + V ) = RIm cos(t + I ) .. substituting example functions
Vm et+jV = RIm et+jI .. Euler's version of the terminal relationship
Vm et ejV = RIm et ejI .. law of exponents
Vm et ejV = RIm et ejI .. do same thing go both sides of equal sign
Vm ejV = RIm ejI .. time domain result
V = RI .. phasor expression
Just put the voltage and current in phasor form and substitute to migrate equation into the
phasor domain.
19.11.2 Inductor Terminal Equation

d
I ... terminal relationship
V = L dt
d
Vm cos(t + V ) = L dt
(Im cos(t + I )) .. substitution of a generic sinusodial
Vm cos(t + V ) = LIm sin(t + I ) .. taking the derivative

sin(t + I ) = cos(t + I + 2 ) .. trig
Vm cos(t + V ) = LIm cos(t + I + 2 ) .. substitution
Vm Re(ej(t+V ) ) = LIm Re(ej(t+L + 2 ) ) from Euler's Equation
Vm Re(ejt ejV ) = LIm Re(ejt ejL ej 2 ) law of exponents
Re(Vm ejV ejt ) = Re(ej 2 LIm ejL ejt ) .... real numbers can be moved inside
ej 2 = cos( 2 ) + j sin( 2 ) = j ... substitute in above
82
Transforming calculus operators into phasors

I = Im ejL and V = Vm ejV .. substitute in above
cancel out the ej terms on both sides
Re(Vejt ) = Re(jLIejt ) .... definition of phasors
V = jLI .... equation transformed into phasor domain
Conclusion, put the voltage and current in phasor form, replace
equation to the phasor domain.
d
dt
with j to translate the
19.11.3 Capacitor Terminal Equation

A capacitor is basically the same form, V and I switch sides, C is substituted for L.
d
I = C dt
V ... terminal relationship
d
Im cos(t + I ) = C dt
(Vm cos(t + V )) .. substitution of a generic sinusodial
Im cos(t + I ) = CVm sin(t + V ) .. taking the derivative

sin(t + V ) = cos(t + V + 2 ) .. trig
Im cos(t + I ) = CVm cos(t + V + 2 ) .. substitution
Im Re(ej(t+I ) ) = CVm Re(ej(t+V + 2 ) ) from Euler's Equation
Im Re(ejt ejI ) = CVm Re(ejt ejV ej 2 ) law of exponents
Re(Im ejI ejt ) = Re(ej 2 CVm ejV ejt ) .... real numbers can be moved inside
ej 2 = cos( 2 ) + j sin( 2 ) = j ... substitute in above equation

V = Vm ejV and I = Im ejI .. substitute in above
cancel out the ej terms on both sides
Re(Iejt ) = Re(jCVejt ) .... definition of phasors
I = jCV .... equation transformed into phasor domain
Conclusion, put the voltage and current in phasor form, replace
equation to the phasor domain.
d
dt
with j to translate the
In summary, all the terminal relations have ej terms that cancel:

Vm ej ejt = Im ej ejt R
V = IR
Vm ej ejt = Im ej ejt j L
V = IjL
83
Phasors
Im ej ejt = Vm ej ejt j C
I = VjC
What is interesting about this path of inquiry/logic/thought is a new concept emerges:
Device
Resistor
Capacitor
Inductor
V
I
I
V
1
R
1
jC
jC
jL
1
jL
The j terms that don't cancel out come from the derivative terms in the terminal relations.
These derivative terms are associated with the capacitors and inductors themselves, not the
sources. Although the derivative is applied to a source, the independent device the derivative
originates from (a capacitor or inductor) is left with it's feature after the transform! So if
we leave the driving forces as output
input ratios on one side of the equal sign, we can consider
separately the other side of the equal sign as a function! These functions have a name ...
Transfer Functions. When we analyze the voltage/current ratios's in terms of R, L an C, we
can sweep through a variety of driving source frequencies, or keep the frequency constant
and sweep through a variety of inductor values .. . we can analyze the circuit response!
Note: Transfer Functions are an entire section of this course. They come up in mechanical
engineering control system classes also. There are similarities. Driving over a bump is like
a surge or spike. Driving over a curb is like turning on a circuit. And when mechanical
engineers study vibrations, they deal with sinusoidal driving functions, but they are dealing
with a three dimensional object rather than a one dimensional object like we are in this
course.
19.12 Phasor Domain to Time Domain

Getting back into the time domain is just about as simple. After working through the
equations in the phasor domain and finding V and I, the goal is to convert them to V and I.
The phasor solutions will have the form G = A + Bj = Gm ej you should be able now to
convert between the two forms of the solution. Then:
G = Re(Gejt ) = Re(Gm ej ejt ) = Re(Gm ej(t+) ) = Gm cos(t + )
19.13 What is not covered

There is another way of thinking about circuits where inductors and capacitors are complex
resistances. The idea is:
impedance = resistance + j * reactance
84
Phasor Notation
Or symbolically
Z = R+j X
Here17 the derivative is attached to the inductance and capacitance, rather than to the
terminal equation as we have done. This spreads the math of solving circuit problems into
smaller pieces that is more easily checked, but it makes symbolic solutions more complex
and can cause numeric solution errors to accumulate because of intermediate calculations.
The phasor concept is found everywhere. Some day it will be necessary to study this if you
get in involved in microwave projects that involve "stubs18 " or antenna projects that involve
a "loading coil19 " ... the list is huge.
The goal here is to avoid the concepts of conductance, reactance, impedance, susceptance,
and admittance20 ... and avoid the the confusion of relating these concepts while trying to
compare phasor math with calculus and Laplace transforms.
19.14 Phasor Notation

Remember, a phasor represents a single value that can be displayed in multiple ways.
C = M "Polar Notation"
C = M ej(t+) "Exponential Notation"
C = A + jB "Rectangular Notation"
C = M cos(t + ) + jM sin(t + ) "time domain notation"
These 4 notations are all just different ways of writing the same exact thing.
19.15 Phasor symbols

When writing on a board or on paper, use hats V to denote phasors. Expect variations in
books and online:
17
18
19
20
V
V
~
V
V
V
(the large bold block-letters we use in this wikibook)

("bar" notation, used by Wikipedia)
(bad ... save for vectors ... vector arrow notation)
(some text books)
(some text books)
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85
20 Differential Equations
20.1 Phasors Generate the Particular Solution
Phasors can replace calculus, they can replace Laplace transforms, they can replace trig.
But there is one thing they can not do: initial conditions/integration constants. When
doing problems with both phasors and Laplace, or phasors and calculus, the difference in
the answers is going to be an integration constant.
Differential equations are solved in this course in three steps:
finding the particular solution ... particular to the driving function ... particular to the
voltage or current source
finding the homogenous solution ... the solution that is the same no matter what the
driving function is ... the solution that explores how an initial energy imbalance in the
circuit is balanced
determining the coefficients, the constants of integration from initial conditions
20.2 Phasors Don't Generate Integration Constants

The integration constant doesn't appear in phasor solutions. But they will appear in the
Laplace and Calculus alternatives to phasor solutions. If the full differential equation is
going to be solved, it is absolutely necessary to see where the phasors fail to create a symbol
for the unknown integration constant ... that is calculated in the third step.
Phasors are the technique used to find the particular AC solution. Integration constants
document the initial DC bias or energy difference in the circuit. Finding these constants
requires first finding the homogeneous solution which deals with the fact that capacitors
may or may not be charged when a circuit is first turned on. Phasors don't completely
replace the steps of Differential Equations. Phasors just replace the first step: finding the
particular solution.
20.3 Differential Equations Review

The goal is to solve Ordinary Differential Equations (ODE) of the first and second order
with both phasors, calculus, and Laplace transforms. This way the phasor solution can
be compared with content of pre-requiste or co-requiste math courses. The goal is to do
these problems with numeric and symbolic tools such as matLab and mupad/mathematica/wolframalpha. If you have already had the differential equations course, this is a quick
review.
87
Differential Equations
The most important thing to understand is the nature of a function. Trig, Calculus, and
Laplace transforms and phasors are all associated with functions, not algebra. If you don't
understand the difference between algebra and a function, maybe this /student professor/1
dialogue will help.
We start with equations from terminal definitions, loops and junctions. Each of the symbols
in these algebraic equations is a function. We are not transforming the equations. We
are transforming the functions in these equations. All sorts of operators appear in these
d
equations including + - * / and dt
. The first table focuses on transforming these operators.
The second focuses on transforming the functions themselves.
The real power of the Laplace tranform is that it eliminates the integral and differential
operators. Then the functions themselves can be transformed. Then unknowns can be found
with just algebra. Then the functions can be transformed back into time domain functions.
Here are some of the Properties and Theorems2 needed to transform the typical sinusolidal
voltages, powers and currents in this class.
20.3.1 Laplace Operator Transforms

Time domain
's' domain
f (at)
1
|a| F
Time shifting
f (t a)u(t a)
eas F (s)
Linearity
af (t) + bg(t)
aF (s) + bG(s)
Differentiation
f 0 (t)
sF (s) f (0)
Integration
Rt
1
s F (s)
Properties of the
unilateral Laplace
transform
Time scaling
1
2
88
f ( ) d = (u
f )(t)
0
s
a
Comment
for figuring out how

affects the equation
u(t) is the unit step
function .. for figuring out the phase
angle
Can be proved using basic rules of
integration.
f is assumed to be
a differentiable function, and its derivative is assumed to
be of exponential
type. This can then
be obtained by integration by parts
a constant pops out
at the end of this
too
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/%2Fstudent%20professor%2F
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/%3Aw%3ALaplace_transform%23Properties_and_theorems
Differential Equations Review
20.3.2 Laplace Function Transform

Here are some of the transforms3 needed in this course:
Function
exponential
decay
Time domain
f (t) =
L1 {F (s)}
et u(t)
Laplace sdomain
F (s) =
L {f (t)}
Region of
convergence
Reference
1
s+
Re(s) >
Frequency
shift of
unit step
Unit step
minus
exponential
decay
exponential
approach
(1 et )
u(t)
s(s+)
Re(s) > 0
sine
cosine
exponentially
decaying
sine wave
exponentially
decaying
cosine wave
sin(t) u(t)
cos(t) u(t)
et sin(t)
u(t)
s2 + 2
s
s2 + 2
(s+)2 + 2
Re(s) > 0
Re(s) > 0
Re(s) >
et cos(t)
u(t)
s+
(s+)2 + 2
Re(s) >
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/%3Aw%3ALaplace_transform%23Table_of_selected_Laplace_
transforms
89
21 Phasor Circuit Analysis

