MORAL PSYCHOLOGY AND INFORMATION ETHICS

Running Head: MORAL PSYCHOLOGY AND INFORMATION ETHICS

MORAL PSYCHOLOGY AND INFORMATION ETHICS:

PSYCHOLOGICAL DISTANCE AND THE COMPONENTS OF
MORAL ACTION IN A DIGITAL WORLD
Charles R. Crowell
Department of Psychology and Computer Applications Program
University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556
574-277-4774, [email protected]
Darcia Narvaez and Anna Gomberg
Department of Psychology, University of Notre Dame
Notre Dame, IN 46556, [email protected], [email protected]
Abstract
This chapter discusses the ways in which moral psychology can inform information
ethics. A Four Component Model of moral behavior is described involving the
synergistic influences of key factors including sensitivity, judgment, motivation, and
action. Two technology-mediated domains, electronic communications and digital
property, are then explored to illustrate how technology can impact each of the four
components believed to underlie moral behavior. It is argued that technology can
create a kind of psychological distance between those who use technology for
communication or those who acquire and use digital property (e.g., software or
music) and those who may be affected by such uses (e.g., email recipients or digital
property owners). This distance potentially impacts all four components of moral
behavior in such a way that the usual social or moral constraints operative under
normal (non-technology-mediated) circumstances (e.g., face-to-face communication)
may be reduced, thereby facilitating the occurrence of unethical activities like piracy,
hacking, or flaming. Recognition of the potential deleterious impact of technology
on each of the four components leads to a better understanding of how specific
educational interventions can be devised to strengthen moral sensitivity, judgment,
motivation and action within the context of our increasingly digital world.

work is a model of moral behavior that identifies the joint action of four
psychological processes: sensitivity, judgment, motivation, and action (Narvaez &
Rest, 1995).
Certainly, the information age has been accompanied by its share of
technology-related ethical issues and challenges. Interestingly, many (if not most) of
these challenges are not fundamentally new (Barger, 2001). Although there may well
be exceptions, information technology appears to have created new and different
ways to engage in the same kinds of unethical behaviors seen throughout history,
from stealing property to invading personal privacy (Johnson, 2001). Because these
issues have been studied and analyzed for years in other contexts, it is all the more
important for information science researchers and practitioners to be well acquainted
with general principles of moral and ethical development. Indeed, it is now wellattested that our perceptions of the moral landscape are influenced by developmental
and social-cognitive factors (Lapsley & Narvaez, in press). In order to plan
educational interventions that help technology users develop appropriate ethical
attitudes and behaviors with respect to their use of information technology, educators
can take advantage of a wealth of knowledge about moral development from the
field of moral psychology.
The purpose of this chapter is to acquaint those working in the field of
Information Science with a psychological perspective on moral or ethical behavior.
In this chapter we examine key psychological processes that are critical for moral
behavior, discuss the function of these processes in the domain of technology, and
suggest strategies to enhance education related to information ethics.
At the outset, it is important to draw attention to our use of certain terms. While
we make no substantive distinction between the terms moral and ethical, there is
an important difference between what may be considered moral and what is
legal, or conversely between what is immoral and what is illegal. To be
legal is to conform ones behavior to the laws established by the societies in which
we live. Morality, on the other hand, is a matter of conformity to divine law or
codes of conduct derived from principles of right and wrong that transcend societal
strictures. There is no automatic correspondence between that which is legal and
that which is moral, or vice versa. That is, depending on the society, what many
would consider immoral practices may be considered legal (e.g., prostitution in
Nevada) while some illegal practices (e.g., harboring Jewish fugitives in Nazi
Germany during World War 2) may be quite moral.
A FOUR COMPONENT MODEL OF MORAL BEHAVIOR

We ignore ethics and computing at our peril! (Rogerson & Bynum, 1995)
Unethical behavior is pervasive and timeless, as is the question of why people do
bad things. What makes some people behave morally or ethically and others not?
Psychologists interested in moral development have attempted to answer such
questions by examining the psychological components of morality, the elements that
work in concert to bring about moral behavior (Rest, 1979). Emerging from this

The Four Component Model (Narvaez & Rest, 1995; Rest, 1979) represents the
internal processes necessary for a moral act to ensue: moral sensitivity, moral
judgment, moral motivation, and moral action. These components are not
personality traits or virtues; rather they are major units of analysis used to trace how
a person responds in a particular social situation. The model depicts an ensemble of
processes, not a single, unitary one. Therefore, the operation of a single component

