Varactor (Varicap)

A variable capacitance diode is known as a varicap diode or as a Varactor. The

name varactor is an acronym of “Variable reactor”. A Varactor is a nonlinear
device that provides a capacitance that varies responsive to an applied control
voltage. A Varactor is, essentially, a variable voltage capacitor. The capacitance
of a Varactor, when within its operating parameters, decreases as a voltage
applied to the device increases.

Varactor basics

The varactor diode or varicap diode consists of a standard PN junction, although

it is obviously optimized for its function as a variable capacitor. In fact ordinary
PN junction diodes can be used as varactor diodes, even if their performance is
not to the same standard as specially manufactured Varactors.

Basis of operation:
The basis of operation of the varactor is quite simple. It is operated under
reverse bias conditions and this gives rise to three regions. At either end of the
diode are the P and N regions where current can be conducted. However around
the junction is the depletion region where no current carriers are available. As a
result, current can be carried in the P and N regions, but the depletion region is
an insulator.

Construction:
This is exactly the same construction as a capacitor. It has conductive plates
separated by an insulating dielectric.

Capacitance:
The capacitance of a capacitor is dependent on a number of factors including the
plate area, the dielectric constant of the insulator between the plates and the
distance between the two plates. In the case of the varactor diode, it is possible
to increase and decrease the width of the depletion region by changing the level
of the reverse bias. This has the effect of changing the distance between the
plates of the capacitor.
The capacitance at a given bias can be calculated from the following equation:

Cj (V) = Cj (0V)1+ VΦτ

Where,

� = the built in potential (1.2 for GaAs) Cjo = the junction

capacitance at 0V

τ = the tuning slope V = the reverse bias

voltage

Symbol & Representation:

As the primary function of a varactor diode is as a variable capacitor, its circuit
symbol represents this. Sometimes they may be shown as ordinary diodes,
whereas more usually the varactor diode circuit symbol shows the bar as a
capacitor, i.e. two lines.

Varactor diode circuit symbol

Conduction mode:
Varactor diodes are always operated under reverse bias conditions, and in this
way there is no conduction. They are effectively voltage controlled capacitors,
and indeed they are sometimes called varicap diodes, although the term
varactor is more widely used these days.

When a diode is reverse biased, an insulating depletion region forms between

the two semi conductive layers. In many diodes the width of the depletion region
may be changed by varying the reverse bias. This varies the capacitance. This
effect is accentuated in varicap diodes.

The schematic symbols are shown in Figure below, one of which is packaged as
common cathode dual diode.
Varicap diode: Capacitance varies with reverse bias. This varies the frequency of
a resonant network.

If a varicap diode is part of a resonant circuit as in Figure above, the frequency

may be varied with a control voltage, Vcontrol. A large capacitance, low Xc, in
series with the varicap prevents Vcontrol from being shorted out by inductor L.
As long as the series capacitor is large, it has minimal effect on the frequency of
resonant circuit. Coptional may be used to set the center resonant frequency.
Vcontrol can then vary the frequency about this point. Note that the required active
circuitry to make the resonant network oscillate is not shown. For an example of
a varicap diode tuned AM radio receiver see “electronic varicap diode tuning,”

Abrupt and hyperabrupt varactor diodes

Some varactor diodes may be referred to as abrupt and hyper-abrupt types. The
term refers to the junction where the change between P and N types is either
abrupt or very hyperabrupt. With a very sharp junction, these diodes offer a
relatively large percentage change in capacitance. They are particularly useful
when oscillators or filters need to be swept over a large frequency range.

Abruptness of the varactor diodes:

The abruptness of the junction within the varactor diode is governed by the
doping concentration. When the doping density in the active region does not
change, i.e. constant doping level the varactor is classed as an abrupt varactor
diode. However, if the doping density does change as a function of distance, then
the varactor is classed as a hyperabrupt varactor diode.

The equation below defines the doping density within the device for both the
abrupt and hyperabrupt junction varactor.

ND (x) = 2[qε A2ddv1c2]

Where,

q = the electric charge = 1.6e-19 coulumbs d/dv =

bias charge

ε = the permittivity of GaAs C = the

capacitance

A = the area of junction

Gamma of the varactor diodes:

The class of diode, i.e. whether it is an abrupt varactor diode or a hyperabrupt
varactor diode affects the tuning slope or gamma of the diode. A varactor with
an abrupt junction will have a gamma of around 0.5, whereas the gamma for a
hyperabrupt varactor diode is greater than 0.5.
 Capacitance range and capacitance ratio

The actual capacitance range which is obtained depends upon a number of

factors. One is the area of the junction. Another is the width of the depletion
region for a given voltage.

