Module #23 Boolean Algebra

Chapter 11
Boolean Algebra
Rosen 6th ed., ch. 11

Module #23 Boolean Algebra

What is Boolean Algebra?

A minor generalization of propositional logic.
In general, an algebra is any mathematical structure satisfying
certain standard algebraic axioms.
Such as associative/commutative/transitive laws, etc.

General theorems that are proved about an algebra then apply

to any structure satisfying these axioms.

Boolean algebra just generalizes the rules of

propositional logic to sets other than {T,F}.
E.g., to the set {0,1} of base-2 digits, or the set
{VL, VH} of low and high voltage levels in a circuit.

We will see that this algebraic perspective lends itself to

the design of digital logic circuits.
Claude Shannons
Masters thesis!

Module #23 Boolean Algebra

Boolean Algebra
Sections of chapter 11:
1 Boolean Functions
2 Representing Boolean Functions
3 Logic Gates
4 Minimization of Circuits

Module #23 Boolean Algebra

11.1 Boolean Functions

Boolean complement, sum, product.

Boolean expressions and functions.
Boolean algebra identities.
Duality.
Abstract definition of a Boolean algebra.

Module #23 Boolean Algebra

Complement, Sum, Product

Correspond to logical NOT, OR, and AND.
We will denote the two logic values as
0:F and 1:T, instead of False and True.
Using numbers encourages algebraic thinking.

New, more algebraic-looking notation for

the most common Boolean operators:
x : x

x y : x y

x y : x y

Precedence order
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Module #23 Boolean Algebra

Boolean Functions
Let B = {0, 1}, the set of Boolean values.
For all nZ+, any function f:BnB is called
a Boolean function of degree n.
There are 22 (wow!) distinct Boolean
functions of degree n.
B/c 2n rows in truth table, w. 0 or 1 in each.
Degree
0
1
2
3

How many
2
4
16
256

Degree
4
5
6

How many
65,536
4,294,967,296
18,446,744,073,709,551,616.
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Module #23 Boolean Algebra

Boolean Expressions
Let x1, , xn be n different Boolean variables.
n may be as large as desired.

A Boolean expression (recursive definition) is a string

of one of the following forms:
Base cases: 0, 1, x1, , or xn.
Recursive cases: E1, (E1E2), or (E1+E2), where E1 and E2 are
Boolean expressions.

A Boolean expression represents a Boolean function.

Furthermore, every Boolean function (of a given degree) can
be represented by a Boolean expression.
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Module #23 Boolean Algebra

Hypercube Representation
A Boolean function of degree n can be
represented by an n-cube (hypercube) with
the corresponding function value at each
vertex. (1,1,0)
(0,1,0) 1

1(1,1,1)
1(0,1,1)

(1,0,0)
0
0 (1,0,1)
0 (0,0,1)
(0,0,0)1

(a, b, c)

a b bc

Module #23 Boolean Algebra

Boolean equivalents,
operations on Boolean expressions
Two Boolean expressions e1 and e2 that represent
the exact same function f are called equivalent.
We write e1e2, or just e1=e2.
Implicitly, the two expressions have the same value for
all values of the free variables appearing in e1 and e2.

The operators , +, and can be extended from

operating on expressions to operating on the
functions that they represent, in the obvious way.

Module #23 Boolean Algebra

Some popular Boolean identities

Double complement:
x=x

Idempotent laws:
x + x = x,

xx=x

Identity laws:
x + 0 = x,

x1=x

Domination laws:
x + 1 = 1,

x0=0

Commutative laws:
x + y = y + x,

xy=yx

Associative laws:
x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z
x (y z) = (x y) z

Distributive laws:
x + yz = (x + y)(x + z) Not true
x (y + z) = xy + xz in ordinary

De Morgans laws:

algebras.

(x y) = x + y, (x + y) = x y

Absorption laws:
x + xy = x,

x (x + y) = x

also, the Unit Property: x + x = 1 and Zero Property: x x = 0

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Module #23 Boolean Algebra

Duality
The dual ed of a Boolean expression e
representing function f is obtained by
exchanging + with , and 0 with 1 in e.
The function represented by ed is denoted fd.

Duality principle: If e1e2 then e1de2d.

Example: The equivalence x(x+y) = x
implies (and is implied by) x + xy = x.

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Module #23 Boolean Algebra

Boolean Algebra, in the abstract

A general Boolean algebra is any set B having
elements 0, 1, two binary operators ,, and a
unary operator that satisfies the following laws:
Identity laws:
x 0 = x,
x1=x
Complement laws: x x = 1,
x x = 0
Associative laws:(xy)z = x(yz), (xy)z = x(yz)
Commutative laws: x y = y x, x y = y x
Distributive laws: x(yz) = (xy)(xz),
x(yz)=(xy)(xz).
Note that B may generally have other

elements besides 0, 1, and we have not

fully defined any of the operators!
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Module #23 Boolean Algebra

11.2 Representing Boolean

Functions
Sum-of-products Expansions
A.k.a. Disjunctive Normal Form (DNF)

Product-of-sums Expansions
A.k.a. Conjunctive Normal Form (CNF)

Functional Completeness
Minimal functionally complete sets of
operators.

