U-2 Mechanical Working of Metals

MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY
UNIT II
MECHANICAL WORKING OF METALS
MECHANICAL WORKING OF METALS

Hot and Cold Working: Rolling, Forging, Wire
Drawing, Extrusion types Forward, backward and
tube extrusion.
Sheet Metal Operations: Blanking blank size
calculation, draw ratio, drawing force, Piercing,
Punching, Trimming, Stretch forming, Shearing,
Bending simple problems Bending force
calculation, Tube forming Embossing and coining,
Types of dies: Progressive, compound and
combination dies.
Manufacturing Technology
Mechanical Working of Metals
In this method no machining process is carried out, but it is used

to achieve optimum mechanical properties in the metal.
The wastage of material in metal working process is negligible or
very small. But the production is very high compared to other
process.
Manufactured
goods
Mechanical
working
(No Machining)
Finished goods
with desired
properties
Types of Metal Working or Processing Methods
Mechanical processing
Hot working
Cold working
Thermal processing
Annealing
Recovery, recrystallization and growth
Heat treatments
Both of these are used to control properties of the final product
Hot Working: T>0.5Tm
Mechanical working of a metal above the recrystallization
temperature but below the melting point is known as hot working.
The temperature at which the complete recrystallization of a metal
take place with in a specified time
The recrystallization temperature of metal will be about 30 to 50% of
its melting temperature.
Types
Forging
Rolling
Extrusion
Drawing
Hot Working
Advantages
Force requirement is less
Refined grain structure
No stress formation
Quick and Economical
Suitable for all metals
Disadvantages
Poor surface finish
Less accuracy
Very high tooling and handling cost
Sheets and wires cannot be produced
Cold Working :T<0.3Tm
Mechanical working of a metal below the recrystallization

temperature (Room Temperature) is known as cold working.
Reduces the amount of plastic deformation that a material can

undergo in subsequent processing and requires more power for
further working
Types
Drawing
Squeezing
Bending
Cold Working
Advantages
Better surface finish
High dimensional accuracy
Sheets and wires can be produced
Suitable for Mass production
Disadvantages
Stress formation in metal very high
Close tolerances cannot be achieved
No Refined grain structure
Comparison of Hot and Cold Working
S.No
1
Hot Working
Cold Working
Working above
Working below recrystallization
recrystallization temperature
temperature
Formation of new crystals
No crystal formation
Surface finish not good
Good surface finish
No stress formation
Internal Stress formation
No size limit
Limited size
Forging
Forging is a process in which the work piece is shaped by
compressive forces applied through various dies and tools. It is one
of the oldest metalworking operations. Most forgings require a set
of dies and a press or a forging hammer.
Unlike rolling operations, which generally produce continuous
plates, sheets, strip, or various structural cross-sections, forging
operations produce discrete parts.
Typical forged products are bolts and rivets, connecting rods, shafts
for turbines, gears, hand tools, and structural components for
machinery, aircraft, railroads and a variety of other transportation
equipment.
Forging
Forging Methods
Open-Die Forging
Compression of work part between two flat dies
Deformation operation reduces height and increases diameter of
work
Common names include upsetting or upset forging
Open-Die Forging with No Friction
If no friction occurs between work and die surfaces, then
homogeneous deformation occurs, so that radial flow is uniform

throughout work part height
Homogeneous deformation of a cylindrical work part

1. start of process with work piece at its original length and diameter,
2. partial compression, 3. final size.
Open-Die Forging with Friction
Friction between work and die surfaces constrains lateral flow of
work, resulting in barreling effect
In hot open-die forging, effect is even more pronounced due to
heat transfer at and near die surfaces, which cools the metal and
increases its resistance to deformation
Deformation of a cylindrical work part in open-die forging, showing pronounced barreling

(1) start of process, (2) partial deformation, (3) final shape.
Impression-Die Forging
Compression of work part by dies with inverse of desired part shape

Flash is formed by metal that flows beyond die cavity into small gap
between die plates
Flash serves an important function:
As flash forms, friction resists continued metal flow into gap,
constraining material to fill die cavity
In hot forging, metal flow is further restricted by cooling against die
plates
Impression-Die Forging
(1) just prior to initial contact with raw work piece, (2) partial
compression, and (3) final die closure, causing flash to form in
gap between die plates.
Trimming After Impression-Die Forging
Trimming operation (shearing process) to remove the
flash after impression-die forging.
Advantages of impression-die forging compared to
machining from solid stock:
Higher production rates

