Feed Ingredients and Physical

Characteristics

Formulating Feeds
Nutritionally complete feeds should be used
whenever natural foods are absent or where
natural foods only make a small contribution to
nutrition
when substantial amounts of natural
productivity are available, supplemental feeds
dont need to contain all essential nutrients
we will focus on nutritionally-complete feeds

Nutrient Requirements
Most requirements for nutrients that have been
published focus on juvenile fish/shrimp
many represent single lab experiments,
unchallenged, unsupported by others
optimum performance can be affected by
management, environmental factors and
fish/shrimp size
in formulating diets for a species for which
nutrient requirements are unknown, those for a
related species are used

Nutrient Requirements
Most variation among aquatic species can be associated
with whether the animals are: 1) coldwater vs. warmwater;
2) freshwater or marine; 3) finfish vs. crustaceans
values in nutrient requirement tables only represent
minima, dont allow for processing or storage losses
AAs, minerals stable wrt heat, moisture, oxidation
vitamins and lipids are not stable (affected by heat,
oxidation, light, moisture, etc.; store in cool area)
50% of ascorbic acid is lost in processing, half-life of 2-3
months in storage

Physical Properties
Ground meals are not suitable
for feeding to aquatic animals
due to poor ingestion, feed
conversion, and reduced water
quality
pellets need to be stable in
water until consumed by the
target animal
good pellet stability required for
slow-feeding species such as
shrimp
particle size is important to
insure appropriate consumption

various sizes of fish feed

particles

Physical Properties
Diet texture is also important for some aquatic
species: some prefer moist vs. dry feeds (e.g.,
eels, salmon)
sometimes farmers prefer floating pellets,
allowing confirmation of ingestion
shrimp prefer sinking pellets (density greater than
that of water, 1 g/cm3)
floating feed can be detrimental with respect to
consumption by competitors

Practical Feed Ingredients

Ingredients used in practical fish/shrimp feeds can
be classified as:
protein sources (including amino acids)
energy sources (COH)
lipid sources (also essential fatty acids)
vitamin supplements/premixes
mineral supplements/premixes
growth/pigment enhancers
ingredients improving palatability
ingredients improving preservation/storage

Fish Meal (FM)

If made from good quality whole
fish, properly processed, it is the
highest quality protein source
commonly available
rich source also of energy and
minerals
highly digestible, highly palatable,
also serves as an attractant
usually contains about 65% protein,
that is around 80% digestible
high in LYS, MET (deficient in
plant sources)

Fish Meal (FM)

Fish meal also contains 1-2.5% n-6 fatty acids,
essential to many fish and all shrimp
if made from byproducts, its quality is not as
good as trawler-caught
only problem observed: high ash content can
sometimes result in mineral imbalance
used sparingly because of high cost
can be partially replaced by soybean meal and
other animal meals

Fish Meal (FM)

When using FM, one must remember that it cannot be
stored forever
can rancidify due to high lipid content
further, not all FM is created equal
some types (menhaden) appear to be superior to others
(sardine meal)
FM must be very well ground and sieved to help
remove indigestible parts
big producer countries are USA, Peru, Mexico,
Ecuador

Soybean Meal (SBM)

Soybean meal has one of the
best essential amino acid
profiles of all protein-rich plant
feedstuffs
Table 5.3 (Lovell)
SBM does not appear to be
deficient in any EAA for catfish
can be deficient wrt eel,
because their MET/CYS
requirement is twice that of
catfish
some fish find SBM
unpalatable, for this reason
maximum levels are suggested

Soybean Meal (SBM)

Soybean meal is commonly
used to spare fish meal,
however, only to a point
true for chinook, but not for
catfish
shrimp will consume high SBM
feeds, but diet must be
supplemented with fish meal at
some point
another problem involves losses
in energy, minerals and lipids in
diets where SBM replaces FM
or other animal byproduct
proteins

soy protein

Soybean Meal (SBM)

