Numbers, Number Systems and Number Relationships

Grade 4 and Mathematics

Prepared by:
Lisa Blakely
for
Larry M. Maurer, Instructor
ENFOUND 291.02: Principles of Teaching
Fall 2012, BU

Introduction
(Rationale and Importance)

If a teacher makes a great first impression on their students, co-workers, and employers,
it makes their job much easier. To become a novice teacher, one should be very prepared, wellorganized, as well as being able and willing to help students. A teacher should write a unit plan
1

because its much easier to be organized and prepared. Especially as a new teacher, one should
have weekly lessons up to a yearly plan in order to create all the support they will need. If a
teacher makes an effective unit plan, their lesson plan and time during their class period will be
much more productive to the students and the teacher. Unit plans are highly important to all
teachers not only if theyre a novice teacher, but for older and more experienced ones as well.
Mathematics is one of the lowest scoring standardized testing subjects in the United
States next to science. Mathematics is an important subject that students need to understand.
Learning about numbers, number systems, and number relationships is critical to a students
knowledge base. Knowing about fractions, mixed numbers, decimals, and number expansion is
highly significant to ones understanding in math. Students need to have a knowledgeable
understanding of these concepts because it will help ease them into harder math, such as
percentage, conversions, and using these concepts in everyday life. This unit plan is a necessity
that must be taught so the students can develop and learn more advanced math.
After demonstrating the understanding of numbers, ways to represent them, and using
models of decimals, fractions, and mixed numbers; the students will realize that this material is
critical to their everyday lives. As a teacher, one should connect this subject matter to real life
examples and/or experiences. Many middle school students are only concerned in lunch and
exciting activities. The interest and needs will differ from the girls to boys, so a teacher has to
make certain that they incorporate both types of interests. A teacher can begin by connecting
fractions to food to grab the kids attention. After grasping their attention, the teacher will then
begin to indicate how this material will truly be beneficial to the students as they grow older. The
students will need to know this material for many jobs, simple day shopping, leaving tips at
restaurants, and many more everyday events.

General Objectives
1. Upon completion of this unit on numbers, number systems and number relationships,
students will explain how to represent quantities of decimal, fractions, and mixed
numbers in a number system.
2. Using a number line, students will be able to plot a given fraction or decimal.
2

Comment [L1]: 1: Content Pedagogy: All of the

lessons that are included in this unit plan shows that
the teacher understands the central concepts of the
unit, tools of inquiry and how to manage the
classroom.
Throughout this lesson plans it shows a great deal of
learning experiences that make the subject
meaningful to the student.
These general objectives shows a great deal of
understanding of the material from the teacher

3. After worksheets on comparing numbers, students will be able to label which number or
money amount has a higher value.

Preassessment
There will be two types of preassessments that the students will be working on before lessons
that are a part of the unit. One is YES/NO index cards and the other is called graffiti wall. To
begin the lesson, I will use the YES/NO card method: I will hand out two index cards to each
student in the class and have him/her write yes on one side and no on the other side. Then, I will
ask a series of questions about the upcoming lessons and if they know the answer or topic than
they would put the yes card up and if not then they will put the no card u. Some of the questions
that will be asked are as followed:
1. Do you know the difference between fractions and decimals?
2. Do you know what a mixed number is?
3. Can you solve a problem set with fractions, decimals, and/or mixed numbers?
4. Can you develop your own number line?
5. Can you compare number (less than, greater than, equal too)?
6. Can you make your own model with fractions, decimals, and mixed numbers?
7. Do you know factors from numbers up to 10?
8. Can you name multiples of numbers up to 100?
9. What is a prime number?
10. What is a composite number?
Then, after I find some information of what the students know I will introduce the graffiti wall. I
will bring in a big poster board and colorful markers so the students can decorate it. They will
write on it things that they all already know about this unit. Next, they will add on to the poster
board each day at the end of class for a couple minutes of the new knowledge that they gained.

Body
Motivational Device:
3

Comment [L2]: 2. Student Development: the

teacher will pre-assess the students prior
knowledge to see what the student already knows.
Then the teacher can gather the levels of all her
students and can than provide opportunities that
support learning opportunities.

