FL EM 1,001 3RD EDITION 1987.10.01 FEDERATION EUROPEENNE DE LA MANUTENTION SECTION I HEAVY LIFTING APPLIANCES RULES FOR THE DESIGN OF HOISTING APPLIANCES BOOKLET 4 CHECKING FOR FATIGUE AND CHOICE OF MECHANISM COMPONENTS The total 3rd Edition comprises booklets 1 to 8 Copyright by FEM Section | Also available in French and GermanThis booklet is part of the “Rules for the design of hoisting @ppliances" consisting of 8 booklet: Booklet 1 - Object and scope Booklet 2~ Classification and loading on structures and mechanisme Booklet 3 - Cllculating the stresses in structures Booklet - Checking for Fatigue and choice of mechanism components Booklet 5 - Electrical equipment Booklet 6 - Stability and safety against movement by the wind Booklet 7 ~ Safety rules Booklet 6 - Test loads and tolerances and must not be used separately.BOOKLET 4 CHECKING FOR FATIGUE AND CHOICE oF MECHANISM COMPONENTS. CONTENTS CALCULATION PROCEDURE ~ Checking for ultimate strength + Value of the permissible stress + Values of the coefficient vq + Relations between the calculated stresses and the permissible stresses ~ Checking far crippling = Checking for fatigue + General method + Endurance Limit under alternating loading of a Polished specimen + Influence of the shape, size, surface condition and corrosion + Endurance Limit as @ function of , Op and Gy (OF ‘y,) + Wahler curve + Fatigue strength of @ mechanical component Permissible stresses and calculations Checking for wear DESIGN CALCULATIONS FOR PARTICULAR COMPONENTS = Choice of anti-friction bearings + Theoretical life + Mean loading of bearings subjected to type Sy loads ++ Determination of the mean load $4 mean on anti-friction bearings for combined motions + Mean loading of bearings subjected to type Sq loads + Mean loading of bearings subjected to type Sy and type Sp loads = Choice of ropes + Rope dianeter Common bases for the two methods Nethod using the minimum practical factor of safety Zp C-factor method ~ Choice of pulleys and drums end rope attachment means + Minimun winding dianeter Values of 1 Note a2 2d 4.21.2, 421.21. 4.213, A.2eLad 4.2.2. 42.21, 4.2.2.1, W.2.2.1.2, 4.2.241.3. 4.2.3. 4231. A231. 2312. a3 a3 413 43 cory a6 ae ae 41s a6 417 18 19 as ag 4-20+ Radius of the bottom of the groove + Rope attachment means = Choice of rail wheels + Rail wheel size ++ Determining the mean load ++ Oetermining the useful rail width b ++ Determining the limiting pressure PL ++ Determining the coefficient ©) ++ Deternining the coefficient cz + Notes = Design of gears APPENDICES DETERMINATION OF PERMISSIELE STRESSES IN MECHANISM COMPONENTS SUBJECTED TO FATIGUE COWENTS ON THE CHOICE OF ROPES AND ON THE PROBLEM OF THE FACTOR OF SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS ON THE DETERMINATION OF MINIMUM WINDING DIAMETERS FOR ROPES Ust of symbols and notations 42 4.2.4.1, 4.2.11, 4.21.2. 4,2.4.1,3, 4.2.b 1, 4.20.15, 4.2.4.2, 425. Anb.1.3. AoA.2.2, Aet.2.3, See booklet 1 Page 4.20 4-20 4-20 42 42. 4-22 422 4.23 428 4-24 4.25 4.26 432 40354a. 4a Aeledede a CALCULATION PROCEDURE fechanism conponents are designed by checking that they offer adequate safety against Failure due to fracture, crippling, fatique or excessive wear. Other factors must also be taken into consideration and it is Particularly important to avoid overheating or deflection which could interfere with correct, Functioning of the mechanism, CHECKING FOR ULTIMATE STRENGTH (1) techenisn components are checked for ultimate stength by verifying thet the cal- culated stress does not exceed @ permissible stress dependent on the breaking f strength of the material used, VALUE OF THE PERMISSIBLE STRESS ‘The value of the permissible stress , is given by the folloxing formule : where OR ds the ultimate stress for the material “R48 8 safety coefficient corresponding to each case of loading (clause 2.3.) HE might seen logical to check against the elastic Limit, in line with the structures Gookiet, a8 this Figure is, in principle, the Limit not to be exceeded in the tee ee S,tateral. The steels nomelly used for structures have a wide gap betwsen the yield | strength and the ultinate strength and this gap affords protection againer, sccue, | fallure even when the yield strength is considerably exceeded, Pathe cine hand, the use in mechantsns of certain steels mith a very high, elastic iit as compared to the ultinate strength would result in fragile parte being pro- seg if the Permissible Limit stress were to be based on the elastic Linit, wna any wy tea ne nerstenPing oF this Limit would lead to immediate failure. This explain, | why the ultimate strength 1s chosen as the criterion for verification. a3VALUES OF THE COEFFICIENT Vp The values to be adopted for Vp are given in table T.4.1.1.2. Table T.4.1.1.2. mas ao ie ano] In the case of grey cast iron, the values of vp are to be amplified by 25 x. \ 4.1.1.3, RELATIONS BETWEEN THE CALCULATED STRESSES ANO THE PERMISSIBLE 6 STRESSES According to the type of loading considered, the following relations must be veri- fied in which : Of is the calculated tensile stress % Of is the calculated bending stress is the calculated compressive stress ‘Tis the calculated shear stress. | D Aire tension: | 1,25 04 05 | 2) Pure compression : 3) Pure bending : OF < o% / 4) Combined bending end tension : 1,25 0 + of < og | 5) Combined bending and compression : Oe + OFS Op { 6) Pure shear : Bt & oO | at7) Conbined tension, bending and shear 4,25 0, 8) Combined compression, bending and shear : WOq + 04) + 3? ¢ og sap)? os 412, CHECKING FOR CRIPPLING Farts subject to exippling are designed in compliance with clause 3.5. for booklet 3, Checking that the calculated stress does not exceed a linit stress determined as a Function of the critical stress above which there is a risk of crippling occurring. For this check, the coefficient Yq is taken into account, its value depending on the grow in which the mechanism is classified (see table 1.2.6.) Sone general considerations relating to the checking of parts for