MORAL PSYCHOLOGY AND INFORMATION ETHICS

does not predict moral behavior. Instead, behaving morally depends upon each
process and the execution of the entire ensemble. Each process involves cognitive,
affective, and behavioral aspects that function together in fostering the completion of
a moral action.
Collectively, the following processes comprise the Four Component Model and
are presented in logical order: (1) Ethical sensitivity involves perceiving the
relevant elements in the situation and constructing an interpretation of those
elements. This first component also includes consideration of what actions are
possible, who and what might be affected by each possible action, and how the
involved parties might react to possible outcomes. (2) Ethical judgment relates to
reasoning about the possible actions and deciding which is most moral or ethical. (3)
Ethical motivation involves prioritizing what is considered to be the most moral or
ethical action over all others and being intent upon following that course. (4)
Ethical action combines the strength of will with the social and psychological
skills necessary to carry out the intended course of action. This fourth component,
then, is dependent both on having the requisite skills and on persisting in the face of
any obstacles or challenges to the action that may arise.
When considering moral or ethical behavior, a post-hoc analysis of the situation
is often most helpful. In this way, we can point out where the processes might have
failed. Consider the young adult who is tempted to download copyrighted music that
has been illegally placed on a file sharing system in violation of the owners rights.
Lets call this young adult, Jim, and examine the four component processes in an
effort to understand what might happen. Moreover, lets assume that downloading
music for which one has not paid under these circumstances is both illegal and
immoral.
Ethical Sensitivity
To respond to a situation in a moral way, a person must be able to perceive and
interpret events in a way that leads to ethical action. The person must be sensitive to
situational cues and must be able to visualize various alternative actions in response
to that situation. A morally sensitive person draws on many aspects, skills,
techniques and components of interpersonal sensitivity. These include taking the
perspectives of others (role taking), cultivating empathy for and a sense of
connection to others, and interpreting a situation based on imagining what might
happen and who might be affected. Individuals with higher empathy for others and
with better perspective-taking skills are more likely to behave for the good of others
in a manner that is said to be pro-social (Eisenberg, 1992). So if Jim, our young
adult, has highly developed ethical sensitivity skills, he takes the perspectives of all
the people involved in producing the music. He feels empathy for their welfare and a
sense of concern for them. He considers the ramifications of downloading
copyrighted material including his and other peoples welfare and reactions.

Ethical Judgment
After Jim has identified the lay of the land through an active set of ethical
sensitivity skills, he must determine which action to take. Ethical judgment has to do
with assessing the possible actions and determining which is the most moral.
Hundreds of research studies have demonstrated that individuals (male and female)
develop increasingly sophisticated moral reasoning structures based on age and
experience, especially related to education (Rest, Narvaez, Bebeau, & Thoma, 1999).
Jim could use one of several moral schemas (conceptual structures) in making a
decision about what to do.
Rest et al. (1999) have identified three schemas individuals access depending on
their level of moral judgment development. Using the Personal Interests Schema
(common in high school students and younger), Jim would consider what benefits
himself the most and perhaps choose to download the music from the file-sharing
server. Alternatively, he might be worried about being caught and having to suffer the
consequences, leading him to choose not to download. Based on recent threats in the
news about how record companies intend to bring lawsuits against those who are
participating in illegal sharing of copyrighted music files over the Internet, Jims
mother might have warned him about doing such things. That she may find out also
might deter him, because he wants to be a good son. If his reasoning is even more
sophisticated he would be concerned about societal laws and social order
(Maintaining Norms Schema). This would likely deter him, unless he subscribes to
some other non-civil set of laws (e.g., cult norms). Yet even more sophisticated
(Postconventional Schema) reasoning would lead Jim to think of ideal social
cooperation. At this level, he could behave as an Idealist by seeking to take an action
that he could demand of anyone in his position (Kants Categorical Imperative), or he
could adopt the view of a Pragmatist by choosing his actions according to what
would bring about the greatest good for the greatest number. In either case, at the
postconventional level of reasoning, Jim is likely to resist downloading.
In fact, Friedman (1997) has shown that moral sensitivity and reasoning are
critical to adolescents decisions and opinions regarding the acceptability of taking
actions such as violating copyright protection by making illegal copies of computer
programs (i.e., pirating) or invading someones privacy through unauthorized access
to (i.e., hacking) their computer files. Friedman (1997) demonstrated that adolescents
who viewed as permissible pirating and hacking did so not out of lack of respect for
property and privacy rights in general but because they judged computer property to
be different than other types of property (see Technology and Ethical Behavior
section below), suggesting that moral sensitivity (i.e., assigning moral relevance to
some kinds of property and not others) was more at issue here than was moral
judgment. The difference in question seems to be related to the relative lack of
tangibility associated with digital instantiations of things like documents or songs