21.1 Phasor Analysis
The mathematical representations of individual circuit elements can be converted into phasor
notation, and then the circuit can be solved using phasors.
21.2 Resistance, Impedance and Admittance

In phasor notation, resistance, capacitance, and inductance can all be lumped together
into a single term called "impedance". The phasor used for impedance is Z. The inverse of
Impedance is called "Admittance" and is denoted with a Y. V is Voltage and I is current.
Z=
1
Y
And the Ohm's law for phasors becomes:

V = ZI =
I
Y
It is important to note at this point that Ohm's Law still holds true even when we switch
from the time domain to the phasor domain. This is made all the more amazing by the fact
that the new term, impedance, is no longer a property only of resistors, but now encompasses
all load elements on a circuit (capacitors and inductors too!).
Impedance is still measured in units of Ohms, and admittance (like Conductance, its
DC-counterpart) is still measured in units of Siemens.
Let's take a closer look at this equation:
[Ohm's Law with Phasors]
V = ZI
If we break this up into polar notation, we get the following result:
MV V = (MZ MI )(Z + I )
w:Electrical impedance1
1
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical%20impedance
91
Phasor Circuit Analysis

This is important, because it shows that not only are the magnitude values of voltage and
current related to each other, but also the phase angle of their respective waves are also
related. Different circuit elements will have different effects on both the magnitude and the
phase angle of the voltage given a certain current. We will explore those relationships below.
21.3 Resistors
Resistors do not affect the phase of the voltage or current, only the magnitude. Therefore,
the impedance of a resistor with resistance R is:
[Resistor Impedance]
Z = R0
Through a resistor, the phase difference between current and voltage will not change. This
is important to remember when analyzing circuits.
21.4 Capacitors
A capacitor with a capacitance of C has a phasor value:
[Capacitor Impedance]

Z = C
To write this in terms of degrees, we can say:

Z = C(90 )
We can accept this for now as being axiomatic. If we consider the fact that phasors can be
graphed on the imaginary plane, we can easily see that the angle of /2 points directly
downward, along the negative imaginary axis. We then come to an important conclusion:
The impedance of a capacitor is imaginary, in a sense. Since the angle follows directly along
the imaginary axis, there is no real part to the phasor at all. Because there is no real part
to the impedance, we can see that capacitors have no resistance (because resistance is a real
value, as stated above).
21.4.1 Reactance
A capacitor with a capacitance of C in an AC circuit with an angular velocity has a
reactance given by
X=
C (90 )
Reactance is the impedance specific to an AC circuit with angular velocity .
92
Inductors
21.5 Inductors
Inductors have a phasor value:
[Inductor Impedance]

Z = L
Where L is the inductance of the inductor. We can also write this using degrees:
Z = L(90 )
Like capacitors, we can see that the phasor for inductor shows that the value of the impedance
is located directly on the imaginary axis. However, the phasor value for inductance points
in exactly the opposite direction from the capacitance phasor. We notice here also that
inductors have no resistance, because the resistance is a real value, and inductors have only
an imaginary value.
21.5.1 Reactance
In an AC circuit with a source angular velocity of , and inductor with inductance L.
X = L(90 )
21.6 Impedances Connected in Series

If there are several impedances connected in series, the equivalent impedance is simply a
sum of the impedance values:
----[ Z1 ]----[ Z2 ]--- ... ---[ Zn ]---
==> ---[ Zseries ]---
[Impedances in Series]
X
Zn = Zseries
series
Notice how much easier this is than having to differentiate between the formulas for combining
capacitors, resistors, and inductors in series. Notice also that resistors, capacitors, and
inductors can all be mixed without caring which type of element they are. This is valuable,
because we can now combine different elements into a single impedance value, as opposed to
different values of inductance, capacitance, and resistance.
Keep in mind however, that phasors need to be converted to rectangular coordinates before
they can be added together. If you know the formulas, you can write a small computer
93
Phasor Circuit Analysis

program, or even a small application on a programmable calculator to make the conversion
for you.
21.7 Impedances in Parallel

Impedances connected in parallel can be combined in a slightly more complicated process:
[Impedances in Parallel]
Q
Zn
Zparallel = PN
N
Zn
Where N is the total number of impedances connected in parallel with each other. Impedances
may be multiplied in the polar representation, but they must be converted to rectangular
coordinates for the summation. This calculation can be a little bit time consuming, but
when you consider the alternative (having to deal with each type of element separately), we
can see that this is much easier.
21.8 Steps For Solving a Circuit With Phasors

There are a few general steps for solving a circuit with phasors:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Convert all elements to phasor notation

Combine impedances, if possible
Combine Sources, if possible
Use Ohm's Law, and Kirchoff's laws to solve the circuit
Convert back into time-domain representation
Unfortunately, phasors can only be used with sinusoidal input functions. We cannot employ
phasors when examining a DC circuit, nor can we employ phasors when our input function
is any non-sinusoidal periodic function. To handle these cases, we will look at more general
methods in later chapters
21.9 Network Function

The network function is a phasor, H that is a ratio of the circuit's input to its output. This
is important, because if we can solve a circuit down to find the network function, we can
find the response to any sinusoidal input, by simply multiplying by the network function.
With time-domain analysis, we would have to solve the circuit for every new input, and this
would be very time consuming indeed.
Network functions are defined in the following way:
[Network Function]
94
Gain
H=
Y
X
Where Y is the phasor representation of the circuit's output, and X is the representation of
the circuit's input. In the time domain, to find the output, we would need to convolute the
input with the impulse response. With the network function, however, it becomes a simple
matter of multiplying the input phasor with the network function, to get the output phasor.
Using this method, we have converted an entire circuit to become a simple function that
changes magnitude and phase angle.
21.10 Gain
Gain is the amount by which the magnitude of the sinusoid is amplified or attenuated by
the circuit. Gain can be computed from the Network function as such:
[Gain]
Gain = |H()| =
|Y()|
|X()|
Where the bars around the phasors are the "magnitude" of the phasor, and not the "absolute
value" as they are in other math texts. Again, gain may be a measure of the magnitude
change in either current or voltage. Most frequently, however, it is used to describe voltage.
21.11 Phase Shift

The phase shift of a function is the amount of phase change between the input signal and
the output signal. This can be calculated from the network function as such:
[Phase Shift]
H() = Y() X()
Where the denotes the phase of the phasor.
Again, the phase change may represent current or voltage.
95
22 Phasor Theorems
22.1 Circuit Theorems
Phasors would be absolutely useless if they didn't make the analysis of a circuit easier.
Luckily for us, all our old circuit analysis tools work with values in the phasor domain. Here
is a quick list of tools that we have already discussed, that continue to work with phasors:
Ohm's Law
Kirchoff's Laws
Superposition
Thevenin and Norton Sources
This page will describe how to use some of the tools we discussed for DC circuits in an AC
circuit using phasors.
22.2 Ohm's Law

Ohm's law, as we have already seen, becomes the following equation when in the phasor
domain:
V = ZI
Separating this out, we get:
MV V = (MZ MI )(Z + I )
Where we can clearly see the magnitude and phase relationships between the current, the
impedance, and the voltage phasors.
22.3 Kirchoff's Laws

Kirchoff's laws still hold true in phasors, with no alterations.
97
Phasor Theorems
22.3.1 Kirchoff's Current Law

Kirchoff's current law states that the amount of current entering a particular node must
equal the amount of current leaving that node. Notice that KCL never specifies what form
the current must be in: any type of current works, and KCL always holds true.
[KCL With Phasors]
X
In = 0
22.3.2 Kirchoff's Voltage Law

KVL states: The sum of the voltages around a closed loop must always equal zero. Again,
the form of the voltage forcing function is never considered: KVL holds true for any input
function.
[KVL With Phasors]
X
Vn = 0
22.4 Superposition
Superposition may be applied to a circuit if all the sources have the same frequency. However,
superposition must be used as the only possible method to solve a circuit with sources that
have different frequencies. The important part to remember is that impedance values in a
circuit are based on the frequency. Different reactive elements react to different frequencies
differently. Therefore, the circuit must be solved once for every source frequency. This can
be a long process, but it is the only good method to solve these circuits.
22.5 Thevenin and Norton Circuits

Thevenin Circuits and Norton Circuits can be manipulated in a similar manner to their DC
counterparts: Using the phasor-domain implementation of Ohm's Law.
V = ZI
It is important to remember that the Z does not change in the calculations, although the
phase and the magnitude of both the current and the voltage sources might change as a
result of the calculation.
98
22.6 Maximum Power Transfer

The maximum power transfer theorem in phasors is slightly different then the theorem for
DC circuits. To obtain maximum power transfer from a thevenin source to a load, the
internal thevenin impedance (Zt ) must be the complex conjugate of the load impedance
(Zl ):
[Maximum Power Transfer, with Phasors]
Zl = Rt jXt
99
23 Complex Power
23.1 Laplace Transform
The Laplace Transform is a powerful tool that is very useful in Electrical Engineering.
The transform allows equations in the "time domain" to be transformed into an equivalent
equation in the Complex S Domain. The laplace transform is an integral transform,
although the reader does not need to have a knowledge of integral calculus because all results
will be provided. This page will discuss the Laplace transform as being simply a tool for
solving and manipulating ordinary differential equations.
Laplace transformations of circuit elements are similar to phasor representations, but they
are not the same. Laplace transformations are more general than phasors, and can be easier
to use in some instances. Also, do not confuse the term "Complex S Domain" with the
complex power ideas that we have been talking about earlier. Complex power uses the
variable S, while the Laplace transform uses the variable s. The Laplace variable s has
nothing to do with power.
The transform is named after the mathematician Pierre Simon Laplace (1749-1827). The
transform itself did not become popular until Oliver Heaviside, a famous electrical engineer,
began using a variation of it to solve electrical circuits.
23.2 Laplace Domain

The Laplace domain, or the "Complex s Domain" is the domain into which the Laplace
transform transforms a time-domain equation. s is a complex variable, composed of real and
imaginary parts:
s = + j
The Laplace domain graphs the real part () as the horizontal axis, and the imaginary part
() as the vertical axis. The real and imaginary parts of s can be considered as independent
quantities.
The similarity of this notation with the notation used in Fourier transform theory is no
coincidence; for = 0, the Laplace transform is the same as the Fourier transform if the
signal is causal.
101
Complex Power
23.3 The Transform