crippling are Given in appendix A-3.3, 41.3. CHECKING FOR FATIGUE 4.1.3.1, GENERAL METHOD The Fatigue strength of « given component is mainly determined by : ~ the material from which the conponent 1s constructed ; ~ fhe shape, surface condition, state of corrasion, size (scale effect) and other Factors producing stress concentration ; ~ the ratio between the minimum and maxinum stresses which occur during the various stress cycles ; > the stress spectrum ; ~ the nunber of stress cycles. men, fatlove strength of a mechanical component. is known only in exceptional cases. sag ually speaking, it 45 to be derived from the characteristics of the eeteciee and oF the compenent and from accepted laws concerning their behaviour, Pati atsNG Point 1s provided by the endurance Linit under alternating tensile {fatigue loading («=~ 1) of @ polished specinen, made from the material mace Shona Gratton, The diminution of this fatigue strength as a result of the geemetric Shee of the piece, its surface condition, its state of corrosion and its ieee allowed for by introducing appropriate factors.41.3.2. From the endurance limit under alternating loading the corresponding Limit with respect to other ratios k between extrene stresses is obtained with the aid of @ SMITH diagram, in which certain hypotheses are made as to the shape of the strength curve. The endurance Limit thus determined for the actual component, and with respect to @ given ratio « between extrene stresses, is taken as the basis for the plotting of the WOHLER curve, concerning which certain hypotheses are also made. From this KtHLER curve (fatigue strength under the effect solely of stress cycles, all having the sane ratio x between extrene stresses), the PALMGREN-MINER hypothesis on fatigue damage ‘accumulation can be used to determine the fatigue strength of a component according to @ group in nhich the component is classified. The method described in 4.1.3. for determining the fatigue strength is applicable only to components Jn which the structure of the material 1s homogenous over the entire section being considered. It cannot, therefore, be used in the case of compo- rents which have undergone a surface treatment (e.g. hardening, nitriding, case- hardening). In such cases the fatigue strength can be derived fron the WOHLER curve only if the latter has itself been determined with respect to components which have been made from the sane material, have a comparable shape and size and have undergone exactly the same surface treatnent. Checking for fatigue strength only needs to be performed for case of loading I. where the eunber of stress cycles is less than 8 000, such checking is not necessary. ENOURANCE LIMIT UNDER ALTERNATING LOADING OF A POLISHED SPECIMEN ‘The specialized works on the subject (see also appendix A-4.1.3.) provide the en- Gurance Limt value O,4 under alternating rotational bending of a polished specimen in the case of materials used regularly in construction of mechanisms. By approximation, the sane values of Oy may be accepted for the endurance Limit under alternating rotary bending. To obtain the endurance limit under alternating axial tension and compression, the values of Opy have to be decreased by 20 % (1). a fn elenent of material, when subjected to the sane stress as an adjacent elenent, supports the latter less effectively than if it were subjected to a lover stress, as is the case with bending. A stress gradient, i.e. : difference in stress between two adjecent elenentary parts distance betueen these two elenentary parts which is higher, produces a strengthening effect. 4-6413.3, Fre tnurance strength Ty under alternating shear (pure shear or torsion) is derived FrOM Opy by the relation’: ty = ow v3 The values given for Gpy are generally those corresponding statistically to a 90 ¥ se ngtay Probability. In the case of carbon steels in comon ace in mechanisms, it 45 permissible to adopt : by = 9,5 Gp ©R being the minimum ultimate strength. INFLUENCE OF THE SHAPE, SIZE, SURFACE CONDITION AND coRRosron The shape, size, surface condition (machining) and state of corrosion of the conpo- rank inder consideration entail a decrease in the endurance Lint under alternating Joading in relation to the ideal case of a polished specinen This influence is allowed for by introducing factors Key kgy ky and ke respectively, Soncerning the determination of which, directions will‘be fous) an ‘appendix A-4.1.3, the endurance Linlt under alternating loading chy, or Tyke OF the component under the ceserion 45 given for tension, compression; bending and torsion? shear by the relation : In the case of pure shear we take : Tae4-1,3.4, ENDURANCE LIMIT AS A FUNCTION OF K , Op AND Ogy (Or Twi) Fig. 4.1.3.4. expresses, in the form of a SMITH diagram, the hypotheses made concer- ing the relations between the endurance limit dg (or Ty), the ratiok between extreme stresses, the tensile strength Og and the endurance Limit under alternating Loading Oyj, (OF Tyk)s This gives the following relations : el Alternating stresses vornal 30, oS vere | oge— 3% pulsating rece stresses be = 3289. « tres . oR Atternating ~leK 4 € | Tension. Compression 4 ew 4 Sept Tyo Tae | © (Average) | 48WOHLER CURVE seinen Gtzes8 0 (1), when all stress cycles present the sate amplitude at the cane Tatio « between extreme values, ‘With regard to this WHLER curve, the Folloxing hypotheses are made respectively : > for n= 6-10" + or ~ for 8-10° for n = 2-108 ou or Tey ~ for n > 210°, the so-called region of endurance limit, the function is represented, in the sane reference systen as above, by the straight line ON, bisector eF the angle formed by the extension of TD end a line parallel to the axis of the n values, Passing through 0, The slope of the WHER curve for n > 2+10° is characterized by the factor : 49Figure 4.1.3.5, otieg) 9 oa( 28) w ogotta) ‘ wo? 2106 (leg) The spectrum factor ksp of the component 1s determines by means of the above mentioned value of c. In the case of certain components in group 8 (see 4.1.3.6.), the caleule ion mist also be performed in exactly the sane way, but after replacing’c by c*. To distinguish between the two spectrum factors thus found, the second will be designated k'sp- Ac value below 2.5 is an indication of faulty design of the component concerned. Such @ component must not be put into service. 