MORAL PSYCHOLOGY AND INFORMATION ETHICS

(i.e., computer property) compared to things like bicycles or cars (i.e., physical
property).
Ethical Motivation

In this section, we will briefly review some of the known ways in which technology
can exert such influences.
Technology-Mediated Communication and Psychological Distance

After deciding that a particular action is the most moral, Jim must set aside other
goals and interests to further its completion. He may have developed the necessary
dispositional skills to maintain a sense of moral integrity such as the ability to
distract himself from his original (impulsive) goal to download. Jim can more easily
acquire these skills if he is already conscientious and has cultivated a sense of
responsibility to others, or if he has a religious orientation in which he derives
meaning from a power greater than himself. Research suggests that persons who
chronically maintain moral standards as central to the self are more likely to interpret
situations and react in ways that are consistent with these standards (Lapsley &
Narvaez, in press). So, if Jim has not developed these qualities, he may give in to his
initial impulse to download at this point. In so doing, Jim would elevate other values
(e.g., status, power, pleasure, or excitement) above the moral standards related to
ethical action.
Ethical Action
The final component of the model is comprised of the skills that facilitate
successful implementation of the moral action. Jim must know what steps are
necessary to complete a moral action and possess the perseverance necessary to
follow them. This component may be less salient in our hypothetical situation
because it involves a singular personal decision to download or not download. But,
imagine a more complex situation in which Jim has a friend who did illegally
download copyrighted material on a campus computer. What should Jim do? If he
decides to report the friend, he would need to know what steps to take and would
need to have the motivation to follow through even if it costs him the friendship.
Recall that the Four Component Model is a set of processes that, working in
concert, result in moral behavior. This implies that the course of moral behavior may
fail at any point due to a weakness in one or more processes. Some people may
function well in one process but may be deficient in another. For instance, Jim may
demonstrate great sensitivity but poor judgment skills, or he might make an excellent
judgment but fail in follow-through. We next examine the domain of technology to
see how it potentially affects information ethics and the four component processes
outlined above.
TECHNOLOGY AND ETHICAL BEHAVIOR
While technology itself may not pose fundamentally new ethical challenges, it
may well impinge in unique and important ways on one or more components of the
model presented above. This, in turn, would be expected to affect ethical behavior.

A growing body of evidence suggests that technology-mediated communications

may differ in important ways from face-to-face or other traditional forms of
interpersonal interactions. Kiesler, Siegel, and McGuire (1984) have elaborated on
this possibility by identifying several ways in which email (perhaps the most used
means of computer-mediated communication) may differ from other forms of
communication. For instance, email can be relatively rapid and can be easily
configured to reach just one or many recipients. Since it is predominantly textual,
email lacks the kinds of nonverbal cues that accompany face-to-face interactions and
also is devoid of the information conveyed by voice intonations and inflections. In
addition, email can be viewed as a less personal medium of communication because
the recipients are not actually present, leaving the audience either to be imagined
by the sender or not envisioned at all. Thus, the normal triggers for empathy and
interpersonal sensitivity that occur in face-to-face encounters are missing.
As Sproull and Kiesler (1991) have noted, the reduced audience awareness
occurring during email correspondence, due to the fact that participants neither see
nor hear one another as messages are being sent or received, can have a variety of
social-psychological consequences on both sides of the communication process.
From the senders perspective, unlike synchronous communications by phone or in
person, there is no information available as the message is being composed and
delivered to guide clarity or stimulate adjustment based on recipient reactions. This
can reduce a senders sensitivity to the social correctness of the message and
likewise can reduce the senders apprehension about being judged or evaluated by
the recipient (Sproull & Kiesler, 1991). Similarly, the ephemeral nature of email can
render its recipients less sensitive to the senders status or position and can
compromise their ability to discern any affect or special points of emphasis intended
by the sender, at least in the absence of special formatting or the use of emoticons
(Kiesler et al., 1984; Sproull & Kiesler, 1991). Moreover, the accepted, regulating
conventions and boundaries of more traditional communication do not necessarily
apply to email (Kiesler et al., 1984). This can blur distinctions of traditional
importance (e.g., office vs. home, work hours vs. personal time) and can greatly
diminish or abolish the use of commonly-accepted communication protocols (e.g.,
letterheads) and other forms of etiquette (e.g., salutations). Also, those that
correspond frequently using this electronic means may come to expect diminished
response time to email (Kiesler et al., 1984).
As a consequence of its altered social context and norms, computer-mediated
communication may be distinctive in at least three important ways (Kiesler et al.,
1984). When it is asynchronous, like email, without the usual regulatory influences
of the feedback inherent in real-time interactions, messages may be more difficult to
understand and more challenging to compose with the desired level of clarity.