I will set the students up into groups of four and have 10 questions that I will write on the
projector. Each group will receive a marker and a small white board and as a group they
will figure out the answer and right it on the chalk board and whoever puts their
chalkboard up high and has legible writing than they will receive a point for their team.
After one student writes the answer to that problem, they will have to switch the writer of
the group to the person on their right, so it is a fair game and everyone gets a chance.

Topical Outline:
Lesson 1: Representations of the quantities as decimals, fractions, and mixed numbers
-

Academic standards: 2.1.4.A: Apply number patterns and relationships to count and
compare values of whole numbers and simple fractions, and decimals.

Assessment anchors: Demonstrate an understanding of numbers, ways of representing

numbers relationships among numbers and number systems.
Use models and/or words to represent quantities as decimals, fractions or mixed numbers.

Lesson methodology: This lesson will be presented in short lecture, group activity, and
review questions. I will look up the standards on pdesas.org to research the topic. This
lesson will begin by playing the game marbles (explained in the lesson plan.) This will
show the kids what they already know about the lesson. They should already know the
simple concepts of fractions and decimals.

Points of the lesson content: Students will be able to determine the fraction of something
when given a problem set, create their own problem set, write mixed numbers, and write
whole numbers.

Lesson 2: Similarities between quantities and magnitudes of numbers

-

Academic standard: 2.1.4.A: Apply number patterns and relationships to count and
compare values of whole numbers and simple fractions, and decimals.

Assessment anchor: Compare quantities and magnitudes of numbers

Lesson methodology: This lesson will be taught by cooperative learning in small groups
and interactions. The students will learn how to work properly with each other and
realize that some have different strengths and weakness than themselves. They will be
expected to know everything taught in lesson one.

Points of the lesson content: Students will be able to determine the fraction or decimal on
a number line, create their own number line, compare and/or order whole numbers
through 6 digits, and determine the amounts of money to $100.

Lesson 3: Factors up to 100

-

Academic standard - 2.1.4.A: Apply number patterns and relationships to count and
compare values of whole numbers and simple fractions, and decimals.

Assessment anchors: Find/list/identify all factors through 10 of any given number.

Find/list/identify multiples of a number, where the multiples do not exceed 100.

Lesson Methodology: This lesson will be taught in multiple ways: discovery learning,
small team interactions, individual work, and class discussion. Students will be expected
to know what we learned in lesson one and two and to cooperate well with others.

Points of the lesson content: students will be able to list/identify (find) all factors through
100 of any given number, learn and create tree diagrams.

Worksheet or Activity sheet:

-

There is at least one worksheet given during each lesson, it is attached to the back of the
lesson.

Unit: Numbers, Number Systems and Number Relationships

Lesson: Representations of the quantities as decimals, fractions, and mixed numbers
Date: 11/2/12

Time Length: 40 min

5

Comment [L3]: 1: Content Pedagogy: All of the

lessons that are included in this unit plan shows that
the teacher understands the central concepts of the
unit, tools of inquiry and how to manage the
classroom.
Throughout this lesson plans it shows a great deal of
learning experiences that make the subject
meaningful to the student.

Academic Standard:

1. Standard - 2.1.4.A: Apply number patterns and relationships to count and compare values
of whole numbers and simple fractions, and decimals.
Assessment Anchor:
1. Demonstrate an understanding of numbers, ways of representing numbers relationships

among numbers and number systems.

2. Use models and/or words to represent quantities as decimals, fractions or mixed numbers.

Comment [L4]: 1, 4, and 7 are throughout this

lesson

INTASC Standards:
1. Content Pedagogy: The teacher understands the central concepts, tools of inquiry, and
structures of the discipline he or she teaches and can create learning experiences that
make these aspects of the subject matter meaningful for students.
4. Multiple Instructional Strategies: The teacher understands and uses a variety of
instructional strategies to encourage student development of critical thinking, problem
solving, and performance skills.
7. Instructional Planning Skills: The teacher plans instruction based upon knowledge of
subject matter, students, the community, and curriculum goals.
Motivational Device:
1. Play the game marbles in the beginning of the class. I will spilt the classroom in half and
have one student from each team come up, give them a problem, and they race on the
board and write their answer down. Whoever gets the question right gets a point for
his/her team and the team with the most points at the end of the game will receive one
piece of candy each.
Instructional Objectives:
1. After the completion of the lesson, students will be able to determine the fraction of
something when given a problem set with no more than one error.
6