4.1.3.6. FATIGUE STRENGTH OF A HECHANICAL COMPONENT The fatigue strength o, or 1, of @ given mechanical component is determined by the following expressions respectively Bed % 22 © )+0y or 8 | %22 Od. %y where j 1s the component's group number. In the case of group EB components, of which the total duration of use n and the Spectrum factor k's, (see 4.1.3.5.) satisfy the Inequality : . ond A k'gg > 210Sk OF Tj must, however, be determined by the expression : = (2408. 1 ret, ay nm” Rise eat c | (2408. uers ay ‘sp Ihe Gfou classification of components, on the basis of their total duration of ctatea rn fhelz spectrum facior kp, a5 well as the critical fatigue stresses saso- teens oath cach Gro, are iLlustrated in figure 4.1.3.6. where Jy, represents oro Siires applying to group £5, For the critical shear stresses, the fetter o ne te Feplaced by t. PERMISSIBLE STRESSES AND CALCULATIONS {he permissible stresses Oar and Tap are obtained by dividing the stresses Oe and “er defined in 4.1.3.6., respectively by a safety factor 1. the takes + 2 y= 3 or 1 3.22" for group €8 components satisfying the inequality in the penultinate paragraph of 4.1.3.6, Car and Tap will therefore be obtained by the relations gp = KL and one verifies that : oS oe T $< Tor with + © maxima calculated normal stress ; 1 maximm calculated shear stress.Figure 4.1.3. Br) Br) (83) (Be) Bs) (BB) CBM — oo Kepetpoo eso dzso axes (log) 00000 vo00000 |... In the case of components acted upon simultaneously by normal stresses and shear stresses with different ratios x between extrene stresses, the following condition must be satisfied : Gt + Gar - BAL) «Ca cts jay ve in which + Ox» Gy = Maximum normal stresses in the directions x and y respectively ; 1 = moxinum shear stress ; Shon Sky = fatqve strengtn for normal stresses, in the directions x end y respectively % = shear fatigue strength. If it ts not possible to determine the most unfavourable case of the foregoing Telation from the corresponding stresses ,, O, and 1, calculations must be per- Forned separately for the loads Oy max» Oy max 270 Tgx and the most unfavourable corresponding stresses. 412at Ghould be noted that the checks described above do not guarantee safety against brittle fracture. Such safety can be ensured only by a suitable chotec ot material quality. ial 41.8, CHECKING FOR WEAR ee ecase OF Parts subjected to wear, the specific physical quantities which affect The Tiga os the surface pressure or the circumferential velocity mist be dctecnnent, esa Uires must be such that, on the basis of present experience, they will sess to excessive wear. 4.2, DESIGN CALCULATIONS FOR PARTICULAR COMPONENTS ame CHOICE OF ANTI-FRICTION BEARINGS is copentarnttefiletion bearims, It S5 first necessary to chuck that the bearing 4s capable of withstanding + ~ fhe Statte loed to which it can be subjected under whichever of loading cases 1, 1 or IIT is the most unfavourable, ard ~ the maximum dymanic load in the more anfavoureble of loading cases 1 or 1, 4.2.1.1, THEORETICAL LiFe Mitton, anti-friction bearings must be selected to give an acceptable theoreti- the aife in hours (see table 1.2.1.3.2.) as a function of the class of operation es Ere mechanism under a constant sean load as defined in clauses 4.2.1.2. ord acon l s, below. 42-12, MEAN LOADING OF BEARINGS SUBJECTED TO TYPE Sy LOADS meeaiet to alow for variations in the loads of type Sy during the cycles of ope- ration, an equivalent ean loading Sy qean is determined ahich is surrosea oo Co applied constantly curing the theoretisal life determined by classe for 1. Su,mean 18 obtained by multiplying Sy yax 11 (1), defined by clause 2.6.4.1, and 2.6:4.2., by the cube root of the spectrum factor tq defined in 21.35, Sw mean = Km Smmax tr (2) a) °F Sy max 1 fOr components not subjected to wind.421.2016 4.213. 42.1.4. 4.2.2. Determination of the mean load Sy mean 0M anti-friction bearings for combined motions In the case of motions which combine an elevation of the centre of gravity of the moving masses with a horizontal displacement (e.g. unbalanced luffing), the mean oad Sy mean iS determined by conbining + = the mean load due to the accelerations and the effect of the wind, as determined by applying clause 4.2.1.2. with, ~ the mean load due to the vertical displacement of the centre of gravity of the ‘moving masses, as determined fran the expression : 2 $4 max + Su min 3 Sumean = where Sy max AN Sy min Are the maximum and minimum values of the corresponding loads. MEAN LOADING OF BEARINGS SUBJECTED TO TYPE Sp LOADS The extreme loads Sp qx and Sp min developed in loading case I for appliances not subjected to wind or loading case II for appliances subjected to’ wind (see clause 2,6.) are considered and the bearing is designed for a constant mean load given by the expression 2 SR max + SR min SR ean = Ena = Rain and applied for the theoretical Life in accordance with clause 4.2.1.1. MEAN LOADING OF BEARINGS SIMULTANEOUSLY SUBJECTED TO TYPE Sy’AND TYPE Sp LOADS On the basis indicated above the equivalent mean loads are determined for each of the type Sy and Sp loads, assuned to be acting alone and the bearing is selected for an equivalent mean load resulting from combination of the two mean loads Sy) and Spe CHOICE OF ROPES The following rules ain at defining reasonable minimum requirenents for the choice of ropes used on hoisting appliances covered by these Design Rules. They do not purport to resolve all the problems nor to serve as a substitute for the dialogue which is essential between the rope manufacturer and the manufacturer of hoisting appliances. oaost o~<] my o— ade [hey spoly to preferred ropes conforming to 150 Recamendation 