MORAL PSYCHOLOGY AND INFORMATION ETHICS

Second, given a reduced sense of status among participants, electronic

communications may be less formal and more like those characteristic of peer-topeer interactions. Third, a reduced sense of audience may depress the self-regulation
that is commonplace in more traditional communications, and may therefore render
computer-mediated exchanges more open and less inhibited by normal social
standards and boundaries.
Apparently, then, computer-mediated communication is less socially constrained
than traditional forms of interpersonal interaction. In this way, the technological
medium creates a kind of psychological distance between communicator and
audience (Sumner & Hostetler, 2002). This factor has important implications for
behavior within this medium. Of particular interest is the possibility that computermediated messages, exchanges, or discussions may be more open and frank than
their traditional counterparts. That this might be true was strongly suggested by
Weizenbaums (1976) provocative observations of how people behaved with respect
to Eliza, a computer programmed to simulate a Rogerian psychotherapist.
Weizenbaum noted that people appeared quite willing to reveal intimate issues to the
computer, perhaps even more so than might be the case with an actual therapist
(Sproull & Keisler, 1991). Subsequent research did in fact confirm that computermediated self-disclosure via an electronic survey is indeed qualitatively different
seemingly in favor of more open and honest responsesfrom that obtained with a
paper and pencil questionnaire (Kiesler & Sproull, 1986), suggesting fewer social
inhibitions. Sumner and Hostetler (2002) reported a similar finding in the context of
e-conferencing. Moreover, comparing the efficacy of therapy using face-to-face,
audio, and real-time video conferencing modes of communication, Day and
Schneider (2002) found that clients participated more in the distance modes than in
the face-to-face mode, although therapeutic outcomes were similar across all modes.
Decreased social inhibition may be the cause of a heightened tendency within
computer-mediated communication to engage in behavior of a less than ethically
desirable nature. For example, being less inhibited in electronic communications can
lead to a behavior known a flaming, in which one makes derogatory or off-color
comments via email or in a chat room that very likely would not be made in
comparable face-to-face situations (Sproull & Keisler, 1991). Of course, a reduced
threat of physical retaliation also could play a role in activating this behavior. In
addition, electronic communications may facilitate another ethically questionable
activity, spamming (Johnson, 2001), probably not just because email makes it easy or
cost- effective to do, but also because social inhibitions related to initiating
unsolicited communications may be reduced. Finally, Johnson (2001) describes a
whole category of virtual actions, such as cyber-stalking and cyber-rape, that
probably are influenced at least to some degree by the reduced social constraints
associated with computer-mediated communication.
With respect to technology-mediated communication, then, it seems quite
reasonable to suppose that its altered social context will impinge importantly on one
or more of the four components of the model described above. For example, a
technological communication medium that reduces audience awareness likely will

decrease Ethical Sensitivity (Component 1). In turn, Ethical Judgments (Component