The mathematical definition of the Laplace transform is as follows:
[The Laplace Transform]
F (s) = L {f (t)} =
Z
0
est f (t) dt
Note:
The letter s has no special significance, and is used with the Laplace Transform as a
matter of common convention.
The transform, by virtue of the definite integral, removes all t from the resulting equation,
leaving instead the new variable s, a complex number that is normally written as s = + j.
In essence, this transform takes the function f(t), and "transforms it" into a function in terms
of s, F(s). As a general rule the transform of a function f(t) is written as F(s). Time-domain
functions are written in lower-case, and the resultant s-domain functions are written in
upper-case.
There is a table of Laplace Transform pairs in
the Appendixa
a
we will use the following notation to show the transform of a function:

f (t) F (s)
We use this notation, because we can convert F(s) back into f(t) using the inverse Laplace
transform.
23.4 The Inverse Transform

The inverse laplace transform converts a function in the complex S-domain to its
counterpart in the time-domain. Its mathematical definition is as follows:
[Inverse Laplace Transform]
L1 {F (s)} =
1
2
Z c+i
ef t F (s) ds = f (t)
ci
where c is a real constant such that all of the poles s1 , s2 , ..., sn of F (s) fall in the region
R{si } < c. In other words, c is chosen so that all of the poles of F (s) are to the left of the
vertical line intersecting the real axis at s = c.
102
Transform Properties
The inverse transform is more difficult mathematically than the transform itself is. However,
luckily for us, extensive tables of laplace transforms and their inverses have been computed,
and are available for easy browsing.
23.5 Transform Properties

There is a table of Laplace Transform properties in
The Appendixa
a
The most important property of the Laplace Transform (for now) is as follows:
L f 0 (t) = sF (s) f (0)

Likewise, we can express higher-order derivatives in a similar manner:

L f 00 (t) = s2 F (s) sf (0) f 0 (0)

Or for an arbitrary derivative:

n
L f (n) (t) = sn F (s)
n1
X
s(n1i) f (i) (0)
i=0
where the notation f (n) (t) means the nth derivative of the function f at the point t, and
f (0) (t) means f (t).
In plain English, the laplace transform converts differentiation into polynomials. The only
important thing to remember is that we must add in the initial conditions of the time domain
function, but for most circuits, the initial condition is 0, leaving us with nothing to add.
For integrals, we get the following:
Z t
L
0
1
f (t) dt = F (s)
s

23.6 Initial Value Theorem

The Initial Value Theorem of the laplace transform states as follows:
[Initial Value Theorem]
f (0) lim sF (s)
s
103
Complex Power
This is useful for finding the initial conditions of a function needed when we perform the
transform of a differentiation operation (see above).
23.7 Final Value Theorem

Similar to the Initial Value Theorem, the Final Value Theorem states that we can find
the value of a function f, as t approaches infinity, in the laplace domain, as such:
[Final Value Theorem]
lim f (t) lim sF (s)
s0
This is useful for finding the steady state response of a circuit. The final value theorem may
only be applied to stable systems.
23.8 Transfer Function

If we have a circuit with impulse-response h(t) in the time domain, with input x(t) and
output y(t), we can find the Transfer Function of the circuit, in the laplace domain, by
transforming all three elements:
Figure 32
104
Convolution Theorem
In this situation, H(s) is known as the "Transfer Function" of the circuit. It can be defined
as both the transform of the impulse response, or the ratio of the circuit output to its input
in the Laplace domain:
[Transfer Function]
H(s) = L {h(t)} =
Y (s)
X(s)
Transfer functions are powerful tools for analyzing circuits. If we know the transfer function
of a circuit, we have all the information we need to understand the circuit, and we have it in
a form that is easy to work with. When we have obtained the transfer function, we can say
that the circuit has been "solved" completely.
23.9 Convolution Theorem

Earlier it was mentioned that we could compute the output of a system from the input and
the impulse response by using the convolution operation. As a reminder, given the following
system:
Figure 33
x(t) = system input

h(t) = impulse response
y(t) = system output
We can calculate the output using the convolution operation, as such:

y(t) = x(t) h(t)
Where the asterisk denotes convolution, not multiplication. However, in the S domain, this
operation becomes much easier, because of a property of the laplace transform:
[Convolution Theorem]
L {a(t) b(t)} = A(s)B(s)
Where the asterisk operator denotes the convolution operation. This leads us to an English
statement of the convolution theorem:
Convolution in the time domain becomes multiplication in the S domain, and convolution
in the S domain becomes multiplication in the time domain.1
Now, if we have a system in the Laplace S domain:
105
Complex Power
Figure 34
X(s) = Input
H(s) = Transfer Function
Y(s) = Output
We can compute the output Y(s) from the input X(s) and the Transfer Function H(s):
Y (s) = X(s)H(s)
Notice that this property is very similar to phasors, where the output can be determined
by multiplying the input by the network function. The network function and the transfer
function then, are very similar quantities.
23.10 Resistors
The laplace transform can be used independently on different circuit elements, and then the
circuit can be solved entirely in the S Domain (Which is much easier). Let's take a look at
some of the circuit elements:
Resistors are time and frequency invariant. Therefore, the transform of a resistor is the
same as the resistance of the resistor:
[Transform of Resistors]
R(s) = r
Compare this result to the phasor impedance value for a resistance r:
Zr = r0
You can see very quickly that resistance values are very similar between phasors and laplace
transforms.
23.11 Ohm's Law

If we transform Ohm's law, we get the following equation:
[Transform of Ohm's Law]
V (s) = I(s)R
106
Capacitors
Now, following ohms law, the resistance of the circuit element is a ratio of the voltage to the
(s)
current. So, we will solve for the quantity VI(s)
, and the result will be the resistance of our
circuit element:
R=
V (s)
I(s)
This ratio, the input/output ratio of our resistor is an important quantity, and we will find
this quantity for all of our circuit elements. We can say that the transform of a resistor with
resistance r is given by:
[Tranform of Resistor]
L{resistor} = R = r
23.12 Capacitors
Let us look at the relationship between voltage, current, and capacitance, in the time domain:
i(t) = C
dv(t)
dt
Solving for voltage, we get the following integral:

1
v(t) =
C
i(t)dt
t0
Then, transforming this equation into the laplace domain, we get the following:
V (s) =
Again, if we solve for the ratio
V (s)
I(s) ,
11
I(s)
Cs
we get the following:

V (s)
1
=
I(s)
sC
Therefore, the transform for a capacitor with capacitance C is given by:

[Transform of Capacitor]
L{capacitor} =
1
sC
107
Complex Power
23.13 Inductors
Let us look at our equation for inductance:
v(t) = L
di(t)
dt
putting this into the laplace domain, we get the formula:

V (s) = sLI(s)
And solving for our ratio
V (s)
I(s) ,
we get the following:

V (s)
= sL
I(s)
Therefore, the transform of an inductor with inductance L is given by:

[Transform of Inductor]
L{Inductor} = sL
23.14 Impedance
Since all the load elements can be combined into a single format dependent on s, we call the
effect of all load elements impedance, the same as we call it in phasor representation. We
denote impedance values with a capital Z (but not a phasor Z).
23.15 References
23.16 Laplace Circuit Solution
One of the most important uses of the Laplace transform is to solve linear differential
equations, just like the type of equations that represent our first- and second-order circuits.
This page will discuss the use of the Laplace Transform to find the complete response of a
circuit.
23.17 Steps
Here are the general steps for solving a circuit using the Laplace Transform:
1. Determine the differential equation for the circuit.
2. Use the Laplace Transform on the differential equation.
108
Steps
3. Solve for the unknown variable in the laplace domain.
4. Use the inverse laplace transform to find the time domain solution.
Another method that we can use is:
1. Transform the individual circuit components into impedance values using the Laplace
Transform.
2. Find the Transfer function that describes the circuit
3. Solve for the unknown variable in the laplace domain.
4. Use the inverse laplace transform to find the time domain solution.
Figure 35 Joseph Fouriera , after whom the Fourier Transform is named, was a famous
mathematician who worked for Napoleon.
a
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph%20Fourier
109
Complex Power
23.18 Fourier Transform

The Fourier Transform is a specific case of the Laplace transform. If we separate s into
its real and imaginary parts:
s = + j
Where s is the complex laplace variable, is the real part of s, and is the imaginary part
of s. Remember, in Electrical Engineering, j is the imaginary number, not i.
Now, if we set 0, we can get the following:
s = j
Plugging into the Laplace transform, we get the following formula:
[Fourier Transform]
F (j) = F {f (t)} =
f (t)ejt dt
The variable is known as the "radial frequency" of the circuit. This term refers to the
frequency of the circuit. The Fourier transform, in the respect that it accounts only for the
response of the circuit to a given frequency is very similar to phasor notation. However
the Fourier Transform produces an equation that can be used to analyze the circuit for all
frequencies, not just a single frequency like phasors are limited to.
There is a table of Fourier Transform pairs in
the Appendixa
a
As with the Laplace transform, there is an inverse Fourier transform:

[Inverse Fourier Transform]
F 1 {F (j)} = f (t) =
1
2
F (j)ejt d
However, there are extensive tables of Fourier transforms and their inverses available, so we
need not waste time computing individual transforms.
23.19 Radial Frequency

In the Fourier transform, the value is known as the Radial Frequency, and has units of
radians/second (rad/s). People might be more familiar with the variable f, which is called
the "Frequency", and is measured in units called Hertz (Hz). The conversion is done as such:
110
Fourier Domain
[Radial Frequency]
= 2f
Radial Frequency is measured in radians, frequency is measured in hertz. Both
describe the same quantity.
For instance, if a given AC source has a frequency of 60Hz, the resultant radial frequency is:
= 2f = 2(60) = 120
23.20 Fourier Domain

The Laplace transform converts functions from the time domain to the complex s domain. s
has real and imaginary parts, and these parts form the axes of the s domain: the real part
is the horizontal axis, and the imaginary part is the vertical axis. However, in the Fourier
transform, we have the relationship:
s j
And therefore we don't have a real part of s. The Fourier domain then is broken up into two
distinct parts: the magnitude graph, and the phase graph. The magnitude graph has j
as the horizontal axis, and the magnitude of the transform as the vertical axis. Remember,
we can compute the magnitude of a complex value C as:
C = A + jB
|C| =
A2 + B 2
The Phase graph has j as the horizontal axis, and the phase value of the transform as the
vertical axis. Remember, we can compute the phase of a complex value as such:
C = A + jB
C = tan1
B
A
The phase and magnitude values of the Fourier transform can be considered independent
values, although some abstract relationships do apply. Every fourier transform must include
a phase value and a magnitude value, or it cannot be uniquely transformed back into the
time domain.
111
Complex Power
The combination of graphs of the magnitude and phase responses of a circuit, along with
some special types of formatting and interpretation are called Bode Plots2 , and are discussed
in more detail in the next chapter.
23.21 Impedance and Reactance