2408 "Stee! ropes For general use - Characteristics", pray $ not exclude, however, ropes which are nat specified in ISO Recommendation 2408, For Such Topes, it is Incunbent upon the rope manufacturer to validate for the i user the minima values of paraneters detailed in the 150 Reconmendaticn, The terminology of the rope paraneters complies with that used in 180 Recomendat ion 2008, creaetnads stated hereafter assume that the ropes are greased correctly, that the minding dlaneters of the pulleys and the drums are suitably selected in compliance ith 4.2.3. and that, shen in service, the ropes are properly maintained, inspected snd periodically replaced in conformity with 150 Reconnendation 4309 "ope inspection". she selection of rope dianeter (and winding dianeters in 4.2.5.) is based on the G Sroentae risting mechanisn. However, for appliances which require frequent dismantling (such as builders tower cranes), in which ropes have to be changed more frequently, it 4s permissible to select a hoist rope from the group Annediately below that of the hoisting mechanism but not interior to group M 3 whenever hoisting appliances are used for dangerous handling operations (e.g. molten netel, hughly radioactive or corrosive products, etc.) the choice of the roves ont pulleys must take account of the mechanism group next shove that resulting tren the Normal classification of the hoisting appliances. Sree 2 38 the minimum group to be used for the handling of dangerous loads for the choice of rope and pulley diameters. CHOICE OF ROPE DIAMETER “Two methods can be used at the choice of the manufacturer ~ fhe method using the minimum practical factor of safety Zp (see 4.2.2:1.2.) which 48'valid for running ropes and static ropes (guy ropes, slayer ete, ~ the © Factor method (4.2.2.1.3.) applicable to runing ropes only.A2.2.1eLe A22dsdele 4.2.2.141.26 4.221.103, Common bases for the two methods Definition of the maximum tensile force $ in the hoist rope (grab ropes excepted) This is obtained by taking account of the following factors : = maximum safe working load of the appliance, ~ weight of the pulley block and the hoist accessories, the dead weights of which are added to the load effect so as to Increase the rope tension, = mechanical demultiplication due to the rope reevingy = efficiency of the rope reeving, ~ londs ae to accelerations $F they exceed 10 ofthe verticed toads, ~ spe SoeLination at the per exrese position Ifthe ole of the rope wth @ tho nolet avis trees 22.5% Definition of the maximum tensile force $ in ropes other than hoist ropes The determination of the maximum tensile force $ in the various ropes which are not exclusively used for the vertical hoisting of loads is based on the loads determined in load cases I or IT taking account of the most unfavourable case which can occur repeatedly in normal use. For ropes which produce horizontal movenent of loads, account must be taken of the Joading resulting from rolling motion and friction, together with the maximum in Clination that the support, on which the load is moved, can assume locally under the influence of the normal loading. Determination of the maximum tensile force $ in the ropes of multi~ rope grabs (holding and closing) In the case of appliances with grabs, where the weight of the load is not always equally distributed between the closing ropes and the holding ropes during the luhole of a cycle, the value of $ to be applied shauld be determined as follows = | 1) If the system used autonatically ensures an equal distribution of the hoisted oad between the closing and holding ropes, or any difference beteen the loads carried by the ropes Is limited to a short period at the end of closing or at. | ‘the beginning of opening, S should be determined as follons : a) closing ropes : $ = 66 % of the weight of the loaded grab, divided by the runber of closing ropes.4.2.2.1.2, 221.21. ©) holding ropes : sane pourcentage. 2) If the systen used does not automatically secure an equal distribution of the 2028 between the closing ropes and the holding ropes during the hoisting metion Be rete ceraetice, almost ali the load is applied to the closing ropes, § sheale be determined as follows : ) closing ropes : total weight of the loaded grab divided by the nunber of closing ropes. ) holding ropes : S = 66 X of the total weight of the loaded grab divided by the nunber of holding ropes. Method using the minimum practical factor of safety 2p Definitions The minim practical factor of safety Z, is the ratio between : ~ (Be miniman breaking oad Fy of the rope (minimum load which must be attained when carrying out the rope breaking test), ~ and the maximum tensile force S in the rope Rope selection Tne chosen rope must have a mininun practical factor of safety at least equal to the tipinn value Z for the mechanism group to which the zope in question belovgs coer table 7.4.2.2.1%2,). \ Table 7.4.2.2.1.2. factor of safety 2, Group of Miniman value 2, mechanism | fF Punning ropes Static ropes ma 3,15 25 M2 3,38 25 M3 3,95 3 Ma 4 35 M5 4,5 4 Me 5,6 45 M7 mW 5 Me ° 54.2.2.1.3, 42.21.3216 4.2.2.1,3.2. C-factor method Definitions : © = rope selection factor, S = maxinun tensile force exerted on the rope when in use, oninal dianeter of the rope (dimension by which the rope is designated), f = fill factor of the rope, k = spinning loss factor due to the rope construction, Ro = mininun ultinate tensile stress of the wire composing the rope, K's empirical factor for the minimun breaking load for a given rope construction such that kre tirsk Rope selection For Tope of a given construction, having a given minimum steel strength, and for @ given mechanism group there is a factor C which is expressed by the formule : czy /—»__., [2 View = e wore Teng % where Z% 18 the minim value for running ropes in table 7.4.2.2.1.2., cotrespending to the fechanisn group chosen for the rere. The nominal diameter must be such that d revs Ze et DIN iscer0 Calculation of the factor ¢ - guarantees The values of C are calculated taking eccount of : ~ the factor Zp corresponding to the mechanism group, ~ the breaking strength under tension of the steel of the rope wires, ~ the factor k' (or Factors k and f) which can either : + be taken from ISO Recommendation 2048 for nomal ropes covered therein (see Appendix), + OF be guaranteed by the rope manufacturer if the rope is of @ special con- struction. In this case, the certificate supplied by the rope manufactures must clearly state the guaranteed values of k',4.2.3, 4.2.3.1, 423.16. CHOICE OF PULLEYS, DRUMS AND ROPE ATTACHMENT MEANS MINIMUM WINDING DIAMETER Tre Mininum winding diameter for the rope is determined by checking the relation- ship: Dy Hea where : © As the winding dianeter on pulleys, drums or compensating pulleys measured to the axis of the rope. H 4s @ coefficient depending upon the mechanism group. 