POLLUTION CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES Vol. I - Electrostatic Precipitators - A.

Buekens

ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS
A. Buekens
Department of Chemical Engineering CHIS 2, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Belgium
KeyWords: Collector plate, Cottrell filter, Deutsch formula, Electrofilter, (Dry, or wet)
electrostatic precipitator, emission electrode.
Contents

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1. Survey
1.1. Historical
1.2. Main Characteristics
1.3. Subdivisions in Electrostatic Precipitators
1.4. Design Parameters - Collection Efficiency
2. Characteristics
2.1. Construction
2.2. Design and Operating Factors
2.3. Operating limitations and problems
3. Operation
3.1. Principles
3.2. Charging Methods
3.2.1. Field charging
3.2.2. Diffusion Charging
3.3. Operating Data
3.4. Particle Resistivity
3.5. Conditioning Dust Particles
3.6. Resistivity of Fly Ash
3.6.1. Sampling
3.6.2. Effects on Precipitator Performance
3.6.3. Influence of Temperature
4. Operating Problems
5. Wet Electrostatic Precipitators
6. Unusual Forces acting on Aerosol Particles
6.1. Survey
6.2. Thermophoresis
6.3. Thermal Precipitators
6.4. Other exotic Forces:
7. Conclusions
Glossary
Bibliography
Biographical Sketch
Summary

A survey is given of the main applications, the construction, operating mode,

characteristics, and advantages and limitations of dry Electrostatic Precipitators (ESP).
Important parameters are field strength, particle size, and resistivity. Most particles are

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POLLUTION CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES Vol. I - Electrostatic Precipitators - A. Buekens

field charged, then attracted. Submicron particles can be thermally charged, so that
these particles are also collected efficiently.
In Wet Electrostatic Precipitators (WESPs) the collector electrodes are cleaned wet;
especially under condensing conditions a deep removal of fumes becomes possible.
Some special effects, acting upon aerosol particles, are also considered.
1. Survey
1.1. Historical

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In 1906 Dr. Frederick Cottrell, professor of physical chemistry at Berkeley, successfully

precipitated sulfuric acid fumes in a small electrostatic precipitator (ESP) test unit using
a high voltage transformer and the newly-invented synchronous mechanical rectifier.
The commercial feasibility of the electrostatic precipitator was first demonstrated in a
sulfuric acid plant of E.I. DuPont de Nemours, where arsenic vapors were impacting the
operation of their catalytic converters. In 1911 Western Precipitation designed and
constructed the first large electrostatic precipitator, which was installed at the Riverside
Cement Company in Crestmore, California for the recapture of cement kiln dust. This
unit remained in service for 54 years.
1.2. Main Characteristics
Characteristics
Operating Voltage, kV
Gas Flow, m3 h-1

Typical Values
10 to 100
Ranging from less than 10,000 to more than
2,000,000
Gas Linear Velocity, m s-1
0.3 to 3
Gas Temperature, C
Dry: up to 450
Wet/condensation: typically at ca. 70 (i.e. gas
dewpoint)
-3
Dust load in Raw Gas, g m
Up to 100
For high dust loads pre-separation is recommended
-3
Dust load in Clean Gas, mg m
Proportional to the raw gas load!
Dry: 5 to 50
Wet: up to < 5
Condensation: up to < 1
Collection Efficiency, wt.%
Dry: 95 to 99.9
Wet and condensation: > 99.5
Pressure Drop, Pa
50 to 300
Depending on gas velocity and flow length
Operating Pressure, Pa
8 104 to 3 105
Power Consumption, kWh per 0.05 to 2
1000 m3
Particle Sizes Separated, m
All, with a minimum Collection Efficiency at 0.5
to 2
Dust Electric Resistivity, Ohm cm 104 to 1011 (Preferred values)

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POLLUTION CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES Vol. I - Electrostatic Precipitators - A. Buekens