Another variety of soybean meal is known as dehulled
de-hulled soybean meal contains 25% less ME,
85% less available P and 90% less n-3 FAs than
anchovy meal
soybeans also contain trypsin-inhibitors
trypsin inhibitor reduces digestibility of soy
protein by the enzyme trypsin
solution: most soybeans are roasted prior to
milling (destroys inhibitor)

Full-fat Soybeans
Full fat soybean meal is different from regular
SBM in that it has a full fat complement
fat has not been solvent extracted
18% fat vs 0.5%
often used as an energy source or for general
balancing of the formula
mainly used in salmonid (cold water) fish diets
REM: too high fat = reduced nutrient intake

Grains and By-products

Grains are primarily used as COH sources
when whole, they contribute about 62%72% of dietary starch
starches are fairly well digested by warmwater species (60-70%), but not by cold
heating via extrusion improves digestibility
by 10=15%
can also be used as binding agents

Grains and By-products

Corn is commonly used in the U.S., but
is high in xanthophyll (a pigment),
giving tissue a yellow color (not good
for fish sales!)
corn gluten meal is high in protein
(60%) and contains high levels of MET
(excellent for formulation)
rice bran often used in developing
countries due to local rice production
rice bran is a reasonable COH source,
but is high in fiber and fat
wheat gluten is a good protein source,
but too expensive, often used as a binder

Animal By-products

Meat and bone meal is a byproduct of

the slaughter house
contains 50-55% crude protein
protein quality is low, so only
marginally useful and varies dependent
upon meat source
can be a good source of energy, P,
TMs
another problem: high ash content
digestibility improved by flash- or
spray-drying
poultry by-product meal (PBM) is often
used by mills also producing chicken
feed
feather meal high in protein, but
indigestible

MM

MBM

Crustacean Meals

Shrimp waste meal is a reasonably

good feed ingredient, if heads are
included
otherwise, the shell is primarily chitin
and of limited digestibility
the ammonia in chitin accounts for
about 10-15% of the nitrogen in
whole meal
also a reasonable source of n-3 fatty
acids, cholestrerol and astaxanthin
(carotenoid)
highly palatable and often serves as
an attractant in feeds at 1-2%
others: krill meal, Artemia meal

krill meal

Fats and Oils

Used as energy sources, provide
essential fatty acids, attractant,
coating of pellet to reduce abrasion
both animal and plant fats can be
used, animal fats cheaper, better
attractants
marine lipids often added as oils if
FM level is low (otherwise no
source of marine FAs)
sources: menhaden, shark, cod
liver
must be careful in storage of oil,
feeds with oils due to
rancidification

menhaden oil

Fibrous Feedstuffs
Most monogastric animals (e.g.,
fish) do not digest fibrous
feedstuffs well
it is unlikely that adding fiber to
diets already with more than 35% will have any beneficial
effect
high fiber content reduces
binding capacity of feeds,
inhibits intake (due to reduced
palatability), increases rate of
passage and waste production
sources: brans

rice kernel

Binding Agents
Binding agents are really needed for
pelletized feeds, but not necessarily for
extruded feeds (we discuss this later)
in extruded feeds, all ingredients are
gelatinized by high temperature and bind
together well as a result of the process
show Table 5.4 (Lovell, page 118)

Binding Agents
most organic binders are good for about 30
min of submergence
starch is often used at over 10%, however it
will hydrate and swell the pellet
chemical binders (e.g., Basfin) have good
binding potential, form cross-linkages with
COH and PRO, but are toxic

Non-nutrient Diet Components

Basic Facts
In addition to the essential nutrients, feeds may
contain organic and inorganic materials that have
various effects on aquatic species:
beneficial, detrimental or negligible
they can affect growth, health or the processed
product
may be naturally occurring, intentionally or
unintentionally added
can be produced via microbial growth

Toxins and Antimetabolites

The more important toxins affecting animal feeding
are those associated with molds
these are called mycotoxins
three important genera are Aspergillus, Penicillium
and Fusarium
they exist and grow anywhere as long as there is
enough COH substrate, no less than 14% moisture,
adequate temperature, oxygen
usually produced in feedstuffs prior to harvest, but
also result from poor storage