4 4s the nominal diameter of the rope. tts ~ Refer to 4.2.2, for the mechanisn group in which the rope should be classified. Values of Wt ‘re minimum values of the coefficient H depending upon the group in which the cechonten As classified, are given in table T.4,2.3.1.1. for drums, pulleys od compensating pulleys. They correspond to ropes currently used and known and are based on experience concerning their working conditions. mmey co not however serve as a substitute for the dialogue hich is indispensable Between the rope manufacturer and the manufacturer of holsting appliances, expecially hen the use of new ropes with varying flexibility cheracteristies 1s being eovsioeeed, Table T.4.2.3.1.1. Values of H Mechanism Conpensatin sree Oruns Pulleys faite Ma 2 12,5 2 M2 12,5 uw 12,5 M3 a 16 12,5 M4 16 18 a us 1s 20 ro m6 20 22,4 1s M7 22,8 2 16 Me 23 28 18 ra4,2.3.1.24 4.2.3.2. 4.2.3.3, 42h, Note then the formula given in clause 4.2.2.1. has been used to determine @ minimum rope diameter from which in turn the minimum diameters for druns and pulleys have been determined, a rope of diameter greater than the minimum calculated disneter can be used with these latter dianeters, provided that the diameter of the rope used does not exceed the minim dianeter by more than 25 % and that the pull in the rope does ot exceed the value S used for calculating this minimun dianeter. RADIUS OF THE BOTTOM OF THE GROOVE The useful Life of the rope depends not only on the dianeter of the pulleys and drums, but also on the pressure exerted between the rope and the groove susporting the rope. The winding ratios sbove are given on the assumption of a radius of supporting groove T where : r= 0.534 d being the nominal diameter of the rope. ROPE ATTACHMENT MEANS Rope attachments must be so designed as to withstand a tensile force 2.5 times the maximum tensile force $ without showing permanent deformation. The means attaching the rope to the drum must be of such a design that, taking account of the friction of the tums which remain around the drum, the sum of the frictional and fixing forces withstands a tensile force 2.5 times the maximum tensile force S. The coefficient of friction between the rope and the drum used in the calculations | shall be: bes on © | then the rope is completely unwound from the drum, at least tno complete tums of Tope must renain on the drum before the rope end attachment. CHOICE OF RAIL WHEELS In order to choose a rail wheel, its diameter is determined by considering : | = the load on the wheel, ~ the quality of the metal from which it is made, = the type of rail on which it runs, = the speed of rotation of the wheel, - the group classification of the mechenism.QL, RAIL WHEEL SIZE To determine the size of a rail wheel, the following checks must be made : ~ that It is capable of withstanding the maximum load to which it will be subjected, and ~ that it will allow the appliance to perform its nommal duty without abnormal wear. The two requirenents are checked by means of the following tao formulae : taking cy & Pmean III Prean 101 mean BEE P+ Camax * Conan ¢ 1438 PL = 164 PL, Cymax = 142 and Camgy = 1415 p, ‘neon L,I $ Pega, eae Lert ey is the wheel diareter in am the useful width of the rail in mm a Limiting pressure dependent upon the metal used for the wheel, in Nénm? 8 coefficient depending on the speed of rotation of the wheel is @ coefficient depending on the group of the mechanism is the mean load to be withstood by the wheel, in loading case III, in N, calculated according to the formilae in clause 4.2.4.1.1. Pnean 1,11 48 the mean load in case I or IL. Determining the mean load In order to determine the mean loads, the procedure is to consider the maximum and ‘sinimum loads withstood by the wheel in the loading cases considered, i.e. with the appliance in normal duty but omitting the dynamic coefficient ¥ when determining Fnean 1,11 2nd with the appliance not in use for Pyegn 111+ The valUeS Of Pyean Are determined by the formula below in the three cases of loading I, II and III: in 110,01 + 2 Pax 101,007 3 Poean 1, 11,124.2.4.1.2, Determining the useful rail width b For rails having a flat bearing surface and a total width £ with rounded corners of radius T at each side, we have t bs fear for rails with a convex bearing surface, we have : ay b= t-4 a 4.2.4.1.3, Determining the limiting pressure Py The value of PL is given in table T.4.2.4.1.3. as a function of the ultimate strength of the metal of which the rail wheel is made ; Table 1.4,2.4,1.3. Values of F; Ultimate strength for metal F. used for rail wheel in N/m? oR > 500 N/mm? 5,0 OR > 600 N/mm? 5,6 OR > 700 Nina? 65 OR > 800 Nin? 7,2 ($e a For the sane width of rail head, these formulae give a greater useful bearing width for convex rails than for flat rails. This allows for the superior adaptation of a slightly convex rail to the rolling motion of the wheel.42M, The qualities of metal refer to cast, forged or rolled steels, and spheroidal graphite cast iron, In the case of rail uheels with tyres, consideration must obviously be given to the Quality of the tyre, which should be sufficiently thick not to roll