2) and Ethical Actions (Component 3) associated with this medium could depart
from those expected under more conventional modes of communication. However,
the communication process is not the only aspect of human behavior where ethical
behavior may be influenced by technology. Views of what constitutes property
also may be affected as discussed in the next section.
Perceptions of Digital Objects and Materials
As noted above, Ethical Sensitivity (Component 1) relates to the question of how
situations and objects are perceived. One way to think about the psychological
distance associated with computer-mediated communication is as a form of altered
Ethical Sensitivity. This occurs because the interactive rules for face-to-face
interpersonal communication are not as easily activated or applied in the cyberworld. Another way in which technology can impact Component 1 is by changing
perceptions of what constitutes property. Mounting evidence suggests that
electronically-encoded materials or objects are perceived differently than physical
materials or objects. For example, Friedman (1997) reported the results of a 1988
study with high school students in which perceptions and ethical judgments about
physical and digital objects were compared. Students made a clear distinction
between physical objects that were private or not private. All students saw a trash
receptacle on a street corner as not being private, while 97% saw someones bicycle
as private property. Interestingly, however, only 25% of the students believed that a
commercially published and copyrighted computer program was private property.
Friedman did not find the latter result to be readily attributable either to a general
lack of computer experience among the students or to their lack of knowledge about
applicable copyright policies. Instead, a certain domain-specific sensitivity appears
to be lacking.
In further assessing the matter of privacy, Friedman (1997) examined student
perceptions of different locations of information: an individuals computer files, the
contents of a notice tacked on a school bulletin board, and a personal diary. Almost
all students (97%) regarded the diary information as private, whereas everyone
regarded the bulletin board notice as not being private. In addition, a full third of the
students also saw the contents of the computer files as not being private.
Teston (2002) was interested to determine if the perception of software as nonprivate property noted in the Friedman (1997) study also characterized the views of
middle school students. In a sample of 264 7th graders, Teston found the majority
(55%) characterized software as being public property. In addition, over 58%
believed that any property rights of the software developers were terminated at the
time of purchase by a software user. Like Friedman, Teston also found that a
majority of participants held this view despite recognizing the applicability of
copyright laws. While the percentages of students holding these beliefs about
software differed in the Friedman and Teston studies, the fact that the data in these
respective studies were collected 10 years apart cannot be ignored. Nonetheless,

MORAL PSYCHOLOGY AND INFORMATION ETHICS

taken together, these findings reveal that digital instantiations of objects (e.g.,
programs) or materials (e.g., computer files) are viewed differently than their
physical counterparts (e.g., diaries).
Digital Objects and Ethical Judgments
The apparent differential perceptions of digital and non-digital materials reported
by Friedman (1997) and Teston (2002) beg this question: How might ethical
judgments (mediated by Component 2) differ with respect to these materials? One
might expect that behavior considered ethically wrong in connection with tangible
property or materials could be viewed differently when it comes to digital property or
materials. That is, to the extent that digital objects or materials are perceived as
being less private than their more tangible counterparts, a greater moral
permissiveness is likely to be attached to behavior involving those objects or
materials.
Both Friedmans (1997) and Testons (2002) findings confirmed these suspicions.
In terms of property, Friedman observed that none of the students in her sample
thought it was alright to take someone elses physical property (a bicycle). In
contrast, 77% felt is was okay to copy someone elses computer program (i.e., pirate
it) for their own use; 47% said it was alright to pirate a program to give to someone
else; and 40% even approved of piracy for purposes of making a profit by selling the
copies. In addition, 62% also thought it was okay to pirate music to give away. With
respect to materials, only 3% of the students said it was okay to read someone elses
private diary, and only 10% said it was acceptable to read an open letter lying on
someone elses desk. But when it came to materials in electronic form, 43% said it
was fine to access someone elses computer files if you didnt read them, and 16%
said it was okay to access and read someone elses files. Interestingly, however, no
one in the sample approved of accessing and changing information in those files.
Teston (2002) found a similar pattern of results with younger adolescents. While
only 10% of the students advocated taking someone elses bicycle, 52% thought it
was okay to pirate software, and 65% found it all right to pirate music CDs. When
the possibility of pirating digital objects via the internet was explored, even greater
latitude was observed. That is, 60% of the students said it was okay to pirate
software from the Internet, and 85% found it acceptable to pirate commercial music
files in MP3 format. The increased permissiveness associated with digital property
was highlighted by Testons (2002) overall finding that 88% of those who advocated
software piracy were opposed to stealing a bicycle.
Thus, it seems that perceptions of digital objects and materials, as well as
judgments about what constitutes appropriate behavior with respect to such
materials, differ from those associated with more tangible objects. Just as was noted
for computer-mediated communication, wherein the electronic medium seems to
distance communicator from audience, digital instantiations of property (i.e.,
programs, music, or information) seem to distance users from property owners.
Consequently, in both cases, a kind of increased permissiveness can arise resulting in
situational behaviors (e.g., flaming, piracy) that may deviate from that which would

be observed in non-technologically-mediated circumstances (i.e., situations involving