Factors affecting capacitance:

It is found that the thickness of the depletion region in the varactor diode is
proportional to the square root of the reverse voltage across it. In addition to
this, the capacitance of the varactor is inversely proportional to the depletion
region thickness. From this it can be seen that the capacitance of the varactor
diode is inversely proportional to the square root of the voltage across it.

Range:
Diodes typically operate with reverse bias ranging from around a couple of volts
up to 20 volts and higher. Some may even operate up to as much as 60 volts,
although at the top end of the range comparatively little change in capacitance
is seen.

Capacitance ratio:
One of the key parameters for a varactor diode is the capacitance ratio. This is
commonly expressed in the form Cx / Cy where x and y are two voltages towards
the ends of the range over which the capacitance change can be measured.

The capacitance ratio over a tuning bias can be calculated form the following
equation:

Tratio = Cj (V1)Cj (V2) = V2+ ΦV1+ Φτ

Where,

Cj (V1) = the capacitance at bias V1 � = the built in potential (1.2

for GaAs)

Cj (V2) = the capacitance at bias V2 τ = the tuning slope

For a change between 2 and 20 volts an abrupt diode may exhibit a capacitance
change ratio of 2.5 to 3, whereas a hyperabrupt diode may be twice this, e.g. 6.

However it is still necessary to consult the curves for the particular diode to
ensure that it will give the required capacitance change over the voltages that
will be applied. It is worth remembering that the required will be a spread in
capacitance values that are obtainable, and this must be included in any
calculations for the final circuit.

The figure of merit (Q)

The figure of merit or Q is the defining property of the varactor and determines
the overall device performance.

Key factors:
There are several components in quantifying the diode, of which the key factors
are series resistance, series inductance and junction capacitance. The value of
junction capacitance (CJ) is determined by the designer and is not negotiable.
However, the series resistance (RS) and inductance (LS) are components that
need to be reduced and optimized. The inductance contribution affects the high
frequency response of the device and limits the overall operating range. The
reduction of series inductance is always an improvement in device performance,
particularly at high frequencies.

The device can be improved by the selection of appropriate wirebond type and
techniques to reduce series (LS). The application and frequency of operation
typically dictates the type of wirebond techniques used in manufacturing.

Calculation of Q:
The calculation of Q is directly related to and derived from the cut-off frequency.
As the equation below for cut-off frequency implies, low series resistance (R S) in
the calculation of Q is critical. The equation is as follows:

fcut-off = 1/[2πCj(V) Rs(V)]

The cut-off frequency is usually specified at -4V bias. The value of Q is then
calculated from the equation below and referenced to 50MHz as a standard.

Q = fcut-off/ (50MHz)
The series resistance is critical to the improvement of Q and overall device
performance. There are many contributors to the series resistance. For a mesa
type design, the combined series resistance is the following:

RS = RPM + Rsum + RP+ + RUL + RSK

Where,

RPM = the metal contact to the P+ region RUL = the undepleted

active layer

Rsum = the metal contact to the substrate. RSK = the skin resistivity
as high frequencies.

RP+ = the P+ resistivity

Reverse breakdown
The reverse breakdown voltage of a varactor diode is of importance. The
capacitance decreases with increasing reverse bias, although as voltages
become higher the decrease in capacitance becomes smaller. However the
minimum capacitance level will be determined by the maximum voltage that the
device can withstand. It is also wise to choose a varactor diode that has a margin
between the maximum voltage it is likely to expect, i.e. the rail voltage of the
driver circuit, and the reverse breakdown voltage of the diode. By ensuring there
is sufficient margin, the circuit is less likely to fail.

It is also necessary to ensure that the minimum capacitance required is achieved

within the rail voltage of the driver circuit, again with a good margin as there is
always some variation between devices.

Operation region:
Diodes typically operate with reverse bias ranging from around a couple of volts
up to 20 volts or possibly higher. Some may even operate up to as much as 60
volts, although at the top end of the range comparatively little change in
capacitance is seen. Also as the voltage on the diode increases, it is likely that
specific supplies for the circuits driving the varactor diodes will be required.