Dust Migration Rate, cm s-1

2 to 30

[Source: Adapted from Bank M. (2000). Basiswissen Umwelttechnik : Wasser, Luft, Abfall, Lrm und
Umweltrecht 4., komplett neue, bearbeitete Auflage, Wurzburg: Germany: Vogel, ISBN 3-8023-1797-1]

Table 1: Important characteristics in Electrostatic Precipitator operation

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Dust particles are imparted an electric charge in a corona discharge and then the charged
particles are attracted in a strong electrostatic field and precipitated onto collector
electrodes. This is the working mode of an electrostatic precipitator (ESP), electrofilter,
or Cottrell filter, three different names for the same type of dust collector, which has
been the principal workhorse in large-scale dust collection (see, Pollution Control in
Industrial Processes, Control of Pollution in Power Generation , Control of Pollution in
the Chemical Industry , Control of Pollution in the Petroleum Industry , Control of
Pollution in the Iron and Steel Industry , Control of Pollution in the Non-ferrous Metals
Industry , and Control of Pollution in the Pulp and Paper Industry ) It is generally
encountered in thermal power plant, cement kilns, ore roasting, metal smelting, waste
incineration, the pulp and paper industry, and in the manufacture of sulfuric acid. The
success of the Electrostatic Precipitator is due to its very high separating efficiency
(generally > 98 percent) obtained over a very wide range of particle size, as well as a
dependable and trouble free operation. Dust is collected at a very low-pressure drop
(generally some 100 to 200 Pa) and operating cost (power consumption typically
amounts to 0.1 to 0.3 kWh per 1000 m3 gas treated). Investment cost, on the other hand,
is sizeable, for these ESP filters operate at low linear gas velocities, and hence tend to
be bulky and expensive. Some of their most important characteristics are given in the
Table 1.
Conventional (dry) Electrostatic Precipitators also exist in a wet version, used for
special purposes, mainly collecting metallurgical fumes, acid and salt mists and capable
of very high efficiency under arduous conditions, especially in a condensing mode (see,
Wet Scrubbers).
1.3. Subdivisions in Electrostatic Precipitators

Electrostatic Precipitators can be subdivided according to:

1) Operating mode, with three types: dry (the most usual), wet, and condensing
(wet) units.
2) Flow direction, with horizontal gas flow (the most usual), or vertical,
3) Shape of the earthed collector surfaces, either tubular, with a single central
emission wire electrode, or (most frequently) flat or corrugated plates, with rows
of emission electrodes situated in between them.

Tubular units are only used in small-scale equipment, and in condensing wet units. They
consist of single or multiple units, with a typical diameter of 10 cm, and a height of 0.6
up to 6 m. Plate units normally consist of a large box, containing sets of vertical
collector plates, with a mutual distance of 20 to 60 cm, and emission electrode wires
situated at a regular distance halfway in the middle of two plates.

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POLLUTION CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES Vol. I - Electrostatic Precipitators - A. Buekens

Parameter
Distance between plates, cm
Duct width, cm
Gas velocity in ESP, m s-1
SCA, m2 per 1000 m3 h-1
Aspect ratio* (L/H)
Particle migration velocity, cm s-1
Number of fields
Corona power/flue gas volume, W per 1000 m3 h-1
Corona current density, A m-2
Plate area, m2 per electrical TR set

keep plate height less than 9 m for high efficiency.

[Source: White, H.J. (1977). Electrostatic precipitation of fly ash Parts: I, II, III and IV. Journal of
Journal of Air Pollution Control Association, 27, APCA Reprint Series 1, 2, 3 and 4, 1977.]