In the Fourier domain, the concepts of capacitance, inductance, and resistance can be
generalized into a single complex term called "Impedance." Impedance in this sense is exactly
the same as the impedance quantities from the Laplace domain and the phasor domain. In
the fourier domain however, the impedance of a circuit element is defined in terms of the
voltage frequency across that element, as such:
Remember:
Reactance is a combination of inductance and capacitance.
Z(j) = R(j) + jX(j)

Where R is the fourier transform of resistance, and X is the transform of reactance, that we
discussed earlier.
23.22 Frequency Domain Analysis

Individual circuit elements can be transformed into the Fourier frequency domain according
to a few simple rules. These transformed circuit elements can then be used to find the
Frequency Response of the circuit.
23.22.1 Resistors
Resistors are not reactive elements, and their resistance is not a function of time. Therefore,
when transformed, the fourier impedance value of a resistor is given as such:
[Transform of Resistor]
Zresistor (j) = r
Resistors act equally on all frequencies of input.
112
Chapter 23.23 on page 113
Frequency Response
23.22.2 Capacitors
Capacitors are reactive elements, and therefore they have reactance, but no resistance, as
such:
[Transform of Capacitor]
Zcapacitor (j) =
1
j
=
jC
C
23.22.3 Inductors
Inductors are also reactive elements, and have the following fourier transform:
[Transform of Inductor]
Zinductor (j) = jL
23.22.4 Current and Voltage Sources

The frequency representation of a source is simply the transform of that source's input
function.
23.23 Frequency Response

If we set s j, and plug this value into our transfer function:
[Frequency Response]
H(s)|sj = H(j)
The function H(j) is called the "Frequency Response". The frequency response can be used
to find the output of a circuit from the input, in exactly the same way that the Transfer
function can be:
Y (j) = X(j)H(j)
In addition, the Convolution Theorem holds for the domain the same way as it works for
the S domain:
Convolution in the time domain is multiplication in the frequency domain. Multiplication
in the time domain is Convolution in the Frequency domain.
113
Complex Power
23.24 Decibel
More information about Decibels can be found in:
The Appendixa
a
Decibels (abbreviated "dB") are not units per se. Instead, a Decibel is simply a logarithmic
ratio of the input to the output of a circuit. Decibels represent a power ratio unless they are
clearly tagged differently. Most db tags are NOT indicative of the ratio units, but rather,
they indicate a comparison of a variable with an accepted standard. For example, dbm
means 10 times the log of a power variable in ratio to 1 milliwatt. This is very popular in
dealing with telephone lines. Decibels were invented by power weenies and belong to them,
so it's power unless someone indicates otherwise.
23.24.1 Voltage
[Decibel relation]
dB = 20 log
Vout
Vin
This is the power ratio ( out / in ) that exists for a voltage ratio of V_(out)to V_(in).
Power goes as the square of the voltage, therefore the 10 log becomes 20 log. Bels, the
precursors to decibels, were invented to describe power ratios; therefore, it is customary to
describe a voltage ratio in terms of the power ratio that voltage ratio represents. This is
used even when the input and output impedance differ. This makes little sense, but it is
common practice. This "voltage-ratio-yields-power-ratio" comparison only really works when
the impedance is the same for In and Out. This is true in such cases as telephone and video
systems. The terms "Vin" and "Vout" can either be the time-domain values of the voltage
input and voltage output, or they can be the magnitudes of the respective phasors. The
original definition was bels = log (Power-out / Power-in), where log is the common (base
10) log, but the bel is a very large unit, hence the birth of the decibel, one-tenth of a bel.
You can take a log ratio of any two quantities, but they must be the same unit. Oranges
over oranges = unit-less.
23.24.2 Power Gain
dB = 10 log
Pout
Pin
This is used to compare the output power of a system to the input power of a system. Notice
that since power is being compared to power, the log prefix is 10. For voltage comparisons
the prefix was 20 (due to power being proportional to voltage squared).
114
Notes on Decibels
23.25 Notes on Decibels

Remember:
"Decibels are not numbers, they are ratios"
Decibels are plotted on a "log10" graph, where each hash-mark on the axis is a successive
power of 10. Also, the values on the X-axis are plotted on a log-10 scale as well. Each
successive power-of-10 on the frequency axis is known as a "decade". It is important to
mention that decibels are simply a convenient way to represent a scaling factor, and that
decibels are not numbers: they are ratios. Any quantity ratio can be expressed in decibels.
The decibel is really just a common (base ten) log expressed in 0.1 log points; a log with
enhanced resolution. It is customary to use a letter to warn the reader that a non-typical
quantity is being compared by the log of a ratio. For voltage, it is usually dbv. This is a
voltage comparison, NOT a power-due-to-the-voltage comparison. So 100 volts out for 1 volt
in is 20 dbv. Impedance is not relevant for dbv. But this usage is fraught with peril, because
dbv is also used to indicate that a variable is being ratioed to 1 volt. Decibels has been
converted to an absolute. Beware and make yourself clear. Early telephony usage converted
decibels to an absolute power level by setting the denominator to a fixed agreed power value:
6 milliwatts at 500 or 600 ohms impedance. The ratio of a variable to this fixed quantity
was called dbm. Modern practice is to use 1 milliwatt as the reference for dbm.
23.26 Bode Plots

Bode plots can be broken down into 2 separate graphs: the magnitude graph, and the phase
graph. Both graphs represent the circuit response in each category to sinusoids of different
frequencies.
23.26.1 Magnitude Graph

The Bode Magnitude Graph is a graph where the radial frequency is plotted along the X-axis,
and the gain of the circuit at that frequency is plotted (in Decibels) on the Y-axis. The bode
magnitude graph most frequently plots the power gain against the frequency, although they
may also be used to graph the voltage gain against the frequency. Also, the frequency axis
may be in terms of hertz or radians, so the person drawing a bode plot should make sure to
label their axes correctly.
23.26.2 Phase Graph

The Bode Phase Plot is a graph where the radial frequency is plotted along the X axis, and
phase shift of the circuit at that frequency is plotted on the Y-axis. The phase change is
almost always represented in terms of radians, although it is not unheard of to express them
in terms of degrees. Likewise, the frequency axis may be in units of hertz or radians per
second, so the axes need to be labeled correctly.
115
Complex Power
23.27 Bode Plots by Different Methods

Bode plots can be used both with Phasors (Network Functions), and with the Fourier
Transform (Frequency Response). However, there are slightly different methods to doing
it each way, and those methods will be examined in the following chapters. The Laplace
Transform can be used to construct a bode plot by transposing from the s-domain to the
fourier-domain. However, this is rarely done in practice and the Laplace Transform is instead
used with other graphical methods that are unfortunately, outside the scope of this wikibook.
23.28 Bode Analysis

The pages in this section will talk about how to analyze a bode plot of a given circuit, and
draw conclusions from that plot.
23.29 Log Magnitude Graph

Using a network function (remember phasors?), we can find the log magnitude and the
phase bode plots of a circuit. This page will discuss how to find the bode polt from the
network function of a circuit.
23.30 Phase Graph

23.31 Poles and Zeros
The topic of "Poles and Zeros" are discussed in excruciating detail in advanced texts in
Electrical Engineering. We will introduce the concepts of what a pole and a zero are in this
chapter.
23.31.1 Transfer Polynomials

Let's say that we have a given frequency response:
H(j) =
Z(j)
P (j)
Where both Z and P are polynomials. We then set each of these equations to zero, and
solve:
Z(j) = 0
P (j) = 0
116
Bode Equation Format

The solutions to the equation Z = 0 are called the "Zeros" of H. The solutions to the equation
P = 0 are called the "Poles" of H.
23.31.2 Properties of poles and zeros

Let's say that we have a frequency response that has a zero at N, and a pole at M. We then
plug in these values to our frequency response:
H(j)|N =
Z(j)
0
=
=0
P (j) P (j)
H(j)|M =
Z(j) Z(j)
=
=
P (j)
0
And:
Now, some of the purists will immediately say "but you arent allowed to divide by zero",
and to those people I say: you can write in a limit, if you really want to.
23.32 Bode Equation Format

let us say that we have a generic transfer function with poles and zeros:
H(j) =
(A + j)(B + j)
(C + j)(D + j)
Each term, on top and bottom of the equation, is of the form (N + j). However, we can
rearrange our numbers to look like the following:
N (1 +
j
)
N
Now, if we do this for every term in the equation, we get the following:
j
j
A B (1 + A )(1 + B )
Hbode (j) =
C D (1 + j )(1 + j )
C
This is the format that we are calling "Bode Equations", although they are simply another
way of writing an ordinary frequency response equation.
117
Complex Power
23.33 DC Gain
The constant term out front:
A B
C D
is called the "DC Gain" of the function. If we set 0, we can see that everything in the
equation cancels out, and the value of H is simply our DC gain. DC then is simply the input
with a frequency of zero.
23.34 Break Frequencies

in each term:
(1 +
j
)
N
the quantity N is called the "Break Frequency". When the radial frequency of the circuit
equals a break frequency, that term becomes (1 + 1) = 2. When the radial frequency is
much higher than the break frequency, the term becomes much greater than 1. When the
radial Frequency is much smaller than the break frequency, the value of that term becomes
approximately 1.
23.34.1 Much Greater and Much Less

We use the term "much" as a synonym for the term "At least 10 times". So "Much Greater"
becomes "At least 10 times greater" and "Much less" becomes "At least 10 times less". We
also use the symbol "<<" to mean "is much less than" and ">>" to mean "Is much greater
than". Here are some examples:
1 << 10
10 << 1000
2 << 20 Right!
2 << 10 WRONG!
23.34.2 Engineering Approximations

For a number of reasons, Electrical Engineers find it appropriate to approximate and round
some values very heavily. For instance, manufacturing technology will never create electrical
circuits that perfectly conform to mathematical calculations. When we combine this with
the << and >> operators, we can come to some important conclusions that help us to
simplify our work:
If A << B:
A+B=B
118
At Zero Radial Frequency

A - B = -B
A/B=0
All other mathematical operations need to be performed, but these 3 forms can be approximated away. This point will come important for later work on bode plots.
Using our knowledge of the Bode Equation form, the DC gain value, Decibels, and the
"much greater, much less" inequalities, we can come up with a fast way to approximate a
bode magnitude plot. Also, it is important to remember that these gain values are not
constants, but rely instead on changing frequency values. Therefore, the gains that we find
are all slopes of the bode plot. Our slope values all have units of "decibel per decade", or
"db/decade", for short.
23.35 At Zero Radial Frequency