face-to face communication or tangible property) wherein more accepted codes of
conduct probably would be followed. An interesting question here relates to the
extent to which distance and its possible ameliorating effects on normal inhibitions
also may play a role in non-technology-mediated forms of communication where
sender and recipient are somewhat removed from one another (e.g., letters to the
editor or a printed newspaper or magazine).
The Digital World and Ethical Motivation
As intimated in the previous review, moral motivation (Component 3) can be
altered in the digital arena. Whereas a bicycle connotes an owner, software does
not, and the usual rules concerning property rights do not engage. To the extent that
people communicate in situations where the medium (e.g., technology) distances
the person at the other end (e.g., software developer, message recipients),
recognition of the need for adherence to usual norms or standards of conduct appears
to be diminished. In turn, this psychological distance can alter the perception of
consequences and harm to others, thereby increasing the motivational importance of
personal interests.
So, what we have shown here, then, is that technology can influence the
processing of morally-relevant information by virtue of its distinctive effects on one
or more of the processes that guide such behavior. Specifically, we have focused on
two domains, communications and personal property, within which behavior seems
to be influenced in unique ways when an electronic format is involved. In these
cases, the electronic format acts as if it establishes a kind of psychological distance
between communicators and their audiences as well as between people and property
owned by others. This distance potentially impacts all four component processes
involved in ethical action. Ethical Sensitivity can be reduced because the distance
factor makes it more difficult to empathize with the audience or property owner who
ultimately might be affected. Ethical Judgment may be altered because reduced
empathy can reorder the priority of possible actions that could be taken such that
what might be unethical in a different context (e.g., stealing a bike) now becomes
more acceptable (e.g., pirating software). In turn, Ethical Motivation can change
because the distance makes it far less obvious who is potentially harmed, thereby
elevating personal goals over a concern for others, and the lack of immediate social
sanction makes the cyber-world appear more like a lawless free for all. Finally,
Ethical Action is influenced by a no harm, no foul mentality, which can lead to the
occurrence of unethical behavior (i.e., flaming, cyber-rape, pirating, illegal
downloading of MP3s, hacking into personal computer files, or plagiarizing from the
work of others, etc.). Since some aspects of cyber-space, like the Internet, are in the
public domain, the problem of the commons comes into play. Clearly, many can
(and have been) hurt by the abuses of a few in the cyber-world. The recent rash of
annoying or harmful computer viruses and worms are but one marked example of
this abuse.

MORAL PSYCHOLOGY AND INFORMATION ETHICS

Two further points about the effects of technology on behavior should be noted
here. First, we must acknowledge that this medium may have many other influences
on human action than those we have focused on here. We do not pretend to have
offered an exhaustive look at all the possibilities in this regard. Second, not all of the
consequences of technology are bad. Even in terms of the psychological distance
factor we have identified, there are some instances in which enhanced self-disclosure
or a reduced sense of evaluation anxiety mediated by a technological format may in
fact be beneficial. For example, using technologically-mediated communication
channels, shy patients may feel more comfortable revealing important kinds of
information to doctors or therapists. Similarly, students reluctant to participate in
class might open up using electronic discussion boards or chat rooms.

information technology, the gap between communicator and audience or user and
property owner imposed by the technologically-inspired psychological distance we
have described above must be narrowed so that proper ethical sensitivity can be
achieved. Here we would recommend exercises designed to enhance personal
empathy skills, particularly as they relate to technology use. These exercises would
focus on highlighting who is affected by personal technology use. Who is on the
other end of that communication, or who really owns that resource? How would you
react or what would you expect if you were in their position? Students might be
encouraged to imagine the person on the other end of the communication as someone
they know, as usually happens in instant messaging behavior with friends.
Developing Ethical Judgment