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Range
20-30
20-23 optimum
1.2-2.4; 1.5-1.8 optimum
11-45; 16.5-22.0 optimum
1-1.5
3-15
4-8
59-295
107-860
465-7430; 930-2790 optimum

Table 2: Typical ranges of design parameters for fly ash precipitators

1.4. Design Parameters - Collection Efficiency

A large number of factors affect ESP performance in a complicated fashion. This

implies that design is difficult, requiring experience and investigations. A basic
parameter is the voltage selected for operation.
When the voltage is increased above a certain threshold value (the corona onset voltage,
Vc) a corona discharge starts on the wire as either spots (negative corona emission
electrode) or uniform glow (positive corona), representing regions of gaseous
ionization. Monopolar ions of the corona polarity are emitted from the emission
electrode and move across the electrode gap towards the collecting electrode.
When the voltage is raised the corona current increases according to:
I

A V (V Vc )

(1)

At a certain voltage, Vs sparking occurs and unless the voltage is interrupted this turns
into arcing.
The working interval Vs - Vc is much wider with a negative corona than with a positive
one. The latter is used in air purification, since it generates much less ozone. The latter,
however, may be put to good use in case disinfection and deodorizing are required.
The average and maximum gas flow rates through the ESP, the temperature, moisture
content, chemical properties such as dew point, corrosiveness, and combustibility of the
gas should be identified prior to final design. If the ESP is going to be installed at an
existing source, a stack test should be performed to determine the process gas stream
properties. If the ESP is being installed at a new source, data from a similar plant or
operation may be used, but the ESP should be designed conservatively, with a large
specific collection area SCA, a high aspect ratio, and high corona power.
Collection Efficiency can theoretically be calculated, but the value really achievable is

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POLLUTION CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES Vol. I - Electrostatic Precipitators - A. Buekens

considerably affected by phenomena such as non-ideal collection and especially reentrainment of deposited particles. Mostly used is the Deutsch equation:

efficiency = 1 e

v. A
Q

(2)

where v represents the effective particle migration velocity, A - the projected surface of
the collector electrode, Q - the volumetric gas flow. The Deutsch formula has a
theoretical basis, but fails to describe the actual collection efficiency with a sufficient
level of accuracy, because of entrainment of collected particles and other phenomena
causing inefficiencies, such as sparking, local turbulences, misdistribution, hydraulic
short-circuiting (hot gas riding on top of colder strata) and other flow irregularities.

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The effective velocity v of particles can be related to the charging field, El, the
collecting field, E2, and the viscosity by:
v =

E1 . E 2 . D
4.

(3)

The migration velocity v at preset values of E1 and E2 is proportional to particle size and
inversely proportional to gas viscosity. The migration velocity of a 5 m particle
typically attains 30 cm s-1 at 350 C and 48 cm s-1 at 20 C.
In practice, each constructor uses proprietary data for determining migration velocities,
taking into account the nature of the particles, the probability of their re-entrainment,
the type of charging and collecting electrodes, operating conditions, etc. These data are
based upon collection efficiencies, experimentally observed under similar conditions.
The collection efficiency is markedly affected by particle size and conductivity. The
charge of an individual particle is proportional to its surface. Hence, the ease of
collection is inversely proportional to the particle diameter. The best efficiency is
attained on particles having an intermediate electric resistivity (105 - 1010 ohm cm).
Highly conducting particles are rapidly discharged and often re-entrained. Highly
insulating particles build up an electrically insulating layer on the collecting electrode,
eventually leading to disruptive discharge and sparking. Salt fumes, soot, and flakes of
charred paper are difficult to collect.

Another delicate point is dislodging the deposited dust layer from the collector plates.
Ideally, it glides down as a solid sheet when periodically a hammer knocks on an anvil
attached to the collector plate, or when a vibrator, or (in wet units) a spray is activated.
In practice, part of the dust is re-entrained, leading to a puff of extra dust in the exhaust.
For this reason, an electrostatic precipitator normally consists of two, three, or four
successive fields, exposed to decreased load and rapping frequency.
Calculation
Collection efficiency

Deutsch-Anderson
= 1 e w(A Q)

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Matts-Ohnfeldt

= 1 e w

( A Q )k

POLLUTION CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES Vol. I - Electrostatic Precipitators - A. Buekens

Collection
meet
a
efficiency

area to
required

Legend

Q
A=
ln (1 )
w

1k

Q k

A = [ln (1 )]
wk

= Collection efficiency, wt. = Collection efficiency, wt.