itself out. In the case of wheels made of high tensile steel and treated to ensure a very high surface hardness, the value of PL is limited to that for the quality of the steer Composing the wheel prior to surface treatment, according to table T.4.2.4.1.3., since @ higher value would risk causing prenature wear of the rail. For a given load, however, wheels of this type have a much longer useful life than wheels of lesser surface hardness, which makes their use worthmhile in the case of ‘appliances performing intensive service. Alternatively, it is possible to use wheels of ordinary cast iron, especially chilled cast iron, which has good surface hardiness. It must be renenbered that such wheels are brittle and that their use should be avoided for high speed motions or when shock loadings are to be feared, When these are used their dianeter is determined by taking PL equal to 5 N/mm. Determining the coefficient cy The values of cy depend on the speed of rotation of the wheel and are given in table 1.4.2.4,1.4.a, ‘These same values are also given in table T.4.2.4.1.4.b. as a function of the wheel diameter and the speed in m/nin. Table 1.4.2.4.1.8. Values of c) fl liheel rotation speed Wheel rotation speed ieel rotation speed in R.P.M. o in R.P.M, o in RPM. 1 200 0,66 50 0,94 16 1,08 160 0,72 45 0,96 1 ai 125 0,77 40 0,97 12,5 aul 412 0,79 35,5 0,99 1,2 1,12 100 0,82 31,5 1 10 1yas 30 0,88 28 1,02 8 Lyla 80 0,87 25 1,03 63 1,15 n 0,89 22,4 2,08 5,6 1,16 8 0,91 20 1,06 5 aly 56 0,92 18 1,07 4.23Table 1.4.2.4. Values of cas a function of the wheel dianeter and the speed of travel Hdenlek DIN (5070 jb heel dia Values of cy for travel speeds in m/min meter in am] ao [iz,5] 16 | 20 [25 [31,5] «0 | 50 | 6 | 60 [100 [125 Jico [m0 [50 200 [1,09] 1,06 }1,05]1 | 0,97} 0,94] 0,91 0,87 | 0,82 |0,77]0,72| 0,66] - J - | - 250 [4,11 /1,09 ]1,06] 1,03]1 | 0,97] 0,94 J0,91 ]0,87 |0,82]0,77| 0,72 Jo,66] - | - 315/113 ]2,11 [1,09] 2,06 ]1,03] 1 | 0,97 |0,94 | 0,91 | 0,87 | 0,82] 0,77 }0,72 |o,66| - 400/114 11,15 ]1,11] 1,09 | 1,06] 1,03]1 — Jo,97 10,94 | 0,91 | 0,87 | 0,82 {0,77 | 0,72 | 0,66 500/115 ]1,24 }2,15] 1,11 1,09] 1,05] 1,03 ]1 — fo,97 | 0,94} 0,91 | 0,87 |0,82 |0,77 | 0,72 630 fi,17 ]1,15 f1,24) 1,13 1,11] 1,09] 1,06 1,05] | 0,97] 0,94] 0,91 {0,87 J0,82 | 0,77 mo} - 2,16 f2,24] 1,23 }1,12) 2,1 | 2,07 [3,08 | 1,02 {0,99 | 0,96 | 0,92 | 0,89 | 0,84 | 0,79 00 J - f4,27 11,15} 1,24 ]1,23] 1,12] 1,09 [1,06 }1,03 11° | 0,97} 0,98 f0,91 |0,87 | ova2 900 | f= [ijt6} 1,24 ]2,13] 2,12] 1,2 |1,07 | 1,04 {1,02 | 0,99 | 0,96 |0,92 [0,89 | 0,84 1000 f= | = faya7]aa5 Jara] 1,23] 1,12 2,09 | 1506 |1,05}1 | 0,97 [0,94 Jo,91 | 0,67 viz f- |= | = fase f1,28] 1,23] 1,22 2,1 | 1,07 [1,04 | 1,02 | 0,59 ]0,96 |0, 92 | 0,89 220 | f= |= [tar [tas] ty2af ys far [10s Jajos]1,03] 1" f0,97 Jo,94 | 0,91 4,2.4.1.5. Determining the coefficient cz ‘The coefficient cp depends on the group classification af the mechanism and is given in table 7.4.2.4.1.5. Table T. 21S. Values of co Group classification of mechanism ° M1 to Na 1,12 M5 1 Me og. N7- MB 08 4.2.4.2, NOTES Note 1 The formulae apply only to wheels whose dianeters do not exceed 1,25 m. For larger diameters experience shows that the peruissible pressures between the rail and the Wheel must be lowered. The use of nheels of greater dianeter is not recommended.9 4.2.5. It should be noted that the liniting pressure P| is a notional pressure determined by supposing that contact between the wheel and the rail takes place over a surface whose width is the useful width defined earlier (clause 4.2.4.1.2.) and whose length is the dianeter of the wheel. The method of calculating set aut above is derives from application of the HERTZ formula, which may be written : Pp bd where : cg is the compressive stress in the wheel and the rail N/m? E the modulus of elasticity of the metal in N/mm? Pe tthe wheel load in N band 0 in mr, being as defined above (clause 4.2.4.1.). a2 Taking K, to represent the value -°E2_ which has the dinension of @ pressure in 38 N/mm?, the relation may be written : ‘and characterizes the wheel pressure on the rail. The formula of clause 4.2.4.1. is obtained by putting : Mos PLs es cg DESIGN OF GEARS The choice of the method of making design calculations for gears is left to the manufacturer, who must indicate the origin of the methad adopted, the loads to be taken into account being determined in accordance with the directions given in 2.6. In the case of a calculation which takes account of the operating tine the conven tional hours determined in 2.1.3.2. should be used. 4-25APPENDIX A-4.1.3. DETERMINATION OF PERMISSIBLE STRESSES IN MECHANISM COMPONENTS SUBJECTED TO FATIGUE The endurance Limit for a polished specimen is @ laboratory value, which is prac- tically never attained in parts actually used. Nunerous factors - shape, size, sur- face condition (machining quality) and possible corrosion - induce discontinuities Tesulting in "notch effects", which decrease the permissible stresses in the part, when these stresses are calculated by conventional elementary methods for the strength of materials. These factors are taken into account by coefficients, called ks» kdy Kys Kes Tespectively all greater than or equal to unity, by the product of which the endurance limit for a polished specimen is devided. Guidelines concerning the determination of these coefficients are set out belon a, Determination of Kk, This coefficient specifies the stress concentrations caused by changes of section with radii, annular grooves, transverse holes and the method of securing hubs. Figures A.4.1.3.1. a. and b. give the values of the shape coeffictent ks as a function of the ultimate strength of the metal, valid for diameter 0 of 10 mn. The curves a, give the coefficient kg for changes of section of ratio D/d = 2 with a correction table T.A.4.1.3.1. for other values of O/d. The b curves give, for guidance some values of ks for holes, annular grooves and keyways. Digmeters in excess of 10 mm are taken care of by introducing the size coefficient k cde Figure A.4.1.3.1.. 