At zero radial frequency, the value of the bode plot is simply the DC gain value in decibels.
Remember, bode plots have a log-10 magnitude Y-axis, so we need to convert our gain to
decibels:
M agnitude = 20 log10 (DCGain)
23.36 At a Break Point

We can notice that each given term changes it's effect as the radial frequency goes from
below the break point, to above the break point. Let's show an example:
(1 +
j
)
5
Our breakpoint occurs at 5 radians per second. When our radial frequency is much less
than the break point, we have the following:
Gain = (1 + 0) = 1
M agnitude = 20 log10 (1) = 0db/decade
When our radial frequency is equal to our break point we have the following:
Gain = |(1 + j)| =
M agnitude = 20 log10 ( 2) = 3db/decade

And when our radial frequency is much higher (10 times) our break point we get:
119
Complex Power
Gain = |(1 + 10j)| 10

M agnitude = 20 log10 (10) = 20db/decade
However, we need to remember that some of our terms are "Poles" and some of them are
"Zeros".
23.36.1 Zeros
Zeros have a positive effect on the magnitude plot. The contributions of a zero are all
positive:
Radial Frequency << Break Point
0db/decade gain.
Radial Frequency = Break Point
3db/decade gain.
Radial Frequency >> Break Point
20db/decade gain.
23.36.2 Poles
Poles have a negative effect on the magnitude plot. The contributions of the poles are as
follows:
Radial Frequency << Break Point
0db/decade gain.
Radial Frequency = Break Point
-3db/decade gain.
Radial Frequency >> Break Point
-20db/decade gain.
23.37 Conclusions
To draw a bode plot effectively, follow these simple steps:
1. Put the frequency response equation into bode equation form.
2. identify the DC gain value, and mark this as a horizontal line coming in from the far
left (where the radial frequency conceptually is zero).
3. At every "zero" break point, increase the slope of the line upwards by 20db/decade.
4. At every "pole" break point, decrease the slope of the line downwards by 20db/decade.
120
See Also
5. at every breakpoint, note that the "actual value" is 3db off from the value graphed.
And then you are done!
23.38 See Also

Bode Plots on ControlTheoryPro.com3
23.39 Impedance
Let's recap: In the transform domain, the quantities of resistance, capacitance, and inductance can all be combined into a single complex value known as "Impedance". Impedance is
denoted with the letter Z, and can be a function of s or j, depending on the transform used
(Laplace or Fourier). This impedance is very similar to the phasor concept of impedance,
except that we are in the complex domain (laplace or fourier), and not the phasor domain.
Impedance is a complex quantity, and is therefore comprised of two components: The real
component (resistance), and the complex component (reactance). Resistors, because they
do not vary with time or frequency, have real values. Capacitors and inductors however,
have imaginary values of impedance. The resistance is denoted (as always) with a capital R,
and the reactance is denoted with an X (this is common, although it is confusing because X
is also the most common input designator). We have therefore, the following relationship
between resistance, reactance, and impedance:
[Complex Laplace Impedance]
Z = R + jX
23.40 Susceptance and Admittance

The inverse of resistance is a quantity called "Conductance". Similarly, the inverse of reactance
is called "Susceptance". The inverse of impedance is called "Admittance". Conductance,
Susceptance, and Admittance are all denoted by the variables Y or G, and are given the
units Siemens. This book will not use any of these terms again, and they are just included
here for completeness.
23.41 Parallel Components

Once in the transform domain, all circuit components act like basic resistors. Components
in parallel are related as follows:
http://wikis.controltheorypro.com/index.php?title=Bode_Plot
121
Complex Power
Z1 ||Z2 =
Z1 Z2
Z1 + Z2
23.42 Series Components

Series components in the transform domain all act like resistors in the time domain as well.
If we have two impedances in series with each other, we can combine them as follows:
Z1 in series with Z2 = Z1 + Z2
23.43 Solving Circuits
122
24 Circuit Functions
24.1 Circuit Functions
This appendix page will list the various values of the variable H that have been used
throughout the circuit theory textbooks. These values of H are all equivalent, but are
represented in different domains. All of the H functions are a ratio of the circuit input over
the circuit output.
24.2 The "Impulse Response"

The impulse response is the time-domain relationship between the circuit input and the
circuit output, denoted with the following notation:
h(t)
The impulse response is, strictly speaking, the output that the circuit will produce when
an ideal impulse function is the input. The impulse response can be used to determine the
output from the input through the convolution operation:
y(t) = h(t) x(t)
24.3 The "Network Function"

The network function is the phasor-domain representation of the impulse response. The
network function is denoted as such:
H()
The network function is related to the input and output of the circuit through the following
relationships:
Y() = H()X()
Similarly, the network function can be received by dividing the output by the input, in the
phasor domain.
123
Circuit Functions
24.4 The "Transfer Function"

The transfer function is the laplace-transformed representation of the impulse response.
It is denoted with the following notation:
H(s)
The transfer function can be obtained by one of two methods:
1. Transform the impulse response.
2. Transform the circuit, and solve.
The Transfer function is related to the input and output as follows:
Y (s) = H(s)X(s)
24.5 The "Frequency Response"

The Frequency Response is the fourier-domain representation of the impulse response.
It is denoted as such:
H(j)
The frequency response can be obtained in one of three ways:
1. Transform the impulse response
2. Transform the circuit and solve
3. Substitute s = j into the transfer function
The frequency response has the following relationship to the circuit input and output:
Y (j) = H(j)X(j)
The frequency response is particularly useful when discussing a sinusoidal input, or when
constructing a bode diagram.
124
25 Phasor Arithmetic
25.1 Phasor Arithmetic
This page will review phasors and phasor arithmetic topics.
25.2 Forms
Phasors have two components, the magnitude (M) and the phase angle (). Phasors are
related to sinusoids through our cosine convention:
C = M = M cos(t + )
Remember, there are 3 forms to phasors:
C = M "Polar Form"
C = A + jB "Rectangular Form"
C = M ej "Exponential Form"
Phasor and Exponential forms are identical and are also referred to as polar form.
25.3 Converting between Forms

When working with phasors it is often necessary to convert between rectangular and polar
form. To convert from rectangular form to polar form:
M=
A2 + B 2

= arctan
B
A
To convert from polar to rectangular form:

A is the part of the phasor along the real axis
A = M cos ()
B is the part of the phasor along the imaginary axis
125
Phasor Arithmetic
B = M sin ()
25.4 Addition
To add two phasors together, we must convert them into rectangular form:
C1 = A1 + jB1
C2 = A2 + jB2
C1 + C2 = (A1 + A2 ) + j(B1 + B2 )
This is a well-known property of complex arithmetic.
25.5 Subtraction
Subtraction is similar to addition, except now we subtract
C1 = A1 + jB1
C2 = A2 + jB2
C1 C2 = (A1 A2 ) + j(B1 B2 )
25.6 Multiplication
To multiply two phasors, we should first convert them to polar form to make things simpler.
The product in polar form is simply the product of their magnitudes, and the phase is the
sum of their phases.
C1 = M1 1
C2 = M2 2
C1 C2 = M1 M2 1 + 2
Keep in mind that in polar form, phasors are exponential quantities with a magnitude
(M), and an argument (). Multiplying two exponentials together forces us to multiply the
magnitudes, and add the exponents.
126
Division
25.7 Division
Division is similar to multiplication, except now we divide the magnitudes, and subtract the
phases
C1 = M1 1
C2 = M2 2
C 1 M1
=
1 2
C 2 M2
25.8 Inversion
An important relationship that is worth understanding is the inversion property of
phasors:
C = MC 0 = MC
Or, in degrees,
C = MC 0 = MC 180
On the normal cartesian plane, for instance, the negative X axis is 180 degrees around from
the positive X axis. By using that fact on an imaginary axis, we can see that the Negative
Real axis is facing in the exact opposite direction from the Positive Real axis, and therefore
is 180 degrees apart.
25.9 Complex Conjugation

Similar to the inversion property is the complex conjugation property of phasors.
Complex conjugation is denoted with an asterisk above the phasor to be conjugated. Since
phasors can be graphed on the Real-Imaginary plane, a 90 degree phasor is a purely imaginary
number, and a -90 degree phasor is its complex conjugate:
C = M 90
C = M 90 = M 270
Essentially, this holds true for phasors with all angles: the sign of the angle is reversed
to produce the complex conjugate of the phasor in polar notation. In general, for polar
notation, we have:
127
Phasor Arithmetic
C = M
C = M
In rectangular form, we can express complex conjugation as:
C = A + jB
C = A jB
Notice the only difference in the complex conjugate of C is the sign change of the imaginary
part.
128
26 Decibels
This appendix page is going to take a deeper look at the units of decibels, it will describe
some of the properties of decibels, and will demonstrate how to use them in calculations.
26.1 Definition
Decibels are, first and foremost, a power calculation. With that in mind, we will state the
definition of a decibel:
Pout
Pin
dB = 10 log
The letters "dB" are used as the units for the result of this calculation. dB ratios are always
in terms of watts, unless otherwise noted.
26.2 Voltage Calculation

now, another formula has been demonstrated that allows a decibel calculation to be made
using voltages, instead of power measurements. We will derive that equation here:
First, we will use the power calculation and Ohm's law to produce a common identity:
V2
R
P =VI =
Now, if we plug that result into the definition of a decibel, we can create a complicated
equation:
dB =
2
Vout
R
10 log V 2
in
R
Now, we can cancel out the resistance values (R) from the top and bottom of the fraction,
and rearrange the exponent as such:
"
dB = 10 log
Vout
Vin
2 #
129
Decibels
If we remember the properties of logarithms, we will remember that if we have an exponent
inside a logarithm, we can move the exponent outside, as a coefficient. This rule gives us
our desired result:

dB = 20 log
Vout
Vin
26.3 Inverse Calculation

It is a simple matter of arithmetic to find the inverse of the decibel calculation, so it will
not be derived here, but stated simply:
P = 10dB/10
26.4 Reference Units

Now, this decible calculation has proven to be so useful, that occasionally they are applied
to other units of measurement, instead of just watts. Specifically, the units "dBm" are used
when the power unit being converted was in terms of milliwatts, not just watts. Let's say
we have a value of 10dBm, we can go through the inverse calculation:
P = 1010dBm/10 = 10mW
Likewise, let's say we want to apply the decibel calculation to a completely unrelated unit:
hertz. If we have 100Hz, we can apply the decibel calculation:
dB = 10 log 100Hz = 20dBHz
If no letters follow the "dB" lable, the decibels are referenced to watts.
26.5 Decibel Arithmetic