INFORMATION ETHICS EDUCATION

The field of information ethics is complex and multidimensional (see Johnson,
2001 for a review). We advocate, as have others (e.g., Smith, 1992), that this topic
should be well represented in the curriculum of any program dealing with
Information Science. At the same time, however, it is clear that IS
majors/professionals are not the only people in need of information ethics education.
The pervasive use of technology today by the general public, through the Internet,
personal digital assistants (PDAs), and other means, strongly suggests that
heightened awareness of information ethics should be engendered across the board.
Although the exact ways by which this ambitious goal can be achieved are not
immediately clear, the work of Friedman (1997) and Teston (2001) suggests that
information ethics education should begin in the early grades.
Using the Four Component Model as a framework, we make the following
suggestions for learning experiences that can enhance the development of each
process within the domain of information ethics. These activities can be adapted for
both pre- and post-secondary educational contexts. Due to space limitations, our
treatment here is necessarily brief. For more detailed suggestions we recommend
that you consult work by Narvaez and colleagues (Narvaez, in press; Narvaez, 2001;
Narvaez, Bock & Endicott, 2003; Narvaez, Endicott, Bock & Lies, in press) who
have parsed each component process into a set of specific skills. The learning
experiences outlined below presume that a list of information ethics situations has
been generated that can be used in discussions about each component, as has been
done in other domains (Rest & Narvaez, 1994).
Developing Ethical Sensitivity
To increase ethical sensitivity, students should spend a lot of time practicing
ethical problem solving in many contexts and with guidance from someone more
expert; someone who is familiar with the ethical landscape of the domain. Students
also should spend time interpreting situations (e.g., determining what is happening,
perceiving the moral aspects, responding creatively). For situations involving

To increase ethical reasoning, students should discuss moral dilemmas

(hypothetical and real) which will bring about cognitive conflict and challenge their
thinking; they should discuss their reasoning with peers (especially peers with
different viewpoints); and they should practice perspective-taking generally and
within the technology domain in order to learn to view the world from multiple
perspectives (Lapsley, Enright, & Serlin, 1989). Ethical reasoning skills include
reasoning about standards and ideals, using moral codes (e.g., discerning moral code
application), understanding consequences (e.g., predicting consequences), reflecting
on process and outcome (e.g., reasoning about means and ends, monitoring ones
reasoning, making right choices), and learning to choose environments that support
moral behavior. Exercises in this category should enhance the ability to recognize
what is ethical from what is not and to reason about possible actions. Important in
this effort would be creating an awareness of the relevant moral and ethical standards
in question. For example, in terms of information ethics, students should be exposed
to established codes of conduct like the Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics
(Barquin, 1992). At the very least, such exposure should be accompanied by
discussion of these codes in the context of an examination of what behavior is and is
not consistent with them.
Developing Ethical Motivation
Ethical motivation skills include cultivating conscience (e. g, developing self
command), acting responsibly (e.g., meeting obligations, being a global citizen),
valuing traditions and institutions (e.g., understanding social structures), and
developing ethical identity and integrity (e.g., choosing good values, reaching for
ones potential). In addition, students should be encouraged to build a self concept as
an ethical person (Grusec & Redler, 1980) and learn about and be encouraged to
adhere to personal, professional and societal codes of ethics. In terms of technology
use, these exercises should acquaint users with institutional fair use policies, which
normally include statements related to the consequences of violations, and should

MORAL PSYCHOLOGY AND INFORMATION ETHICS

allow for exploration of existing mandates (or laws) and consequences related to
domains like privacy, intellectual property, and intellectual honesty.
Developing Ethical Action
Ethical action skills include planning to implement decisions (e.g., thinking
strategically) and cultivating courage (e.g., standing up under pressure). To increase
the ability to complete an ethical action, students need to develop ego strength (i.e.,
strength of will) and specific implementation skills. To increase ego strength,
students should learn self-talk that allows them to encourage themselves towards a
moral goal and distracts them from temptation. They should also know how to
mobilize support from others for the ethical action. To increase implementation
skills, students need to observe models implementing specific skills. They need to
practice implementing, step by step, a particular ethical action in multiple contexts.
For information ethics, a primary focus might be on identifying obstacles and
challenges to ethical action: What tends to get in the way of doing that which is right
and how can such challenges be managed? Of course, peer pressure often is a
perennial challenge in this regard that should be considered at some length.
CONCLUSION
In this chapter, we have argued that information ethics can be informed by moral
psychology: specifically, the Four Component Model of moral behavior. Moreover,
we have examined some of the ways in which technology may impinge on the
components of moral action through the creation of psychological distance.
Further research is needed to study such questions as how a sense of social
embeddedness can be facilitated and how psychological distance can be reduced in
the cyber-world. For example, in technology-mediated communication, can
psychological distance be reduced by incorporating visual representations of the
audience through photos, video, or digital representations (i.e., avatars)?
There is no doubt that technology use will continue and even escalate with time.
Therefore, it is imperative continuously to examine ways in which our understanding
of technologys impact and implications for personal and societal behavior can be
guided by principles derived from other fields of study. Establishing clear ties
between the fields of moral psychology and information ethics is a good place to
start.
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