%
%
2
A = collection area, m
A = collection area, m2
w = migration velocity, m s-1
wk = migration velocity, m s-1
3 -1
Q =gas flow rate, m s
Q =gas flow rate, m3 s-1
ln = natural logarithm
k = constant (usually 0.5)
ln = natural logarithm

[Source:http://yosemite.epa.gov/oaqps/EOGtrain.nsf/fabbfcfe2fc93dac85256afe00483cc4/d11a01df3
32fbdbc85256b66004ecb8e/$FILE/12bles4.pdf, Lesson 4 - ESP Design Review.]

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Table 3: Equations used to estimate collection efficiency and collection area

2. Characteristics
2.1. Construction

At the inlet of the precipitator, the dust-laden gas must be evenly distributed over the
entire cross-section by means of two or three perforated plates in series, a diffuser.
These plates create sufficient head loss to prevent most of the gas from passing on top
(when it is hotter) or at the bottom (when it is cooler than the average). Another
distribution problem arises when due to space limitations the dusts leading to or
from the filter are curved, causing a gyratory movement and uneven dust distribution at
the entrance: this should be corrected by providing parallel lamella guiding the flow
through a number of parallel channels sufficient to ensure equal distribution.
The gas then passes, generally in horizontal flow, between rows of grounded collector
plates and of high-voltage charging electrodes. The latter are formed by wires, with
circular or sometimes a star-formed cross-section, tensioned by a weight or by spiral
wires mounted in a framework. The charging electrodes are suspended from quartz
insulators. During starting-up these insulators are electrically heated, to avoid shortcircuiting by condensation of moisture.

The electrical part of the plant consists of a high voltage transformer and of silicon or
other rectifier diodes in a bridge circuit. The transformer-rectifier aggregate is contained
in an oil and air cooled housing. The high voltage is controlled automatically with
transducers or thyristors, connected in series. An automatic electronic controller makes
it possible to vary the duration of the controlling impulses, to limit the current in the
precipitator to a predetermined maximum value, to switch off selectively and
temporarily in case of sparking, and to switch off automatically in case of shortcircuiting. The electric aggregate is installed either on top of the precipitator, or in a
special room. Generally the precipitator contains several electric fields in series, each
field being controlled by its own high voltage aggregate. The sequence of at least two
fields enhances efficiency during rapping or sparking.
At least three independent, consecutive fields are specified in case low emission values,

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POLLUTION CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES Vol. I - Electrostatic Precipitators - A. Buekens

e.g. 50 or even 30 mg per Nm3 are required. The collecting surfaces are suspended from
beams welded to the roof of the precipitator. The collecting and charging electrodes are
rapped periodically by tumbling hammers. The collecting electrode has a smooth
surface, to avoid sparking, and is placed in a region of low gas velocity, to restrict reentrainment. The collected dust falls into a hopper hermetically closed at the bottom by
e.g. a rotary valve or a set of sliding valves. The latter discharge the dust into a
mechanical or pneumatic conveying system. Mechanical systems involve screw and
also drag conveyors. Pneumatic systems may be confronted with fly ash solidification,
in case it has hydraulic properties or of spontaneous ignition and sintering.
Precipitators with tubular collecting electrodes, surrounding the charging electrode are
more expensive. The gas flow in these precipitators is vertical and in upflow. A vertical
arrangement is but rarely used, e.g. when space is at a premium.

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2.2. Design and Operating Factors

Discharge electrodes and electrode supports should be positioned centrally, free from
swaying. The bottom and top of each wire should be covered with shrouds to help
minimize sparking and metal erosion at these points. Newer ESPs generally use rigidframe or rigid-electrode discharge electrodes.