2. After the lesson, students will be able to create a drawing of a set with that represents a
given fraction or a decimal including mixed numbers with no errors.
3. Given the activity, write whole numbers in expanded, standard and/or word form through
6 digits with no more than two errors.
Materials Needed: 2 copies of lesson plan, 30 copies of the activity
Technology Needed: Computer and flash drive
Resource Used:
Cruickshank, D. R., Jenkins, D. B., & Metcalf, K.K. (2012). The act of teaching (6th ed.). Boston,
MA: McGraw-Hill.
Clear Standards. (2011). Standards Aligned System: PA Dept. of Ed. Retrieved from,
http://www.pdesas.org/Standard/Views
Lesson Type: Short lecture, group activity, and review questions.
Comment [L5]:
As it states in the lesson:

Lesson Outline:
I.

Introduction (10 minutes)

a. Refresh the students minds about fractions, decimals, and mixed numbers
b. Write a few examples on the board of each
c. Use Motivational device: Play marbles

II.

Content and Pedagogy (20 minutes)

a. Introduce problem sets and how fractions, decimals and mixed numbers can be
involved
i. Show examples of different types of problem sets
ii. Show step-by-step of how it is done on the board
iii. Give them examples and have them answer it on a sheet of paper
iv. Evaluate the paper (have another student grade another)
b. Assign homework
i. Tell the students to create two problems that deal with fractions in a
problem set.
7

4. Multiple Instructional Strategies: The teacher

understands and uses a variety of instructional
strategies to encourage student development of
critical thinking, problem solving, and
performance skills.
7. Instructional Planning Skills: The teacher
plans instruction based upon knowledge of subject
matter, students, the community, and curriculum
goals.

ii. Tell the students that the two best problems will appear in next class
discussion.
c. Compare standard numbers form to the word form of decimals
i. Explain the difference between word form vs. standard numbers
ii. Show examples
d. Whole number expansion
i. Example the place value spots in the number (10, 100, 1,000) (Dont go
more than 10,000)
ii. Write many examples on the board and have a some volunteers to come
up to the board and try.
III.

Activity (7 minutes)
a. Give the activity to the students
b. If needed more time, finish for homework.

IV.

Closure (3 minutes)
a. Collect the activity
b. Summary of the lesson
c. Concluded statements
i. Remind them about their homework
d. Ask for final questions/comments
e. Write on poster board

Review Questions:
I.

What is a problem set and give an example?

II.

What is the difference between standard and word form numbers?

III.

After doing the activity ask the place values of different numbers?

Closure:
I.

How can fractions, decimals, and mix numbers be useful in everyday life?

II.

State two concepts that you learned in todays class

Differentiated learning activities:

I.

Tier 1: Group activity: students test whether they understand the concept of whole
number expansion.

II.

Tier 2: Students will do the activity with examples and it will show which is what
place value.

III.

Tier 3: Students will have less problems and easier numbers. The place values will be
given to them.

Formative Assessment:
I.

Observe students while they complete their activity.

II.

Observe students while they answer review questions to ensure understanding of

fractions, decimals, and mixed numbers.

III.

Collect worksheet to see how they do with their activity.

Homework:
I.

Tell the students to create two problems that deal with fractions in a problem set. The
students that the two best problems will appear in the next class.

Reflection:
I.

Have the students demonstrated their knowledge about fractions, decimals, and mixed
numbers?

II.

Did I cover all of the lesson objectives?

III.

Did my transitions between the topics go smoothly?

Name: ______________________________________________________ Date: ____________

Directions: Write the numbers is expanded standards

Example: 43,076 = 40,000+3000+70+6
9

354

3,205
43
6,439

43,490
28,403

Unit: Numbers, Number Systems and Number Relationships

Lesson: Similarities between quantities and magnitudes of numbers
Date: 11/3/12

Time Length: 40 min

Academic Standard:
10

Comment [L6]: 1: Content Pedagogy: All of the

lessons that are included in this unit plan shows that
the teacher understands the central concepts of the
unit, tools of inquiry and how to manage the
classroom.
Throughout this lesson plans it shows a great deal of
learning experiences that make the subject
meaningful to the student.