10 rm) Shape coefficient k, (Oleneter 0 Change of section O/d = 2 * fa 005 Loe sans = ey S . Ce aFor other values of D/d read ks fron the curve (r/d) + q with the following values for Table T.A.d.1.3.1. Correction factors g for D/d <2 : ° | a TT x al ; o om N/m? Wooo zoo" curve 1 Transverse hole d, = 0,175 ¢ TT: Annular groove : depth 1 mm TIT: Keyed hub IV: Press-fitted hub - Determination of size coefficient ky For dianeters greater than 10 mm the stress concentration effect increases and this increase is allowed for by introducing the size coefficient kg. The values of the coefficient ky are given in table T.A.4.1.3.2. for values of 4 from 10 mm to 400 mm, Table T.A.4,1.3.2. Values dom 10 2a 30 50 300 200 400 kg 1 ra | a2 | ies aes | 17 | Le 4.270. Determination of surface condition (method of machining) coefficient _k; Experience shows that parts produced with @ rough finish have a lower endurance Limit than carefully polished parts. This is allowed for by applying a machining coefficient ky given in figure A.W.1.3.2. for the case of a surface which 1s ground or finely polished with emery and for the case of @ surface which is rough machined. Determination of corrosion coefficient k, Corrosion can have a very appreciable effect on the endurance Limit of steels ; this is allowed for by applying a coefficient kp. Figure A.4.1.3.2. gives the values of this coefficient Ke for the cases of corrosion due to fresh water and due to sea water. Figure 0.4.1,3.2. Values of the machining coefficient ky corrosion coefficient ke Kurke “400400 8001000 Values of ky Curve I~ Surface ground or finely polished II = Surface rough machined Values of ke Curve 111 ~ Surface corroded by fresh water IV = Surface corroded by sea water 700EXAMPLE OF APPLICATION Shaft in Ax550 steel with change of section. Diameters 0 = 70 mm and 6 = 50 mm with transition radius F = Simm, Turned on lathe, with The component will be deened to be classified in group EA. We shall assume alternating loading (x = - 1) and the shaft to be of A 550 steel (minima Op = 550 N/m). We can therefare adopt : by = 0.5 + $50 = 275 N/mm? Section 6 Did = 70/50 = 1.4 1/6 = 5/50 = 0.1 Determination of ks (shape) For D/d = 1.4 ne have q = 0.08 (Table T.A.4.1.3.1.) From the curve (r/d) + q = 0.1 + 0.14 we find by interpolation : 1a (Figure A.4.1.3,1.a.) Determination of kg (size) For d = 50 we have : l ky = 1.45, (Table 1.8.4.1.3.2. Determination of ky (machining) For a part turned on a lathe we have : ky = das (Figure A.4.1.3,2, curve 11) From the foregoing values we derive + 275 2 = 28 07.8 See TA Tas +B 4-29For k = = 1 we have : Oy = Ge 17.8 N/m? 3.58 = 40a-(2 000 90/8 000) OF OSO717-8) For group Et the critical stress is therefore : B-4 % = oy2 © = 1178 « 2(4/3.58) = 255.4 N/mm? The safety coefficient \y is given by : Me = 3.2/0 2 3,21/3.58 = 1.38 ‘The permissible stress Ogp is therefore : 255.0 . 2 Sar = 25t = 184.6 Nm Section ¢-0 We have ky = 2.2 (Figure 8.4.1.3.1.0.) kg = eas (ane vatue as above) ky = Las (sone value as sbove) Hence + 2 75.0 N/om? 22> 105-5 oq = One 75.0 N/mm? c= ea (2 000 00/8 ooo! Te Jog (550/75) O = 75 ~ 268/2.77) Me = 32erT = 132 ap = 208 = 134 Nem? 4-30LIST OF SOME WORKS DEALING WITH FATIGUE PROBLEMS (2) Nienann, G. ° Maschinenelenente Band 1 Springer Verlag Berlin/GSttingen/Heidelberg 1975 (2) Niemann, G. Maschinenelenente Band 2 Springer Verlag Gerlin/Géttingen/Heidelberg 1983, (3) Decker, K.-H, Maschineneleente Carl Hanser Verlag, Minchen 1962 (4) "Metal Fatigue" by J.A. POPE - PhD, D.Sc - Wh.Sch. I. Mech. E. Chapman and Hall Ltd., 37, Essex Street, London, W.C.2. (5) "La Fatigue des Métaux" by R. CAZAUD - Ingénieur CNAM - Doctor of the University Of Paris - Lecturer at the Higher Institute for Mechanical Engineering Materials, Consulting Engineer Dunod 92, Tue Bonaparte - Paris (6) "Fatigue of Metals and Structures" by H.3. GROVER, S.A. GORDON, R.L. JACKSON Thanes and Hudson London 431APPENDIX A-4.2.2. COMMENTS ON THE CHOICE OF ROPES AND ON THE PROBLEM OF THE FACTOR OF SAFETY ‘The useful life of a hoisting rope depends on factors inherent both in the con struction of the rope (internal factors) and in the characteristics of the hoisting appliance end the way in which the rope is reeved (external factors). ‘The main external factors are the tensile load, the pulley diameters and the type ‘and nunber of working cycles. ‘These factors will in principle determine the rope winding dianeters. Figure F.A.4.2.2, shows the relationships between the tensile stress, the pulley diameters and the useful life (number of bending reversals causing failure) for 4 given rope (of dianeter 16 nm). According to this diagram, the larger the pulley dianeter and the smaller the tensile stress, the longer the useful life of the rope. Winding dianeters mist be determined so as to ensure a reasonable useful life of the Tope before its replacement, The old method of calculation defined fixed minimum factors of safety and minima winding diameters (as a function of the rope dianeter) for certain uses, such as for example in hoisting appliances. This method, which is still used and sonetines even stipulated by law in many coun- tries, does not enable the conditions for a reasonable useful life to be met. The toads and the type of utilisation of hoisting appliance mechanisms differ considerab- ly from one appliance to another with the result that such minimum values may be too high in certain cases (e.g. for a power station overhead travelling crane) or too low in other cases (e.g, for a grabeing crane on arduous duty). Even if the safety factors were chosen according to the groups of the mechanisms, the calculation of winding diameters on the basis of these safety factors could rot result in a good design for the following reasons : The manufacturer wishes to use ropes of the smallest possible diameter in order to Obtain the smallest possible dianeters for the pulleys and drums. For a given safety factor, he acheves this by using