Decibels are ratios, and are not real numbers. Therefore, specific care should be taken not
to use decibel values in equations that call for gains, unless decibels are specifically called
for (which they usually aren't). However, since decibels are calculated using logarithms, a
few principles of logarithms can be used to make decibels usable in calculations.
26.5.1 Multiplication
Let's say that we have three values, a b and c, with their respective decibel equivalents
denoted by the upper-case letters A B and C. We can show that for the following equation:
130
Decibel Arithmetic
a = b c
That we can change all the quantities to decibels, and convert the multiplication operations
to addition:
A = B + C
26.5.2 Division
Let's say that we have three values, a b and c, with their respective decibel equivalents
denoted by the upper-case letters A B and C. We can show that for the following equation:
a = b / c
Then we can show through the principals of logarithms that we can convert all the values to
decibels, and we can then convert the division operation to subtraction:
A = B - C
131
27 Transform Tables
133
28 Resources
28.1 Further Reading
Pages listed here are sources of further information on the topic of electric circuits, or are
additional subjects that may be of interest for a reader of this book. Many of the resources
listed here are sources of information, and this may be treated as a bibliography for this
wikibook.
28.1.1 Wikibooks
Wikibooks:
Wikibooks:
Wikibooks:
Wikibooks:
Electronics1
Signals and Systems2
Digital Circuits3
Circuit Idea4
The following Wikibooks list Circuit Theory5 as a prerequisite: <dynamicpagelist>

category=Circuit Theory/Prerequisite
namespace=Main
suppresserrors=true
</dynamicpagelist>
28.1.2 Other Resources

Horowitz and Hill, The Art of Electronics, Second Edition, Cambridge University Press,
1989. ISBN 0521370957
US Navy, Basic Electrity, Dover, 1970. ISBN 0486209733
US Navy, Basic Electronics, Dover, 1973. ISBN 0486210766
Comer and Comer, Fundamentals of Electronic Circuit Design, John Wiley & Sons, 2003.
http://www.wiley.com/college/comer/ ISBN 0471410160
Dorf and Svoboda, Introduction to Electric Circuits, Sixth Edition, John Wiley & Sons,
2004. ISBN 0471447951
1
2
3
4
5
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Electronics
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Signals%20and%20Systems
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Digital%20Circuits
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Circuit%20Idea
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Circuit%20Theory
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Panic2k440
Pdiehr41
Petello1200042
Pnavarrc43
QuiteUnusual44
Rakarlin45
Recent Runes46
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http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:Int21h
http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:JenVan
http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:Jfrederickson
http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:Jguk
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http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:Kenji.ohi
http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:Kluless
http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:Luminous2269
http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:Macaddict
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http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:Ntlhui
http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:Outopiate
http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:Panic2k4
http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:Pdiehr
http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:Petello12000
http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:Pnavarrc
http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:QuiteUnusual
http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:Rakarlin
http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:Recent_Runes
Further Reading
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Selectric49
Shellreef50
Sigma 751
Spongebob8852
Spradlig53
StoneT54
The*rising*tide55
VSimonian56
Verdalix57
Webaware58
Whiteknight59
Willy on Wheels!60
Xania61
YMS62
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iiam Shakespeare
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http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:Spradlig
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http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:Willy_on_Wheels%21
http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:Xania
http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:YMS
http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:%D0%A8i%D0%86%D0%86iam_Shakespeare
139
List of Figures
GFDL: Gnu Free Documentation License. http://www.gnu.org/licenses/fdl.html
cc-by-sa-3.0: Creative Commons Attribution ShareAlike 3.0 License.
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http://

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Copies of the GPL, the LGPL as well as a GFDL are included in chapter Licenses64 . Please
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64
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cc-by-sa-3.0
GFDL
Inductiveload66
Inductiveload67
Inductiveload68
Inductiveload69
Inductiveload70
Inductiveload71
Inductiveload72
Inductiveload73
Inductiveload74
Inductiveload75
PD
PD
PD
PD
PD
PD
PD
PD
PD
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GFDL
GFDL
GFDL
GFDL
GFDL
GFDL
inductiveload
Traced by User:Stannered76
Dirk-Lder Kreie77
Nicostella78
GFDL
PD
GFDL
GFDL
PD
GFDL
PD
PD
GFDL
GFDL
PD
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http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User%3AInductiveload
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User%3AStannered
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benutzer%3ADeelkar
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User%3ANicostella
143
30 Licenses
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work also receives whatever licenses to the work the
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the predecessor in interest, if the predecessor has it
or can get it with reasonable efforts.
You may not impose any further restrictions on the
exercise of the rights granted or affirmed under this
License. For example, you may not impose a license
fee, royalty, or other charge for exercise of rights
granted under this License, and you may not initiate litigation (including a cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that any patent claim
is infringed by making, using, selling, offering for
sale, or importing the Program or any portion of it.
11. Patents.
A contributor is a copyright holder who authorizes use under this License of the Program or a
work on which the Program is based. The work
thus licensed is called the contributors contributor version.
A contributors essential patent claims are all
patent claims owned or controlled by the contributor, whether already acquired or hereafter acquired,
that would be infringed by some manner, permitted by this License, of making, using, or selling its
contributor version, but do not include claims that
would be infringed only as a consequence of further
modification of the contributor version. For purposes of this definition, control includes the right
to grant patent sublicenses in a manner consistent
with the requirements of this License.
Each contributor grants you a non-exclusive, worldwide, royalty-free patent license under the contributors essential patent claims, to make, use, sell, offer for sale, import and otherwise run, modify and
propagate the contents of its contributor version.
In the following three paragraphs, a patent license is any express agreement or commitment,
however denominated, not to enforce a patent (such
as an express permission to practice a patent or
covenant not to sue for patent infringement). To
grant such a patent license to a party means to
make such an agreement or commitment not to enforce a patent against the party.
If you convey a covered work, knowingly relying
on a patent license, and the Corresponding Source
of the work is not available for anyone to copy,
free of charge and under the terms of this License,
through a publicly available network server or other
readily accessible means, then you must either (1)
cause the Corresponding Source to be so available,
or (2) arrange to deprive yourself of the benefit
of the patent license for this particular work, or
(3) arrange, in a manner consistent with the requirements of this License, to extend the patent
license to downstream recipients. Knowingly relying means you have actual knowledge that, but
for the patent license, your conveying the covered
work in a country, or your recipients use of the covered work in a country, would infringe one or more
identifiable patents in that country that you have
reason to believe are valid.
If, pursuant to or in connection with a single transaction or arrangement, you convey, or propagate
by procuring conveyance of, a covered work, and
grant a patent license to some of the parties receiving the covered work authorizing them to use,
propagate, modify or convey a specific copy of the
covered work, then the patent license you grant is
automatically extended to all recipients of the covered work and works based on it.
A patent license is discriminatory if it does not include within the scope of its coverage, prohibits the
exercise of, or is conditioned on the non-exercise
of one or more of the rights that are specifically
granted under this License. You may not convey a
covered work if you are a party to an arrangement
with a third party that is in the business of distributing software, under which you make payment
to the third party based on the extent of your activity of conveying the work, and under which the
third party grants, to any of the parties who would
receive the covered work from you, a discriminatory patent license (a) in connection with copies
of the covered work conveyed by you (or copies
made from those copies), or (b) primarily for and in
connection with specific products or compilations
that contain the covered work, unless you entered
into that arrangement, or that patent license was
granted, prior to 28 March 2007.
Nothing in this License shall be construed as excluding or limiting any implied license or other defenses to infringement that may otherwise be available to you under applicable patent law. 12. No
Surrender of Others Freedom.
If conditions are imposed on you (whether by court
order, agreement or otherwise) that contradict the
conditions of this License, they do not excuse you
from the conditions of this License. If you cannot
convey a covered work so as to satisfy simultaneously your obligations under this License and any
other pertinent obligations, then as a consequence
you may not convey it at all. For example, if you
agree to terms that obligate you to collect a royalty for further conveying from those to whom you
convey the Program, the only way you could satisfy
both those terms and this License would be to refrain entirely from conveying the Program. 13. Use
with the GNU Affero General Public License.
Notwithstanding any other provision of this License, you have permission to link or combine any
covered work with a work licensed under version
3 of the GNU Affero General Public License into
a single combined work, and to convey the resulting work. The terms of this License will continue
to apply to the part which is the covered work, but
the special requirements of the GNU Affero General
Public License, section 13, concerning interaction
through a network will apply to the combination
as such. 14. Revised Versions of this License.
The Free Software Foundation may publish revised
and/or new versions of the GNU General Public License from time to time. Such new versions will be
similar in spirit to the present version, but may differ in detail to address new problems or concerns.
Each version is given a distinguishing version number. If the Program specifies that a certain numbered version of the GNU General Public License
or any later version applies to it, you have the
option of following the terms and conditions either
of that numbered version or of any later version
published by the Free Software Foundation. If the
Program does not specify a version number of the
GNU General Public License, you may choose any
version ever published by the Free Software Foundation.
If the Program specifies that a proxy can decide
which future versions of the GNU General Public
License can be used, that proxys public statement
of acceptance of a version permanently authorizes
you to choose that version for the Program.
Later license versions may give you additional or
different permissions. However, no additional obligations are imposed on any author or copyright
holder as a result of your choosing to follow a later
version. 15. Disclaimer of Warranty.
THERE IS NO WARRANTY FOR THE PROGRAM, TO THE EXTENT PERMITTED BY APPLICABLE LAW. EXCEPT WHEN OTHERWISE
STATED IN WRITING THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND/OR OTHER PARTIES PROVIDE THE
PROGRAM AS IS WITHOUT WARRANTY OF
ANY KIND, EITHER EXPRESSED OR IMPLIED,
INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY
AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.
THE ENTIRE RISK AS TO THE QUALITY AND
PERFORMANCE OF THE PROGRAM IS WITH
YOU. SHOULD THE PROGRAM PROVE DEFECTIVE, YOU ASSUME THE COST OF ALL NECESSARY SERVICING, REPAIR OR CORRECTION.
16. Limitation of Liability.
IN NO EVENT UNLESS REQUIRED BY APPLICABLE LAW OR AGREED TO IN WRITING
WILL ANY COPYRIGHT HOLDER, OR ANY
OTHER PARTY WHO MODIFIES AND/OR CONVEYS THE PROGRAM AS PERMITTED ABOVE,
BE LIABLE TO YOU FOR DAMAGES, INCLUDING ANY GENERAL, SPECIAL, INCIDENTAL OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES ARISING
OUT OF THE USE OR INABILITY TO USE
THE PROGRAM (INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO LOSS OF DATA OR DATA BEING RENDERED INACCURATE OR LOSSES SUSTAINED
BY YOU OR THIRD PARTIES OR A FAILURE
OF THE PROGRAM TO OPERATE WITH ANY
OTHER PROGRAMS), EVEN IF SUCH HOLDER
OR OTHER PARTY HAS BEEN ADVISED OF
THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES. 17. Interpretation of Sections 15 and 16.
If the disclaimer of warranty and limitation of liability provided above cannot be given local legal ef-
fect according to their terms, reviewing courts shall