1. Standard - 2.1.4.A: Apply number patterns and relationships to count and compare values
of whole numbers and simple fractions, and decimals.
Assessment Anchor:
1. Compare quantities and magnitudes of numbers

Comment [L7]: 1,3, 5, and 7 are throughout this

lesson

INTASC Standards:
1. Content Pedagogy: The teacher understands the central concepts, tools of inquiry, and
structures of the discipline he or she teaches and can create learning experiences that
make these aspects of the subject matter meaningful for students.
3. Adapting Instruction for Individual Needs: The teacher understands how students
differ in their approaches to learning and creates instructional opportunities that are
adapted to diverse learners.
5. Classroom Motivation and Management Skills: The teacher uses an understanding
of individual and group motivation and behavior to create a learning environment that
encourages positive social interaction, active engagement in learning, and selfmotivation.
7. Instructional Planning Skills: The teacher plans instruction based upon knowledge of
subject matter, students, the community, and curriculum goals.
Motivational Device: Get the students into 5 groups of 5 than give them a huge number line and
numbers. Then they would have to cut the numbers and number line out and paste the numbers
on the line as a team. Then, the students will be given a bag of M&Ms, each student in the group
will have a different color M&M and place it on the line when I say a fraction or decimal.
Instructional Objectives:
1. After the activity, students will be able to determine the fraction or decimal on a number
line with no more than one error.

11

2. After the lesson, students will be able to compare and/or order whole numbers through 6
digits with no errors.
3. After the lesson, students will be able to determine the amounts of money to $100 with
no more than three errors.
Materials Needed: 2 copies of lesson plan, 30 copies of the activity and number line/numbers,
and a big bag of M&Ms
Technology Needed: Computer and projector
Resource Used:
Cruickshank, D. R., Jenkins, D. B., & Metcalf, K.K. (2012). The act of teaching (6th ed.). Boston,
MA: McGraw-Hill.
Clear Standards. (2011). Standards Aligned System: PA Dept. of Ed. Retrieved from,
http://www.pdesas.org/Standard/Views
Lesson Type: Group discussion and interactions
Lesson Outline:
I.

Introduction (15 minutes)

a. Show the difference of decimals and fractions on a number line
b. Use your own number line to show examples on the projector
c. Form students into groups of 5
i. Use motivational device
ii. Engage the students

II.

Content and Pedagogy (20 minutes)

a. Show more examples of the number line
i. Explain the concept of how it works again
b. Compare and/or order whole numbers through 6 digits
i. Explain the difference between why 100 is smaller than 300, etc
c. Compare amounts of money to $100
i. Use only dollar amounts
12

III.

Closure (5minutes)
a. Give and explain homework
b. Concluded statements
c. Write on poster board

Review Questions:
I.

Have them explain the concept and amounts of money

II.

Have students distinguish the difference between which number is larger

III.

Ask them the questions: What did you like about working with other students?

Closure:
I.

What are the 3 new concepts that where learned today in class?

Differentiated learning activities:

I.

Tier 1: Group activity: see how well the students interact with each other and how
well their answers are.

II.

Tier 2: Students will be put in groups with more intellectual people and be monitoring
very closely.

III.

Tier 3: Students will be placed in the group with others that are willing and able to
help tutor them. They will be watched very closely.

Formative Assessment:
I.

Watch how the students interact with each other

II.

Observe students while they complete their activity.

III.

Observe students while they answer review questions to ensure understanding of the
three concepts discussed in the lesson.

Homework:
I.

Complete worksheet on comparing numbers to each other.

Reflection:

13

I.

Did I teach my students well enough that they grasped the concepts in todays class?

II.

Did I keep the students attention during the whole class?

III.

Did I cover everything that I needed to?

Comparing Money Amounts and numbers

Write an arrow to which number is larger.

a. $3.45 _____ $3.54

b. $6.90 _____ $6.09
14

c. $0.75 _____ $2.64

d. 55 _____ $122
e. 1.22 _____ 12.2
f. $6.67 _____ $6.76
g. 567 _____ 932
h. $2.34 _____ $2.54
i. 298 _____ 287
j. $321 _____ $3.21

.12
15

3.13
2.19
.25
.50
2.43
3.75
2
1
2
3
4
3
2 1/3
3 5/6

Comment [L8]: 1.Content Pedagogy: The

teacher understands the central concepts, tools of
inquiry, and structures of the discipline he or she
teaches and can create learning experiences that
make these aspects of the subject matter
meaningful for students.