Less waste of metal
Greater strength
Favorable grain orientation in the metal

Limitations:
Not capable of close tolerances
Machining often required to achieve accuracies and

features needed
Flash less Forging
Compression of work in punch and die tooling whose
cavity does not allow for flash
Starting work part volume must equal die cavity volume
within very close tolerance
Process control more demanding than impression-die
forging
Best suited to part geometries that are simple and
symmetrical
Often classified as a precision forging process
Flash less Forging
(1) just before initial contact with work piece, (2) partial
compression, and (3) final punch and die closure.
Forging Hammers (Drop Hammers)
Apply impact load against work part
Two types
Gravity drop hammers - impact energy from falling
weight of a heavy ram
Power drop hammers - accelerate the ram by

pressurized air or steam
Disadvantage: impact energy transmitted through anvil
into floor of building
Commonly used for impression-die forging
Drop Hammer Details
Diagram showing details of a drop hammer for

impression-die forging.
Forging Presses
Apply gradual pressure to accomplish compression
operation
Types
Mechanical press - converts rotation of drive motor
into linear motion of ram
Hydraulic press - hydraulic piston actuates ram
Screw press - screw mechanism drives ram
Mechanical press
Hydraulic press
Upsetting and Heading
Forging process used to form heads on nails, bolts, and
similar hardware products
More parts produced by upsetting than any other
forging operation
Performed cold, warm, or hot on machines called headers
or formers
Wire or bar stock is fed into machine, end is headed,
then piece is cut to length
For bolts and screws, thread rolling is then used to form
threads
Upset Forging
An upset forging operation to form a head on a bolt or
similar hardware item The cycle consists of: (1) wire stock is
fed to the stop, (2) gripping dies close on the stock and the
stop is retracted, (3) punch moves forward, (4) bottoms to
form the head.
Heading
Examples of heading (upset forging) operations: (a) heading a nail

using open dies, (b) round head formed by punch, (c) and (d) two
common head styles for screws formed by die, (e) carriage bolt head
formed by punch and die.
Forging Defects
Fracture
Exhausted ductility
Inter-granular fracture
Barreling - Friction
Solution
limited deformation per step
Process anneal between steps
Rolling
Deformation process in which work thickness is reduced by
compressive forces exerted by two opposing rolls
The rolling process (specifically, flat rolling)
Rolling
The initial breaking down of an ingot or of a continuously cast slab is
done by hot rolling. A cast structure includes coarse and nonuniform grains. This structure is usually brittle and may contain
porosities.
Hot rolling converts the cast structure to a wrought structure. This
structure has finer grains and enhanced ductility, both resulting
from the breaking up of brittle grain boundaries and the closing up
of internal defects, especially porosity.
The product of the first hot rolling operation is called bloom or slab.
A bloom usually has a square cross-section, at least 150 mm (6in) on
the side; a slab is usually rectangular in cross section. Blooms are
processed further, by shape rolling, into structural shapes, such as Ibeams and railroad rails. Slabs are rolled into planes and sheet.
Billets are usually square, with a cross-sectional area smaller than
blooms; they are later rolled into various shapes, such as round rods
and bars, by the use of shaped rolls. Hot-rolled round rods are used
as the starting material for rod and wire drawing. They are called
wire rods.
Rolling
One of the primary first process to convert raw material into finished
product.
Starting material (Ingots) are rolled into blooms, billets, or slabs by
feeding material through successive pairs of rolls.
Bloom - square or rectangular cross section with a thickness
greater than 6 and a width not greater than twice the
thickness
Billets - square or circular cross section - - smaller than a
bloom
Slabs - rectangular in shape (width is greater than twice the
thickness), slabs are rolled into plate, sheet, and strips.
Rolling
Rolled Products Made of Steel
Some of the steel products made in a rolling mill
Rotating rolls perform two main functions:
Pull the work into the gap between them by friction
between work part and rolls
Simultaneously squeeze the work to reduce its cross
section
Types of Rolling
Based on work piece geometry :
Flat rolling - used to reduce thickness of a rectangular

cross section
Shape rolling - square cross section is formed into a shape
such as an I-beam
Based on work temperature :
Hot Rolling most common due to the large amount of
deformation required
Cold rolling produces finished sheet and plate stock
Flat Rolling
Heated metal is passed between rotating rolls to reduce the crosssection.
Side view of flat rolling, indicating before and after thicknesses, work
velocities, angle of contact with rolls, and other features.
Shape Rolling
Work is deformed into a contoured cross section rather than
flat (rectangular)
Accomplished by passing work through rolls that have the
reverse of desired shape
Products include:
Construction shapes such as I-beams, L-beams, and
U-channels
Rails for railroad tracks