Maximum frequency of operation

There are a number of items that limit the frequency of operation of any varactor
diode. The minimum capacitance of the diode is obviously one limiting factor. If
large levels of capacitance are used in a resonant circuit, this will reduce the Q. A
further factor is any parasitic responses, as well as stray capacitance and
inductance that may be exhibited by the device package. This means that
devices with low capacitance levels that may be more suitable for high
frequencies will be placed in microwave type packages. These and other
considerations need to be taken into account when choosing a varactor diode for
a new design.

Driving varactor diodes

The varactor diode requires the reverse bias to be applied across the diode in a
way that does not affect the operation of the tuned circuit of which it is part.
Care must be taken to isolate the bias voltage from the tuning circuit so that the
RF performance is not impaired.
 Typical circuit using a varactor diode for tuning

Normal mode of operation:

Typically the cathode is earthed or run at the DC common potential. The other
end can then have the bias potential applied. The bias circuitry needs to be
isolated for RF signals from the tuned circuit to prevent any degradation of the
performance. Either a resistor or an inductor can be used for this as the diodes
operate under reverse bias and present a high DC resistance.

Applying varactor tuning voltage via resistor and inductor

Isolation:
Inductors can operate well under some situations as they provide a low
resistance path for the bias. However they can introduce spurious inductance
and under some circumstances they may cause spurious oscillations to occur
when used in an oscillator. Resistors may also be used. The resistance must be
high enough to isolate the bias circuitry from the tuned circuit without lowering
the Q. They must also be low enough to control the bias on the diode against the
effects of the RF passing through the diode. A value of 10 kohms is often a good
starting point.

Configuration:
The varactor diodes may be driven in either a single or back to back
configuration. The single varactor configuration has the advantage of simplicity.
The back-to-back configuration overcomes the problem of the RF modulating the
tuning voltage as the effect is cancelled out - as the RF voltage rises, the
capacitance on one diode will increase and the other decrease. The back-to-back
configuration also halves the capacitance of the single diode as the capacitances
from the two diodes are placed in series with each other. It should also be
remembered that the series resistance will be doubled and this will affect the Q.
 Varactor back-to-back drive

When designing a circuit using varactor diodes, care must be taken to ensure
that the diodes do not become forward biased. Sometimes, especially when
using low levels of reverse bias, the signal in the RF section of the circuit may be
sufficient over some sections of the cycle to overcome the bias and drive the
diode into forward conduction. This leads to the generation of spurious signals
and other nasty unwanted effects.

Applications of Varactor

Variable reactors (Varactor) are essential for the design of key radio frequency
(RF) CMOS and BiCMOS circuits, and are specifically used as tuning elements in
voltage controlled oscillators (VCOs), phase shifters, and frequency multipliers.
Oscillator circuits, including voltage controlled oscillator circuits, are well known.

Voltage controlled oscillators (VCOs):

Typically, an oscillator circuit includes at least one active device and a resonator
circuit coupled to the active device. The resonator is coupled to the active device
such that the active device is capable of oscillating only at a specific frequency
determined by the resonator. A voltage controlled oscillator is an oscillator that
generates an output signal with a frequency that varies in response to an input
control voltage. In a VCO, the frequency of oscillation is controlled by
electronically altering the point of resonance of the resonator circuit

Variable resonator circuit

Typically, a variable resonator circuit includes at least one variable capacitance
diode (varactor). The frequency of operation is set by applying a bias voltage to
the varactor to alter the capacitance of the varactor diode. This change in
capacitance alters the net reactance of the resonator and alters the frequency of
operation of the oscillator circuit. Varactors often comprise multiple voltage-
tunable capacitor cells, with each cell having a capacitive range, wherein the net
capacitive range of the varactor is substantially equal to a sum of the capacitive
ranges of the individual capacitor cells.

Varactor Tuner
A popular application of the Varactor is in electronic tuning circuits, as in
television tuners. The DC control voltage varies the capacitance of the Varactor,
retuning the resonant circuit.
References:
• http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/Hbase/Electronic/varactor
• http://www.electronics-manufacturers.com/products/electrical-electronic-
components/capacitor/varactor/
• http://www.radio-electronics.com/
• http://www.tpub.com/
• http://www.mdtcorp.com/