Unit: Numbers, Number Systems and Number Relationships

Lesson: Factors up to 100
Date: 11/4/12

Time Length: 40 min

Academic Standard:

16

I. Standard - 2.1.4.A: Apply number patterns and relationships to count and compare values of
whole numbers and simple fractions, and decimals.
Assessment Anchor:
I. Find/list/identify all factors through 10 of any given number.
II. Find/list/identify multiples of a number, where the multiples do not exceed 100.

INTASC Standards:
1. Content Pedagogy: The teacher understands the central concepts, tools of inquiry, and
structures of the discipline he or she teaches and can create learning experiences that make these
aspects of the subject matter meaningful for students.
2. Student Development (Knowledge of Human Development and Learning) : The teacher
understands how children learn and develop, and can provide learning opportunities that support
a childs intellectual, social, and personal development.
4. Multiple Instructional Strategies: The teacher understands and uses a variety of instructional
strategies to encourage student development of critical thinking, problem solving, and
performance skills.
7. Instructional Planning Skills: The teacher plans instruction based upon knowledge of subject
matter, students, the community, and curriculum goals.

Motivational Device:
Play Baseball: split the class into 3 groups and draw a baseball field on the projector. Quiz them
on old material and some new material that will be learned. (Harder ones will be toward the
home plate) Whoever gets up to 5 home runs first wins and get plus 2 on their homework.

17

Instructional Objectives:
1. After the activity, students will be able to list/identify (find) all factors through 10 of any
given number with no errors.
2. After the lesson, students will be able to find the multiples of any number that doesnt
exceed 100 with no more than one error.
3. After the game during class, students will be able to make diagram trees with no errors.
Materials Needed: 2 copies of lesson plan, 30 copies of the homework, and 30 copies of Bingo
sheet.
Technology Needed: Computer and Projector
Resource Used:
Cruickshank, D. R., Jenkins, D. B., & Metcalf, K.K. (2012). The act of teaching (6th ed.).
Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.
Clear Standards. (2011). Standards Aligned System: PA Dept. of Ed. Retrieved from,
http://www.pdesas.org/Standard/Views
Lesson Type: Small team interactions, individual work, discovery learning and some discussion
Lesson Outline:
I. Introduction (10 minutes)
i. Play Baseball
ii. Concept of finding multiples through 10
a. Examples
b. Composite vs. Prime
II. Content and Pedagogy (25 minutes)
i. Bring Projector out
18

a. Do more factor examples: 1-10

ii. Show the pattern to find multiples (do numbers only up to 100)
iii. Hand out Bingo sheets
a. Explain the game and fill in the chart
i. Give the students a bingo sheet, tell them to fill in the number 1 and
goes to the end of the sheet, and give them pieces to put over the numbers
ii. I will call out a number that doesnt exceed 100 (mostly 1-10) and the
students will put a piece on the number/numbers that is a factor of that
number.
b. Play game and have up to 5 winners at least
c. Each winner will get a prize out of the treasure box
III. Closure (5 minutes)
i. Collect the bingo
ii. Summary of the lesson
iii. Concluded statements
a. Remind them about their homework
b. Ask for final questions/comments
c. Review Questions
e. Write on poster board
Review Questions:
I. What is the difference between prime and composite numbers?
II. How do you find the multiple of a number?

19

III. What are 4 examples of prime numbers?

Closure:
I. What are 3 facts/concepts you learned in class today?
II. How can you apply these concepts at home?
Differentiated learning activities:
I. Tier 1: Bingo: Observe them filling out the Bingo sheet and how well they know the numbers
(help them if needed)
II. Tier 2: Students will have most of the Bingo sheet filled out and the prime number on the
right corner
III. Tier 3: Students will have the whole bingo sheet filled out and examples of prime and
composite numbers on the sheet.
Formative Assessment:
I. Watch how the students interact with each other while playing baseball (motivational device)
II. Observe students while they work on putting together the bingo sheet.
III. Observe students while they play bingo to see if they gain any knowledge during the class
period. See how well the information was learned.
Homework:
1. Make your own tree diagram with the number 10, 56, and 94. The students will be given an
example of what a tree diagram should look like.
Reflection:
I. Did I keep the attention of my students the whole class?
II. Did my students learn the material that was taught in that class period? Did I do a well job
teaching them?

20

III. Did I cover everything that was listed in the instructional objectives?

21

22

23

Unit Test
Name_____________________________________________ Date:________________
Score: ______
1. Name three concepts that you learned in this unit?
1)

2)

3)

2. What fraction of the figure below is shaded?

a.
b.
c.
d.