Round and square bars and rods
Shape Rolling
Thread Rolling
Bulk deformation process used to form threads on cylindrical
parts by rolling them between two dies

Important commercial process for mass producing bolts and
screws
Performed by cold working in thread rolling machines

Advantages over thread cutting (machining):
Higher production rates
Better material utilization

Stronger threads and better fatigue resistance due to work
hardening
Thread rolling with flat dies
(1) start of cycle
(2) end of cycle
Thread Rolling
Rolling Mills
Equipment is massive and expensive
Rolling mill configurations:

Two-high two opposing rolls
Three-high work passes through rolls in both directions
Four-high backing rolls support smaller work rolls

Cluster mill multiple backing rolls on smaller rolls
Tandem rolling mill sequence of two-high mills
Two-High Rolling.
a -2-high rolling mill.
Three-High Rolling.
b -3-high rolling mill.
Four-High Rolling.
b -4-high rolling mill.
Cluster Mill
d -Cluster mill.
Tandem Rolling Mill
A series of rolling stands in sequence
e Tandem Rolling mill.
Rolling Defects
Waviness-a
Improper roller speeds
Zipper cracks-b
Too much rolling in center
Edge cracks-c
Too much rolling on outside
Alligatoring-d
Too much induced tensile stress in the part, or defects
Drawing
Drawing is an operation in which the cross-section of solid rod, wire
or tubing is reduced or changed in shape by pulling it through a die.
Drawn rods are used for shafts, spindles, and small pistons and as
the raw material for fasteners such as rivets, bolts, screws.
Drawing also improves strength and hardness when these
properties are to be developed by cold work and not by subsequent
heat treatment.
Drawing Types
Wire Drawing
Cross-section of a bar, rod, or wire is reduced by pulling it through a
die opening
Similar to extrusion except work is pulled through die in drawing (it is
pushed through in extrusion)
Although drawing applies tensile stress, compression also plays a
significant role since metal is squeezed as it passes through die opening
Drawing of wire.
Wire drawing machines consisting of multiple draw dies (typically
4 to 12) separated by accumulating drums
Each drum (capstan) provides proper force to draw wire stock
through upstream die
Each die provides a small reduction, so desired total reduction is
achieved by the series
Annealing sometimes required between dies to relieve work
hardening
Continuous drawing of wire
Area Reduction in wire Drawing
Change in size of work is usually given by area reduction
Ao A f
Ao
where r = area reduction in drawing; Ao = original area of work;

and Af = final work
Die Materials
Commonly used materials are Tool Steels and Carbides
Diamond dies are used for fine wire.
For improved wear resistance, steel dies may be chromium plated,
and carbide dies may be coated with titanium nitride
For Hot drawing, cast-steel dies are used
Bar or Rod Drawing
Accomplished as a single-draft operation - the stock is pulled
through one die opening
Beginning stock has large diameter and is a straight cylinder
Requires a batch type operation
Hydraulically operated draw bench for drawing metal bars
Tube Drawing
Accomplished by pulling the stock through the sides of the mandrel
placed between dies
Wire Drawing vs. Bar Drawing
Difference between bar drawing and wire drawing is stock size
Bar drawing - large diameter bar and rod stock
Wire drawing - small diameter stock - wire sizes down to 0.03
mm (0.001 in.) are possible
Although the mechanics are the same, the methods, equipment, and
even terminology are different
Preparation of Work for Drawing
Annealing to increase ductility of stock
Cleaning - to prevent damage to work surface and draw die

Pointing to reduce diameter of starting end to allow
insertion through draw die
Features of a Draw Die
Entry region - funnels lubricant into the die to prevent
scoring of work and die
Approach - cone-shaped region where drawing occurs
Bearing surface - determines final stock size

Back relief - exit zone - provided with a back relief angle
(half-angle) of about 30
Die materials: tool steels or cemented carbides
Draw Die Details
Draw die for drawing of round rod or wire
Extrusion
A plastic deformation process in which metal is forced under pressure
to flow through a single, or series of dies until the desired shape is
produced.
Process is similar to squeezing toothpaste out of a toothpaste tube
In general, extrusion is used to produce long parts of uniform cross
sections
Typical products made by extrusion are railings for sliding doors,
tubing having various cross-sections, structural and architectural
shapes, door and windows frames.
Extrusion Ratio
ER= A o /A f
A o cross-sectional area of the billet
A f - cross-sectional area of extruded product
Extrusion Force
F = A o K Ln (A o/A f)
K-extrusion constant
A o , A f billet and extruded product areas
Types
Direct Extrusion (Forward Extrusion)
Indirect Extrusion (Backward Extrusion)