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Module #23 Boolean Algebra

Sum-of-Products Expansions
Theorem: Any Boolean function can be
represented as a sum of products of
variables and their complements.
Proof: By construction from the functions
truth table. For each row that is 1, include a
term in the sum that is a product representing
the condition that the variables have the values
given for that row.
Show an example on the board.
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Module #23 Boolean Algebra

Literals, Minterms, DNF

A literal is a Boolean variable or its complement.
A minterm of Boolean variables x1,,xn is a
Boolean product of n literals y1yn, where yi is
either the literal xi or its complement xi.
Note that at most one minterm can have the value 1.

The disjunctive normal form (DNF) of a degree-n

Boolean function f is the unique sum of minterms
of the variables x1,,xn that represents f.
A.k.a. the sum-of-products expansion of f.

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Module #23 Boolean Algebra

Conjunctive Normal Form

A maxterm is a sum of literals.

CNF is a product-of-maxterms representation.
To find the CNF representation for f,
take the DNF representation for complement f,
f = ij yi,j

and then complement both sides & apply

DeMorgans laws to get:
f = ij yi,j

Can also get CNF more

directly, using the 0
rows of the truth table.
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Module #23 Boolean Algebra

Functional Completeness
Since every Boolean function can be expressed in
terms of ,+,, we say that the set of operators
{,+,} is functionally complete.
There are smaller sets of operators that are also
functionally complete.
We can eliminate either or + using DeMorgans law.

NAND | and NOR are also functionally

complete, each by itself (as a singleton set).
E.g., x = x|x, and xy = (x|y)|(x|y).

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Module #23 Boolean Algebra

11.3 Logic Gates

Inverter, Or, And gate symbols.

Multi-input gates.
Logic circuits and examples.
Adders, half, full, and n-bit.

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Module #23 Boolean Algebra

Logic Gate Symbols

Inverter (logical NOT,
x
Boolean complement).
x
AND gate (Boolean
y
product).
x
OR gate (Boolean sum).
y
XOR gate (exclusive-OR, x
sum mod 2).
y

x
xy
x+y
xy
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Module #23 Boolean Algebra

Multi-input AND, OR, XOR

Can extend these
gates to arbitrarily
many inputs.
Two commonly
seen drawing styles:
Note that the second
style keeps the gate
icon relatively small.

x1
x2
x3

x1

x5

x1x2x3

x1x5

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Module #23 Boolean Algebra

NAND, NOR, XNOR

Just like the earlier icons,
but with a small circle on
the gates output.
Denotes that output is
complemented.

The circles can also be

placed on inputs.
Means, input is complemented
before being used.

x
y

xy

x
y

x y

x
y

x y

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Module #23 Boolean Algebra

Buffer
What about an inverter
x
x
symbol without a circle?
This is called a buffer. It is the identity function.
It serves no logical purpose, but
It represents an explicit delay in the circuit.
This is sometimes useful for timing purposes.

All gates, when physically implemented, incur a

non-zero delay between when their inputs are seen
and when their outputs are ready.
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Module #23 Boolean Algebra

Combinational Logic Circuits

Note: The correct word to use here is
combinational, NOT combinatorial!
Many sloppy authors get this wrong.

These are circuits composed of Boolean

gates whose outputs depend only on their
most recent inputs, not on earlier inputs.
Thus these circuits have no useful memory.
Their state persists while the inputs are constant, but
is irreversibly lost when the input signals change.
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Module #23 Boolean Algebra

Combinational Circuit Examples

Draw a few examples on the board:
Majority voting circuit.
XOR using OR / AND / NOT.
3-input XOR using OR / AND / NOT.

Also, show some binary adders:

Half adder using OR/AND/NOT.
Full adder from half-adders.
Ripple-carry adders.
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Module #23 Boolean Algebra

11.4 Minimizing Circuits

Karnaugh Maps
Dont care conditions
The Quine-McCluskey Method

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Module #23 Boolean Algebra

Goals of Circuit Minimization

(1) Minimize the number of primitive Boolean logic
gates needed to implement the circuit.
Ultimately, this also roughly minimizes the number of
transistors, the chip area, and the cost.
Also roughly minimizes the energy expenditure
among traditional irreversible circuits.

This will be our focus.

(2) It is also often useful to minimize the number of

combinational stages or logical depth of the circuit.
This roughly minimizes the delay or latency through the
circuit, the time between input and output.
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Module #23 Boolean Algebra

Minimizing DNF Expressions

Using DNF (or CNF) guarantees there is always
some circuit that implements any desired Boolean
function.
However, it may be far larger than needed!

We would like to find the smallest sum-ofproducts expression that yields a given function.
This will yield a fairly small circuit.
However, circuits of other forms (not CNF or DNF)
might be even smaller for complex functions.
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