Property
Effect
Particle Size Small particles are more difficult to collect and become re-entrained more
easily than larger particles. A minimum collection efficiency is experienced
Distribution
around 0.5 2 m. Additional fields may be required to meet regulatory limits
Concentration When the dust concentration is too high, the automatic voltage controller may
in gas stream respond by totally suppressing the current in the inlet fields:
a cyclone or multicyclone may remove larger particles and
conveniently reduce the dust concentration before the flue gas enters
the ESP
installing a larger ESP with more plate area would be more costly.
Resistivity varies with flue gas temperature, the chemical composition of dust,
Resistivity
and moisture content. For fly ash from coal-fired boilers, resistivity moreover
depends on the sulfur content of the coal burned: the lower the sulfur content,
the higher the resistivity. For boilers burning low-sulfur coal the ESP must be
designed to deal with potential problems. Spraying water, injecting SO3 or
other conditioning agents can reduce resistivity. A medium resistivity is
desirable.
Explosiveness, e.g. due to carbon or carbon monoxide
Chemical
Dew point, corrosiveness, and combustibility
composition
[Source:http://yosemite.epa.gov/oaqps/EOGtrain.nsf/fabbfcfe2fc93dac85256afe00483cc4/3cf51317b
4891fcb85256b66004ee90e/$FILE/12bles5.pdf. Lesson 5 - Industrial Applications of ESPs.]

Table 4: Dust properties affecting ESP performance

Collection electrodes: tubes are chosen only for small plants or for wet operation. For
ESPs using wire discharge electrodes, the spacing between collection plate electrodes
usually ranges from 15 to 30 cm. For ESPs using rigid-frame or rigid electrodes, the

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POLLUTION CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES Vol. I - Electrostatic Precipitators - A. Buekens

spacing is typically 30 to 38 cm. Equal spacing is important. Stiffeners may help

preventing the plates from warping, particularly when hot-side precipitators are used.
Proper electrical sectionalization is important to achieve high collection efficiency in
the ESP. it refers to the division of a precipitator into a number of different fields and
cells, each powered by its own T-R set. ESPs should have at least three to four fields to
attain high collection efficiency. There should be approximately one T-R set for every
1000 to 3000 m2 of collection-plate area.
The specific collection area (SCA) is typically 10 - 50 m2 per 1000 m3 h-1 of flue gas
through the precipitator.

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The Aspect ratio, the ratio of effective length to height of the collector surface, is
usually 1.3 to 1.5 and occasionally as high as 2.0 for limiting re-entrainment.
Even distribution of gas flow across the entire precipitator unit is critical to ensure
collection of the particles. To assure even distribution, gas should enter the ESP through
an expansion inlet plenum containing perforated diffuser plates and straightening vanes
should be installed if a curved inlet must be used.
The optimum gas velocity is usually between 1.5 and 1.8 m s-1.

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Bibliography

Banks M. (2000). Basiswissen Umwelttechnik : Wasser, Luft, Abfall, Lrm und Umweltrecht 4.,
komplett neue, bearbeitete Auflage, Wurzburg, Germany: Vogel, ISBN 3-8023-1797-1. [Basic treatise of
environmental techniques, including those used in gas cleaning]

Hinds, W. C. (1999). Aerosol Technology: Properties, Behavior, and Measurement of Airborne Particles.
2nd Ed., New York, N. Y., USA: John Wiley & Sons Inc., ISBN 0-471-19410-7. [Monograph treating the
most important aspects of atmospheric particles]
http://ebiz.diamondpower.com/DP/DPsubHTML/WPHIST.HTM. [Western Precipitation History
citing the origins and original features of the first and subsequent precipitators]
http://www.eng.buffalo.edu/Courses/ce412/LecNotes.html Intro to Aerosol Technology Lecture 17:
Thermal and Radiometric Forces.[Comprehensive series of lectures dealing with the basics of aerosol
techniques]
http://www.epri.com/OrderableitemDesc.asp?product_id=CS%2D2809&targetnid=267818&value=
04T076.0&marketnid=267714&oitype=1&searchdate=12/1/1981 [website from an important US institute
with wide interest in the field of gas cleaning]
Gallaer, C. A. (1983). Electrostatic Precipitator Reference Manual. Electric Power Research Institute