wire of the greatest possible strength and using a Tope with the greatest possible fill factor.Yet the useful 1ife of a rope whose diameter has been calculated in this way is ot always optimum, A rope of identical dianeter, of which the wire is of lover strength (e.g. 1600 Nfan” instead of 2200 Nan*)’and the Fill factor is lover (e.g. eight strands ine stead of six) may have @ mich longer useful life in spite of the lower factor of safety. another difficulty stems fron the fact that the safety fector is related to breaking strengths whose definitions differ from one country to another, and safety factors do not have the sane meaning if they relate to a breaking strength defined in different ways. Four definitions exist for the breaking strength of ropes : ~ Calculated breaking strength : this ts the cross-section of the rope multiplied by the strength of the wire of which it is composed ; ~ Theoretical breaking strength : given by the sun of the breaking stengths of ‘the wires used in the rope ; Actual breaking strength : this is the load obtained by an ultimate tensile strength test on the rope ; Nominal breaking strength : this is the minimum breaking strength guaranteed by ‘the rope manufacturer, lihen a rope is determined by using @ safety factor which is related either to th actual breaking strength or to the nominal breaking strength, the manufacturer tends to adopt ropes in which the spinning loss (difference between the theoretical brea- king strength and the actual breaking strength) is as snall as possible in order to obtain a smaller rope diameter. The spinning loss, however, is not related to the resistance of @ rope to repeated bending. A satisfactory useful life for Fopes cannot therefore be obtained with this method of calculation. This shows that the safety factor is not an adequate basis for determining the win- Ging dianeters required to ensure satisfactory rope Life under bending reversals ; indeed this method will often prevent the optim solution fron being obtained. Because it is difficult for the manufacturer to allow for the influence of these Gifferent factors, it is preferable to determine the rope dianeter dain, sinply as a function of the tensile load S, from the formila : Onin = 0S where C is a coefficient depending solely on the group of the mechanism. In cases where non rotating ropes are used (e.g. tower cranes in which the load is Suspended from a single part) and for dangerous handling operations (e.g. molten materials), the values of C are increased above the normal values in order to con- Pensate for the more unfavourable rope construction or the greater risk. The value of C, the safety factor Zp referred to the theoretical breaking strength ‘and the rope fill factor f (ratio of the metal cross section of the rope to the area of the circle circumscribing the rape) are Linked by the following relation 433there Ry is the ultimate stength (in N/nn®) of the wire used in the rope. The values of © apply to ropes made with wire having a stength of 1600, 1860, 2000 or 2200 N/nn®, Where, exceptionally, use is made of a rope conposed of wires with @ strength of 1400 N/nn?, the rope diameter must be increased accordingly. ‘The rope manufacturer or crane maker must choose the composition and cross section of the rope, for the calculated minimum dianeter d, to suit the reeving conditions of the particular rope and in the light of the latest technical progress. Figure A.4.2.2. Influence of pulley dianeter 0 and tensile stress of on the useful life of a rope : Langs lay rope, diameter 16 am, six strands of nineteen 1 mm dia. wires, Ry = 1400 N/mm’ Cast-Iron pulleys with machined groove of radius x = 8,5 mm. Number of bending reversals required to cause failure (useful 1ife) w, : wt Number of bending reversals - & 180 00 100 400 500" 700° abo0 "400 3000 ds do bo do be co 70eos0%00 Tensile stress oy in N/a 434APPENDIX A~4.2.3. CONSIDERATIONS ON THE DETERMINATION OF MINIMUM WINDING DIAMETERS FOR ROPES There axe no absolute minimum pulley and drum diareters below which a rope could no longer operate. Nor is there @ required absolute minimum dianeter for different types of rope. The useful life of a rope is progressively reduced with decreasing pulley and drun Gsameters, if other conditions remain unchanged. Figure A.4.2.3, shows the pattern of behaviour of a particular rope. In order to ensure an adequate useful rope life, the minimum winding diameters 0 must be determined, as @ function of the group classification of the mechanism involved, from the formula : lwhere d is the nominal rope diameter and H is @ coefficient which {s chosen according to the group in which the mechanism is classified and which becomes higher when the duty is more arduous. The coefficient is higher for pulleys than for drums because, in the course of a cycle of operations, the rope is subjected to twice as many bending reversals over @ pulley (rope straight, rope bent, rope straight) as on a drum (rope straight, Tope bent). { ‘The coefficient H is lower for equalizing pulleys because the rope undergoes fewer bending reversals and the movenent is normally very Limited. Such pulleys must none- theless be dimensioned with reference to the nunber of bending reversals, Unfavourable winding conditions, e.g. reeving around several pulleys, reverse bends, or the use of non-rotating ropes whose construction is less favourable for bending Teversals, must be comensated for by a suitable increase to ensure a useful rope Life commensurate with the group classification of the mechanism,Figure A.4,2.3. Influence of pulley dianeter D and tensile stress O, on the useful life of a rope : Langs lay rope, dieneter 16 am, six strands of nineteen 1 mm dia, wires, OR = 1400 N/a Cast-Iron pulleys with machined groove radius r = 8,5 nm. Number of bending reversals required to cause failure (useful 1ife) we. - ot. = wot ‘mo 00304000 SSS aaa Pulley dianeter 0 in an Number of bending reversals a aaa as aa % Ratio of pulley dianeter to rope dianeter 4.36