Aflatoxin
Aflatoxin is the mycotoxin of greatest concern in
feeding of culture species
both outright toxic and carcinogenic
liver (hepatoma) and blood clotting problems
rainbow trout are highly sensitive at 1 ug/kg
exposure
traditionally, sources include corn, cottonseed and
peanuts
aflatoxin contamination varies year to year

Ochratoxin
These are compounds produced by Aspergillus and
Penicillium molds
widely found in nature
typically associated with kidney toxicity
toxic level is 4.7 mg/kg in diet
other mold toxins have been found in warm-blooded
animals, but not in fish
most mold toxins also destroy nutrients in feeds
example: Pseudomonas can separate glutamic acid
from folic acid, making it ineffective

Microbial Toxins in
Commercial Fish/shrimp Feeds
Usually not known that the feed is contaminated
commercially-processed feeds are less likely to have
these toxins
screened against international transport and by feed
manufacturers by law
must contain less than 20 ppb
up to manufacturer to require testing
not destroyed by steam pelleting or extrusion
presence in feeds reduced by proprionic acid

Histamine, etc.
This is a toxic compound found in fish meal, a
typical feed ingredient
results from bacterial removal of COOH
(carboxylic acid) from the EAA histidine
comes from improper storage of raw fish prior to
production of fish meal
causes a reduction in growth rate
usually comes from dark meat portion of fish
other fish meal toxin is gizzerosine

Phytic Acid, Gossypol

Phytic acid is an organic molecule related to inositol
integral component of plant feedstuffs and holds 6070% of the phosphorus
problem is, its poorly available to fish
reduces availability of zinc
Gossypol is a component of pigment lands in the
cotton plant
limits availability of cottonseed meal used in feeds
(suppresses growth rate and causes liver damage)

Fish Oils, Fiber

Marine fish oils contain 20-25% PUFAs
the autoxidation of PUFAs results in formation of large
numbers of free radicals and peroxide compounds
these are toxic due to reaction with other nutrients, limiting
availability
also cause cellular/subcellular damage
severity of effect reduced by Vit E
fiber can also be mildly toxic as it increases rate of gut
passage
high rate of passage causes reduced availability of nutrients

Diet Additives: Hormones

Hormonal control used to produce mono sex
cultures of fish
reduces reproduction/increases growth
ex. Androgenic steroids (ethyltestosterone) fed to
tilapia fry = 90% males
does not work the same on all fish
17-alpha-methyltestosterone improves growth and
survival in salmonids
andorgenic better than estrogenic
used as implants in cattle

Pellet Binders
Steam pelleted aquatic feeds,
especially those fed to shrimp,
contain binders
these are used for improving
water stability (reduced leaching
and nutrient loss)
two different types: organic
matrix (lignosulfonates or
polysaccharides)
other type: chemical compounds
(sodium hexametaphosphate)
no evidence of detrimental effect
on aquaculture species

Antibiotics
Some feeds can be formulated with antibiotics
for treatment of Vibriosis, other bacterial
infections
Three antibiotics approved in U.S. are
sulfadimethoxine, sulfamerazine and terrymycin
(oxytetracycline, OTC)
OTC commerically available as medicated fish
(shrimp) feed, 1,500 mg/kg
Must not feed medicated diets within 14-21 days
from slaughter/harvest (more regulations!)

Attractants
Attractants are materials added to feeds to serve as
intake (feeding) stimulants
They are cost effective since they cause shrimp/fish to
eat feeds that otherwise would not be attractive
(consumed)
Facilitates inclusion of by-products
Usual inclusion level is around 0.5-1.0 %, largely due to
cost
Examples: krill meal, Artemia meal, fish oils, fish meal
Sometimes used to reduce protein content of feed (but
most also feed more frequently)

Antioxidants
Oxidation of lipids in feeds or feedstuffs can cause
reduction of the nutritional value of certain lipids
and vitamins
It can also result in production of toxic free
radicals and peroxides (REM?)
Potential for formation of these toxic compounds
reduced by synthetic compounds such as BHA
(butylated hydroxyanisole, BHT (butylated
hydroxytoluene)
Also via natural compounds (Vit E)