11/16
1/2
10/16
7/16
24

Comment [L9]: 8. Assessment: the teacher is

formally testing the students to see if they grasped
the knowledge.

3.

What fractional part of the stars is colored? __________________

What fractional part of the stars is blue? _____________________
What fractional part of the stars is emptied? _________________

4. Mary had 8 cookies. She ate 1/2 of them on Monday and 1/4 of them on Tuesday. How many
does she have left to eat on Wednesday?
Answer: _____________________

5. Which two shapes are equal in fractions?

A. Figure 1 and 4
B. Figure 1 and 2
C. Figure 2 and 3
D. Figure 3 and 4
6. Draw your own problem set that represents 7/9 (hint: it can me any shape)

25

Write the number in whole number expansion (Just like our worksheet we had) #7-9
7. 450: _____________________________________________________________________

8. 3,678:____________________________________________________________________

9. 2,607:____________________________________________________________________

10. Which expression is NOT the same as 2 x 3?

A. 2 + 2 + 2
B.3 x 2
C.3 +3
D. 2 x 2 x 2

11.

Write the decimal number that represents the shaded area? ____________________________
Write the decimal number that represents the white area? ______________________________

12. Which number is more than 1/3?

A. 1/16
B.1/8
C.1/2

26

D.1/4

13. Write the decimal number of the mixed numbers below:

1 :______________
1 : ________________
2 2/4: ________________
5 : _________________

For the problems 14- 16, use this number line as a guide

14. Place a star on the number that is of the number line.

15. Place an open circle on the number that is of the number line.
16. Place a closed filled in circle on the number that is of the number line.

17. Which decimal or fraction is out of place on this number line?

.05

1/3

A. 05
B. 1/3
C.
D.

18. Circle which number that is greater?

100 or 93
1 or 1

27

5/6

1.25

$12.54 or $12.62

19. What are the definitions of the following words?

Prime: _________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

Composite: ____________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

20. Which numbers are prime out of 1, 3, 4, 8, 17, 18, 22, and 28?
_____________________________________________________________

21. List all the factors of the following numbers:

3:______________________________
8: ______________________________
19: _____________________________
24: ______________________________

EXTRA CREDIT****
22. Make a tree diagram for the number 26

28

Answer Sheet to the Unit Test

1. Whole number expansion, problem sets, write a fraction, decimal or mixed number from a
problem set, create your own problem set, standard number form, fractions/decimals on a
number line, creating your own number line, comparing whole numbers/money, identify/list/find
the factors of numbers before 100.
2. 10/16
3.2/4 or 1/2, 1/4, and 2/4 or 1/2
4. 2
5. A
6. Some examples of what answers are to be expected

7.400 + 50
8. 3,000+ 600 +70 +8
9. 2,000 + 600 + 7
10. D
11. .25, .75
12. C
13.1.5, 1.75, 2.3, 1.25
14. 5
15.7.5
16.2.5
17. B
18. 100, 1 , and $12.62
29

19. Prime: A number that has no factors besides 1 and itself

Composite: A number that has more factors other than 1 an itself
20. 1, 3, 17
21. 3: 1 and 3
8: 1, 2, 4, 8
19: 1 and 19
24: 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, and 24
Extra Credit
24
8
2

3
4

30

Test Blueprint

Test Blueprint for Unit Based on Instructional Objectives

(Cognitive Domain)
Instructional
Objective

Know.

Comp.

Application

1-1

Analysis

2,4,5

1-2
1-3

7,8,9

2-1

12

14,15,16

2-2

12,18

13

2-3

18

3-1

19

Synthesis Evaluation

1,6

10

11

1,22

11

33

20

3-2

21

17

3-3
Totals

31

Totals

Bibliography
Burden, P. R., & Byrd, D.M. (2007). Methods for effective teaching: Promoting K-12 student
Understanding (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon
Clear standards. (2011). Standards Aligned System: PA Dept. of Ed. Retrieved from,
http://www.pdesas.org/Standard/Views
Cruickshank, D.R., Jenkins, D.B., & Metcalf, K.K. (2012). The act of teaching (6th ed.).
Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.
Danielson, C. (2007). Enhancing professional practice: A framework for teaching. Alexandria,
VA: ASCD
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