apply local law that most closely approximates an
absolute waiver of all civil liability in connection
with the Program, unless a warranty or assumption
of liability accompanies a copy of the Program in
return for a fee.
END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS How to Apply These Terms to Your New Programs
If you develop a new program, and you want it to
be of the greatest possible use to the public, the
best way to achieve this is to make it free software
which everyone can redistribute and change under
these terms.
To do so, attach the following notices to the program. It is safest to attach them to the start of
each source file to most effectively state the exclusion of warranty; and each file should have at least
the copyright line and a pointer to where the full
notice is found.
<one line to give the programs name and a brief
idea of what it does.> Copyright (C) <year>
<name of author>
This program is free software: you can redistribute
it and/or modify it under the terms of the GNU
General Public License as published by the Free
Software Foundation, either version 3 of the License, or (at your option) any later version.
This program is distributed in the hope that
it will be useful, but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of
MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. See the GNU General Public
License for more details.
You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License along with this program. If not,
see <http://www.gnu.org/licenses/>.
Also add information on how to contact you by electronic and paper mail.
If the program does terminal interaction, make it
output a short notice like this when it starts in an
interactive mode:
<program> Copyright (C) <year> <name of author> This program comes with ABSOLUTELY
NO WARRANTY; for details type show w. This is
free software, and you are welcome to redistribute it
under certain conditions; type show c for details.
The hypothetical commands show w and show c
should show the appropriate parts of the General
Public License. Of course, your programs commands might be different; for a GUI interface, you
would use an about box.
You should also get your employer (if you work
as a programmer) or school, if any, to sign a
copyright disclaimer for the program, if necessary.
For more information on this, and
how to apply and follow the GNU GPL, see
<http://www.gnu.org/licenses/>.
The GNU General Public License does not permit
incorporating your program into proprietary programs. If your program is a subroutine library, you
may consider it more useful to permit linking proprietary applications with the library. If this is
what you want to do, use the GNU Lesser General
Public License instead of this License. But first,
please read <http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/whynot-lgpl.html>.
30.2 GNU Free Documentation License

Version 1.3, 3 November 2008
Copyright 2000, 2001, 2002, 2007, 2008 Free Software Foundation, Inc. <http://fsf.org/>
it is not allowed. 0. PREAMBLE
The purpose of this License is to make a manual,
textbook, or other functional and useful document
"free" in the sense of freedom: to assure everyone
the effective freedom to copy and redistribute it,
with or without modifying it, either commercially
or noncommercially. Secondarily, this License preserves for the author and publisher a way to get
credit for their work, while not being considered
responsible for modifications made by others.
This License is a kind of "copyleft", which means
that derivative works of the document must themselves be free in the same sense. It complements
the GNU General Public License, which is a copyleft license designed for free software.
We have designed this License in order to use it
for manuals for free software, because free software
needs free documentation: a free program should
come with manuals providing the same freedoms
that the software does. But this License is not limited to software manuals; it can be used for any textual work, regardless of subject matter or whether
it is published as a printed book. We recommend
this License principally for works whose purpose is
instruction or reference. 1. APPLICABILITY AND
DEFINITIONS
This License applies to any manual or other work,
in any medium, that contains a notice placed by the
copyright holder saying it can be distributed under
the terms of this License. Such a notice grants a
world-wide, royalty-free license, unlimited in duration, to use that work under the conditions stated
herein. The "Document", below, refers to any such
manual or work. Any member of the public is a licensee, and is addressed as "you". You accept the
license if you copy, modify or distribute the work
in a way requiring permission under copyright law.
A "Modified Version" of the Document means any
work containing the Document or a portion of it, either copied verbatim, or with modifications and/or
translated into another language.
A "Secondary Section" is a named appendix or a
front-matter section of the Document that deals exclusively with the relationship of the publishers or
authors of the Document to the Documents overall

subject (or to related matters) and contains nothing that could fall directly within that overall subject. (Thus, if the Document is in part a textbook
of mathematics, a Secondary Section may not explain any mathematics.) The relationship could be
a matter of historical connection with the subject
or with related matters, or of legal, commercial,
philosophical, ethical or political position regarding them.
The "Invariant Sections" are certain Secondary Sections whose titles are designated, as being those of
Invariant Sections, in the notice that says that the
Document is released under this License. If a section does not fit the above definition of Secondary
then it is not allowed to be designated as Invariant.
The Document may contain zero Invariant Sections.
If the Document does not identify any Invariant
Sections then there are none.
The "Cover Texts" are certain short passages of text
that are listed, as Front-Cover Texts or Back-Cover
Texts, in the notice that says that the Document is
released under this License. A Front-Cover Text
may be at most 5 words, and a Back-Cover Text
may be at most 25 words.
A "Transparent" copy of the Document means a
machine-readable copy, represented in a format
whose specification is available to the general public, that is suitable for revising the document
straightforwardly with generic text editors or (for
images composed of pixels) generic paint programs
or (for drawings) some widely available drawing editor, and that is suitable for input to text formatters or for automatic translation to a variety of formats suitable for input to text formatters. A copy
made in an otherwise Transparent file format whose
markup, or absence of markup, has been arranged
to thwart or discourage subsequent modification by
readers is not Transparent. An image format is not
Transparent if used for any substantial amount of
text. A copy that is not "Transparent" is called
"Opaque".
Examples of suitable formats for Transparent
copies include plain ASCII without markup, Texinfo input format, LaTeX input format, SGML or
XML using a publicly available DTD, and standardconforming simple HTML, PostScript or PDF designed for human modification. Examples of transparent image formats include PNG, XCF and JPG.
Opaque formats include proprietary formats that
can be read and edited only by proprietary word
processors, SGML or XML for which the DTD
and/or processing tools are not generally available,
and the machine-generated HTML, PostScript or
PDF produced by some word processors for output

purposes only.
The "Title Page" means, for a printed book, the
title page itself, plus such following pages as are
needed to hold, legibly, the material this License
requires to appear in the title page. For works in
formats which do not have any title page as such,
"Title Page" means the text near the most prominent appearance of the works title, preceding the
beginning of the body of the text.
The "publisher" means any person or entity that
distributes copies of the Document to the public.
A section "Entitled XYZ" means a named subunit
of the Document whose title either is precisely XYZ
or contains XYZ in parentheses following text that
translates XYZ in another language. (Here XYZ
stands for a specific section name mentioned below,
such as "Acknowledgements", "Dedications", "Endorsements", or "History".) To "Preserve the Title"
of such a section when you modify the Document
means that it remains a section "Entitled XYZ" according to this definition.
The Document may include Warranty Disclaimers
next to the notice which states that this License
applies to the Document.
These Warranty Disclaimers are considered to be included by reference
in this License, but only as regards disclaiming warranties: any other implication that these Warranty
Disclaimers may have is void and has no effect on
the meaning of this License. 2. VERBATIM COPYING
You may copy and distribute the Document in any
medium, either commercially or noncommercially,
provided that this License, the copyright notices,
and the license notice saying this License applies to
the Document are reproduced in all copies, and that
you add no other conditions whatsoever to those
of this License. You may not use technical measures to obstruct or control the reading or further
copying of the copies you make or distribute. However, you may accept compensation in exchange for
copies. If you distribute a large enough number of
copies you must also follow the conditions in section 3.
You may also lend copies, under the same conditions stated above, and you may publicly display
copies. 3. COPYING IN QUANTITY
If you publish printed copies (or copies in media
that commonly have printed covers) of the Document, numbering more than 100, and the Documents license notice requires Cover Texts, you
must enclose the copies in covers that carry, clearly

and legibly, all these Cover Texts: Front-Cover
Texts on the front cover, and Back-Cover Texts
on the back cover. Both covers must also clearly
and legibly identify you as the publisher of these
copies. The front cover must present the full title
with all words of the title equally prominent and
visible. You may add other material on the covers
in addition. Copying with changes limited to the
covers, as long as they preserve the title of the Document and satisfy these conditions, can be treated
as verbatim copying in other respects.
If the required texts for either cover are too voluminous to fit legibly, you should put the first ones
listed (as many as fit reasonably) on the actual
cover, and continue the rest onto adjacent pages.
If you publish or distribute Opaque copies of the
Document numbering more than 100, you must either include a machine-readable Transparent copy
along with each Opaque copy, or state in or with
each Opaque copy a computer-network location
from which the general network-using public has
access to download using public-standard network
protocols a complete Transparent copy of the Document, free of added material. If you use the latter option, you must take reasonably prudent steps,
when you begin distribution of Opaque copies in
quantity, to ensure that this Transparent copy will
remain thus accessible at the stated location until
at least one year after the last time you distribute
an Opaque copy (directly or through your agents or
retailers) of that edition to the public.
It is requested, but not required, that you contact the authors of the Document well before redistributing any large number of copies, to give them
a chance to provide you with an updated version of
the Document. 4. MODIFICATIONS
You may copy and distribute a Modified Version of
the Document under the conditions of sections 2
and 3 above, provided that you release the Modified Version under precisely this License, with the
Modified Version filling the role of the Document,
thus licensing distribution and modification of the
Modified Version to whoever possesses a copy of it.
In addition, you must do these things in the Modified Version:
* A. Use in the Title Page (and on the covers, if
any) a title distinct from that of the Document,
and from those of previous versions (which should,
if there were any, be listed in the History section
of the Document). You may use the same title as
a previous version if the original publisher of that
version gives permission. * B. List on the Title
Page, as authors, one or more persons or entities