Hydrostatic Extrusion
Impact Extrusion
Direct Extrusion
Billet is placed in a chamber and forced through a die opening by a
hydraulically-driven ram or pressing stem.
Dies are machined to the desired cross-section
Friction increases the extrusion force
Direct Extrusion
Schematic illustration of direct extrusion process
Direct Extrusion
Hollow and Semi Hollow section is formed using a mandrel
Indirect Extrusion
Metal is forced to flow through the die in an opposite direction to the rams
motion.
Lower extrusion force as the work billet metal is not moving relative to the
container wall.
Limitations
Lower rigidity of hollow ram
Difficulty in supporting extruded product as it exits die
Indirect extrusion to produce (a) a solid cross section and (b) a hollow cross section.
Indirect Extrusion
Schematic illustration of indirect extrusion process
Process Variables in Direct & Indirect Extrusion
The die angle

Reduction in cross-section A f
Extrusion speed
Billet temperature,
Extrusion pressure.
Tube Extrusion
Accomplished by forcing the stock through the sides of the mandrel
placed between dies
Tube or Pipe
The pressure required for extrusion is supplied through and
incompressible fluid medium surrounding the billet
Usually carried at room temperature, typically using vegetable oils
as the fluid
Brittle materials are extruded generally by this method
It increases ductility of the material
It has complex nature of the tooling
Schematic illustration Hydrostatic Extrusion process
Impact Extrusion
Similar to indirect extrusion
Punch descends rapidly on the blank, which is extruded backward
Schematic illustration of the impact-extrusion process. The extruded parts are

stripped by the use of a stripper plate, because they tend to stick to the punch
Hot extrusion
prior heating of billet to above its recrystallization temperature
Cold extrusion
prior heating of billet to below its recrystallization temperature
Advantages
Wide variety of shapes
High production rates
Improved microstructure and physical properties
Close tolerances are possible
Economical
Design flexibility
Limitation
part cross section must be uniform throughout length
Extrusion Die Features
(a) Definition of die angle in direct extrusion; (b) effect of die angle on ram force.
Extrusion Defects
a. Centre-burst: internal crack due to excessive tensile stress at the
centre possibly because of high die angle, low extrusion ratio.
b. Piping: sink hole at the end of billet under direct extrusion.
c. Surface cracking: High part temperature due to low extrusion speed
and high strain rates.
Factors Influencing the Extrusion Force
Friction
Material Properties
Reduction In Area
Speed
Temperature
Geometry Of The Die
END

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MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY

MECHANICAL WORKING OF METALS

MECHANICAL WORKING OF METALS

Mechanical Working of Metals

In this method no machining process is carried out, but it is used

Suitable for all metals

Mechanical working of a metal below the recrystallization

Reduces the amount of plastic deformation that a material can

Working below recrystallization

Formation of new crystals

Surface finish not good

Good surface finish

Internal Stress formation

homogeneous deformation occurs, so that radial flow is uniform

Homogeneous deformation of a cylindrical work part

Deformation of a cylindrical work part in open-die forging, showing pronounced barreling

Compression of work part by dies with inverse of desired part shape

Higher production rates

Favorable grain orientation in the metal

Machining often required to achieve accuracies and

Power drop hammers - accelerate the ram by

Drop Hammer Details

Diagram showing details of a drop hammer for

Examples of heading (upset forging) operations: (a) heading a nail

The rolling process (specifically, flat rolling)

Flat rolling - used to reduce thickness of a rectangular

Rails for railroad tracks

parts by rolling them between two dies

Performed by cold working in thread rolling machines

Better material utilization

(1) start of cycle

(2) end of cycle

Rolling mill configurations:

Four-high backing rolls support smaller work rolls

a -2-high rolling mill.

b -3-high rolling mill.

b -4-high rolling mill.

e Tandem Rolling mill.

Continuous drawing of wire

where r = area reduction in drawing; Ao = original area of work;

Hydraulically operated draw bench for drawing metal bars

even terminology are different

Cleaning - to prevent damage to work surface and draw die

Bearing surface - determines final stock size

Indirect Extrusion (Backward Extrusion)

Friction increases the extrusion force

Schematic illustration of direct extrusion process

Hollow and Semi Hollow section is formed using a mandrel

Schematic illustration of indirect extrusion process

The die angle

Schematic illustration Hydrostatic Extrusion process

Schematic illustration of the impact-extrusion process. The extruded parts are

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