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POLLUTION CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES Vol. I - Electrostatic Precipitators - A. Buekens

(EPRI) Report CS-2809, Jan 1983. [This manual reviews the history of electrostatic precipitators (ESPs)
and the theory on which they are based.]
http://yosemite.epa.gov/oaqps/EOGtrain.nsf/fabbfcfe2fc93dac85256afe00483cc4/d11a01df3
32fbdbc85256b66004ecb8e/$FILE/12bles4.pdf, Lesson 4 - ESP Design Review.[EPA publication with
each chapter devoted to a specific aspect of the ESP, here the design aspects]
http://yosemite.epa.gov/oaqps/EOGtrain.nsf/fabbfcfe2fc93dac85256afe00483cc4/3cf51317b
4891fcb85256b66004ee90e/$FILE/12bles5.pdf. Lesson 5 - Industrial Applications of ESPs. [EPA
publication, with this particular chapter devoted to the applications of ESPs]
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1991). Control Technology for Hazardous Air Pollutants,
Handbook, EPA 625/6-91/014, June 1991. [EPA handbook devoted to the various methods for controlling
Hazardous Air Pollutants]

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White, H.J. (1977). Electrostatic precipitation of fly ash Parts: I, II, III and IV. Journal of Journal of Air
Pollution Control Association, 27, APCA Reprint Series 1, 2, 3 and 4, 1977. [Detailed treatise of fly ash
collection by electrostatic precipitation techniques]
Biographical Sketch

Alfons Buekens was born in Aalst, Belgium; he obtained his M.Sc. (1964) and his Ph.D (1967) at Ghent
University (RUG) and received the K.V.I.V.-Award (1965), the Robert De Keyser Award (Belgian Shell
Co., 1968), the Krber Foundation Award (1988) and the Coca Cola Foundation Award (1989). Dr.
Buekens was full professor at the Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), since 2002 emeritus. He lectured in
Ankara, Cochabamba, Delft, Essen, Sofia, Surabaya, and was in 2002 and 2003 Invited Professor at the
Tohoku University of Sendai.
Since 1976 he acted as an Environmental Consultant for the European Union, for UNIDO and WHO and
as an Advisor to Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe, T.N.O. and VITO. For 25 years, he advised the major
industrial Belgian Bank and conducted more than 600 audits of enterprise.
Main activities are in thermal and catalytic processes, waste management, and flue gas cleaning, with
emphasis on heavy metals, dioxins, and other semi-volatiles. He coordinated diverse national and
international research projects (Acronyms Cycleplast, Upcycle, and Minidip). Dr. Buekens is author of
one book, edited several books and a Technical Encyclopedia and authored more than 90 scientific
publications in refereed journals and more than 150 presentations at international congresses. He is a
member of Editorial Boards for different journals and book series.

He played a role in the foundation of the Flemish Waste Management Authority O.V.A.M., of a
hazardous waste enterprise INDAVER, and the Environmental Protection Agency B.I.M./I.B.G.E. He
was principal ministerial advisor in Brussels for matters regarding Environment, Housing, and Classified
Enterprise (1989). Since 1970 he has been a Member of the Board of the Belgian Consumer Association
and of Conseur, grouping more than a million members in Belgium, Italy, Portugal, and Spain.
He is licensed expert for conducting Environmental Impact Assessments (Air, Water, Soil) and Safety
Studies regarding large accidents (Seveso Directive).

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