responsible for authorship of the modifications in
the Modified Version, together with at least five of
the principal authors of the Document (all of its
principal authors, if it has fewer than five), unless
they release you from this requirement. * C. State
on the Title page the name of the publisher of the
Modified Version, as the publisher. * D. Preserve
all the copyright notices of the Document. * E. Add
an appropriate copyright notice for your modifications adjacent to the other copyright notices. * F.
Include, immediately after the copyright notices, a
license notice giving the public permission to use
the Modified Version under the terms of this License, in the form shown in the Addendum below. *
G. Preserve in that license notice the full lists of Invariant Sections and required Cover Texts given in
the Documents license notice. * H. Include an unaltered copy of this License. * I. Preserve the section
Entitled "History", Preserve its Title, and add to it
an item stating at least the title, year, new authors,
and publisher of the Modified Version as given on
the Title Page. If there is no section Entitled "History" in the Document, create one stating the title,
year, authors, and publisher of the Document as
given on its Title Page, then add an item describing the Modified Version as stated in the previous
sentence. * J. Preserve the network location, if any,
given in the Document for public access to a Transparent copy of the Document, and likewise the network locations given in the Document for previous
versions it was based on. These may be placed in
the "History" section. You may omit a network location for a work that was published at least four
years before the Document itself, or if the original
publisher of the version it refers to gives permission.
* K. For any section Entitled "Acknowledgements"
or "Dedications", Preserve the Title of the section,
and preserve in the section all the substance and
tone of each of the contributor acknowledgements
and/or dedications given therein. * L. Preserve all
the Invariant Sections of the Document, unaltered
in their text and in their titles. Section numbers or
the equivalent are not considered part of the section
titles. * M. Delete any section Entitled "Endorsements". Such a section may not be included in the
Modified Version. * N. Do not retitle any existing
section to be Entitled "Endorsements" or to conflict
in title with any Invariant Section. * O. Preserve
any Warranty Disclaimers.
If the Modified Version includes new front-matter
sections or appendices that qualify as Secondary
Sections and contain no material copied from the
Document, you may at your option designate some
or all of these sections as invariant. To do this, add
their titles to the list of Invariant Sections in the
Modified Versions license notice. These titles must
be distinct from any other section titles.
You may add a section Entitled "Endorsements",
provided it contains nothing but endorsements of
your Modified Version by various partiesfor example, statements of peer review or that the text
has been approved by an organization as the authoritative definition of a standard.
You may add a passage of up to five words as a
Front-Cover Text, and a passage of up to 25 words
as a Back-Cover Text, to the end of the list of Cover
Texts in the Modified Version. Only one passage of
Front-Cover Text and one of Back-Cover Text may
be added by (or through arrangements made by)
any one entity. If the Document already includes
a cover text for the same cover, previously added
by you or by arrangement made by the same entity
you are acting on behalf of, you may not add an-
other; but you may replace the old one, on explicit

permission from the previous publisher that added
the old one.
The author(s) and publisher(s) of the Document do
not by this License give permission to use their
names for publicity for or to assert or imply endorsement of any Modified Version. 5. COMBINING DOCUMENTS
You may combine the Document with other documents released under this License, under the terms
defined in section 4 above for modified versions,
provided that you include in the combination all
of the Invariant Sections of all of the original documents, unmodified, and list them all as Invariant
Sections of your combined work in its license notice, and that you preserve all their Warranty Disclaimers.
The combined work need only contain one copy of
this License, and multiple identical Invariant Sections may be replaced with a single copy. If there
are multiple Invariant Sections with the same name
but different contents, make the title of each such
section unique by adding at the end of it, in parentheses, the name of the original author or publisher
of that section if known, or else a unique number.
Make the same adjustment to the section titles in
the list of Invariant Sections in the license notice
of the combined work.
In the combination, you must combine any sections
Entitled "History" in the various original documents, forming one section Entitled "History"; likewise combine any sections Entitled "Acknowledgements", and any sections Entitled "Dedications".
You must delete all sections Entitled "Endorsements". 6. COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS
You may make a collection consisting of the Document and other documents released under this License, and replace the individual copies of this License in the various documents with a single copy
that is included in the collection, provided that you
follow the rules of this License for verbatim copying
of each of the documents in all other respects.
You may extract a single document from such a collection, and distribute it individually under this License, provided you insert a copy of this License
into the extracted document, and follow this License in all other respects regarding verbatim copying of that document. 7. AGGREGATION WITH
INDEPENDENT WORKS
A compilation of the Document or its derivatives
with other separate and independent documents or
works, in or on a volume of a storage or distribution
medium, is called an "aggregate" if the copyright resulting from the compilation is not used to limit the
legal rights of the compilations users beyond what
the individual works permit. When the Document
is included in an aggregate, this License does not
apply to the other works in the aggregate which are
not themselves derivative works of the Document.
If the Cover Text requirement of section 3 is applicable to these copies of the Document, then if the
Document is less than one half of the entire aggregate, the Documents Cover Texts may be placed
on covers that bracket the Document within the
aggregate, or the electronic equivalent of covers
if the Document is in electronic form. Otherwise
they must appear on printed covers that bracket
the whole aggregate. 8. TRANSLATION
Translation is considered a kind of modification, so

you may distribute translations of the Document
under the terms of section 4. Replacing Invariant
Sections with translations requires special permission from their copyright holders, but you may include translations of some or all Invariant Sections
in addition to the original versions of these Invariant Sections. You may include a translation of this
License, and all the license notices in the Document,
and any Warranty Disclaimers, provided that you
also include the original English version of this License and the original versions of those notices and
disclaimers. In case of a disagreement between the
translation and the original version of this License
or a notice or disclaimer, the original version will
prevail.
If a section in the Document is Entitled "Acknowledgements", "Dedications", or "History", the requirement (section 4) to Preserve its Title (section
1) will typically require changing the actual title.
9. TERMINATION
You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute
the Document except as expressly provided under
this License. Any attempt otherwise to copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute it is void, and will
automatically terminate your rights under this License.
However, if you cease all violation of this License,
then your license from a particular copyright holder
is reinstated (a) provisionally, unless and until the
copyright holder explicitly and finally terminates
your license, and (b) permanently, if the copyright
holder fails to notify you of the violation by some
reasonable means prior to 60 days after the cessation.
Moreover, your license from a particular copyright
holder is reinstated permanently if the copyright
holder notifies you of the violation by some reasonable means, this is the first time you have received
notice of violation of this License (for any work)
from that copyright holder, and you cure the violation prior to 30 days after your receipt of the
notice.
Termination of your rights under this section does
not terminate the licenses of parties who have received copies or rights from you under this License.
If your rights have been terminated and not permanently reinstated, receipt of a copy of some or all
of the same material does not give you any rights
to use it. 10. FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE
The Free Software Foundation may publish new, revised versions of the GNU Free Documentation License from time to time. Such new versions will be
similar in spirit to the present version, but may differ in detail to address new problems or concerns.
See http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/.
Each version of the License is given a distinguishing version number. If the Document specifies that
a particular numbered version of this License "or
any later version" applies to it, you have the option of following the terms and conditions either of
that specified version or of any later version that
has been published (not as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation. If the Document does not specify
a version number of this License, you may choose
any version ever published (not as a draft) by the
Free Software Foundation. If the Document specifies that a proxy can decide which future versions of
this License can be used, that proxys public statement of acceptance of a version permanently authorizes you to choose that version for the Document.
11. RELICENSING
"Massive Multiauthor Collaboration Site" (or
"MMC Site") means any World Wide Web server
that publishes copyrightable works and also provides prominent facilities for anybody to edit those
works. A public wiki that anybody can edit is
an example of such a server. A "Massive Multiauthor Collaboration" (or "MMC") contained in the
site means any set of copyrightable works thus published on the MMC site.
"CC-BY-SA"
means
the
Creative
Commons
Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 license published by
Creative Commons Corporation, a not-for-profit
corporation with a principal place of business in
San Francisco, California, as well as future copyleft
versions of that license published by that same
organization.
"Incorporate" means to publish or republish a Document, in whole or in part, as part of another Document.
An MMC is "eligible for relicensing" if it is licensed
under this License, and if all works that were first
published under this License somewhere other than
this MMC, and subsequently incorporated in whole
or in part into the MMC, (1) had no cover texts or
invariant sections, and (2) were thus incorporated
prior to November 1, 2008.
The operator of an MMC Site may republish an
MMC contained in the site under CC-BY-SA on the
same site at any time before August 1, 2009, provided the MMC is eligible for relicensing. ADDENDUM: How to use this License for your documents
To use this License in a document you have written,
include a copy of the License in the document and
put the following copyright and license notices just
after the title page:
Copyright (C) YEAR YOUR NAME. Permission is
granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.3 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no
Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no
Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the license is included
in the section entitled "GNU Free Documentation
License".
If you have Invariant Sections, Front-Cover Texts
and Back-Cover Texts, replace the "with . . .
Texts." line with this:
with the Invariant Sections being LIST THEIR TITLES, with the Front-Cover Texts being LIST, and
with the Back-Cover Texts being LIST.
If you have Invariant Sections without Cover Texts,
or some other combination of the three, merge
those two alternatives to suit the situation.
If your document contains nontrivial examples of
program code, we recommend releasing these examples in parallel under your choice of free software
license, such as the GNU General Public License,
to permit their use in free software.
30.3 GNU Lesser General Public License

GNU LESSER GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE
Version 3, 29 June 2007
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Circuit Theory

March 16, 2013

Variables and Standard Units

Electric Circuit Basics

Resistors and Resistance

Resistive Circuit Analysis Techniques

Maximum Power Transfer

10 Resistive Circuit Analysis Methods

11 Energy Storage Elements

Second-Order Circuit Solution

21 Phasor Circuit Analysis

4 Variables and Standard Units

4.2 Voltage (Volts)

Variables and Standard Units

W represents work, q represents an amount of charge. Charge is a static electricity concept.

4.3 Current (Amperes)

Energy and Power

4.4 Energy and Power

Variables and Standard Units

5 Electric Circuit Basics

5.2 Ideal Wires

Electric Circuit Basics

5.3 Ideal Junctions or Nodes

Nodes are areas where the Electromotive Force is the same.

5.4 Measuring instruments

Active Passive & ReActive

5.4.1 Ideal Voltmeters

5.4.2 Ideal Ammeters

5.5 Active Passive & ReActive

5.6 Open and Short Circuits

Electric Circuit Basics

6 Resistors and Resistance

Resistors and Resistance

Open and Short Circuits

6.0.6 Resistor terminal relation

A simple circuit diagram relating current, voltage, and resistance

Resistors and Resistance

6.0.7 Resistor Safety

7 Resistive Circuit Analysis Techniques

8.2 Black Boxes

8.3 Thevenin's Theorem

8.4 Norton's Theorem

8.5 Circuit Transforms

We can draw up some rules to convert between the two:

Open Circuit Voltage and Short Circuit Current

8.6 Open Circuit Voltage and Short Circuit Current

The short circuit current

We can also observe the following:

8.7 Why Transform Circuits?

9 Maximum Power Transfer

The current in this circuit is found using Ohm's Law:

Maximum Power Transfer

We can now find the power dissipated in the load, PL as follows:

We can now rewrite this to get rid of the RL on the top:

Maximum Power Transfer

10 Resistive Circuit Analysis Methods

10.2.1 Necessary Conditions

Resistive Circuit Analysis Methods