Ibn Battuta

Ibn Battuta
Ibn Battuta
Nativename
Born

February 25, 1304

Tangier, Morocco

Died

1369 (aged6465)
Morocco

Occupation

Islamic scholar, Jurist, Judge, explorer, geographer

Religion

Islam

Ibn Baah (Arabic: , Ab Abd al-Lh Muammad ibn Abd al-Lh

l-Lawt -an ibn Baah), or simply Ibn Battuta (( ) February 25, 1304 1368 or 1369), was a
Moroccan explorer of Berber descent.[1] He is known for his extensive travels, accounts of which were published in
the Rihla (lit. "Journey"). Over a period of thirty years, Ibn Battuta visited most of the known Islamic world as well
as many non-Muslim lands. His journeys included trips to North Africa, the Horn of Africa, West Africa and Eastern
Europe, and to the Middle East, South Asia, Central Asia, Southeast Asia and China. Ibn Battuta is generally
considered one of the greatest travellers of all time.[2]

Early life and first hajj

All that is known about Ibn Battuta's life comes from the
autobiographical information included in the account of his travels. Ibn
Battuta was born into a family of Islamic legal scholars in Tangier,
Morocco, on February 25, 1304, during the reign of the Marinid
dynasty. He claimed descent from the Berber tribe known as the
Lawata. As a young man he would have studied at a Sunni Maliki
madh'hab, (Islamic jurisprudence school), the dominant form of
education in North Africa at that time. In June 1325, at the age of
twenty-one, Ibn Battuta set off from his hometown on a hajj, or
pilgrimage, to Mecca, a journey that would take sixteen months. He
would not see Morocco again for twenty-four years.[3]
A 13th-century book illustration produced in
I set out alone, having neither fellow-traveller in whose
Baghdad by al-Wasiti showing a group of
companionship I might find cheer, nor caravan whose part
pilgrims on a hajj.
I might join, but swayed by an overmastering impulse
within me and a desire long-cherished in my bosom to
visit these illustrious sanctuaries. So I braced my resolution to quit my dear ones, female and male, and
forsook my home as birds forsake their nests. My parents being yet in the bonds of life, it weighed
sorely upon me to part from them, and both they and I were afflicted with sorrow at this separation.

He travelled to Mecca overland, following the North African coast across the sultanates of Abd al-Wadid and Hafsid.
The route took him through Tlemcen, Bjaa, and then Tunis, where he stayed for two months. For safety, Ibn
Battuta usually joined a caravan to reduce the risk of an attack by wandering Arab Bedouin. He took a bride in the
town of Sfax, the first in a series of marriages that would feature in his travels.
In the early spring of 1326, after a journey of over 3,500km (2,200mi), Ibn Battuta arrived at the port of Alexandria,
which was at the time part of the Bahri Mamluk empire. He met two ascetic pious men in Alexandria. One was

Ibn Battuta
sheikh Burhanuddin who foretold the destiny of Ibne Batuta as a world traveler saying-`It seems to me that you are
fond of foreign travel. You will visit my brother Fariduddin in India,Rukonuddin in Sind and Burhanuddin in
China.Convey my greetings to them'. Another pious men Sheikh Murshidi disclosed the meaning of a dream of Ibne
Batutah as a world traveler.Ibne Batutah had no intention before to travel these faraway land. But these two holy
men instilled the desire of world traveling into him.[4] He spent several weeks visiting sites in the area, and then
headed inland to Cairo, the capital of the Mamluk Sultanate and even at that time an important large city. After
spending about a month in Cairo, he embarked on the first of many detours within the relative safety of Mamluk
territory. Of the three usual routes to Mecca, Ibn Battuta chose the least-travelled, which involved a journey up the
Nile valley, then east to the Red Sea port of Aydhab,[5] Upon approaching the town, however, a local rebellion
forced him to turn back.
Ibn Battuta returned to Cairo and took a second side trip, this time to Mamluk-controlled Damascus. During his first
trip he had encountered a holy man who prophesied that he would only reach Mecca by travelling through Syria.[6]
The diversion held an added advantage; because of the holy places that lay along the way, including Hebron,
Jerusalem, and Bethlehem, the Mamluk authorities spared no efforts in keeping the route safe for pilgrims. Without
this help many travellers would be robbed and murdered.[7]
After spending the Muslim month of Ramadan in Damascus, he joined a caravan travelling the 1,300km (810mi)
south to Medina, tomb of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. After four days in the town, he journeyed on to Mecca,
where completing his pilgrimage he took the honorific status of El-Hajji. Rather than returning home, Ibn Battuta
instead decided to continue on, choosing as his next destination the Ilkhanate, a Mongol Khanate, to the northeast.[8]

Iraq and Persia

On 17 November 1326, following a month spent in Mecca, Ibn Battuta
joined a large caravan of pilgrims returning to Iraq across the Arabian
Peninsula.[9] The group headed north to Medina and then, travelling at
night, turned northeast across the Najd plateau to Najaf, on a journey
that lasted about two weeks. In Najaf, he visited the mausoleum of Ali,
the Fourth Caliph.
Then, instead of continuing on to Baghdad with the caravan, Ibn Battuta
started a six-month detour that took him into Persia. From Najaf, he
journeyed to Wasit, then followed the river Tigris south to Basra. His
next destination was the town of Esfahn across the Zagros Mountains
in Persia. He then headed south to Shiraz, a large, flourishing city
spared the destruction wrought by Mongol invaders on many more
northerly towns. Finally, he returned across the mountains to Baghdad,
arriving there in June 1327. Parts of the city were still ruined from the
damage inflicted by Hulago Khan's invading army in 1258.[10]
In Baghdad, he found Abu Sa'id, the last Mongol ruler of the unified
Ibn Battuta made a brief visit to the
Ilkhanate, leaving the city and heading north with a large retinue. Ibn
Persian-Mongol city of Tabriz in 1327.
Battuta joined the royal caravan for a while, then turned north on the
Silk Road to Tabriz, the first major city in the region to open its gates to the Mongols and by then an important
trading centre as most of its nearby rivals had been razed by the Mongol invaders.
Ibn Battuta left again for Baghdad, probably in July, but first took an excursion northwards along the river Tigris. He
visited Mosul, where he was the guest of the Ilkhanate governor,[11] and then the towns of Cizre (Jazirat ibn 'Umar)
and Mardin in modern-day Turkey. At a hermitage on a mountain near Sinjar, he met a Kurdish mystic who gave
him some silver coins.[12]</ref> Once back in Mosul, he joined a "feeder" caravan of pilgrims heading south to

Ibn Battuta
Baghdad, where they would meet up with the main caravan that crossed the Arabian Desert to Mecca. Ill with
diarrhoea, he arrived in the city weak and exhausted for his second hajj.

Arabian Peninsula
Ibn Battuta remained in Mecca for some time (the Rihla suggests about three years, from September 1327 until
autumn 1330). Problems with chronology, however, lead commentators to suggest that he may have left after the
1328 hajj.[13]
After the hajj in either 1328 or 1330, he made his way to the port of Jeddah on the Red Sea coast. From there he
followed the coast in a series of boats making slow progress against the prevailing south-easterly winds. Once in
Yemen he visited Zabd and later the highland town of Ta'izz, where he met the Rasulid dynasty king (Malik)
Mujahid Nur al-Din Ali. Ibn Battuta also mentions visiting Sana'a, but whether he actually did so is doubtful. In all
likelihood, he went directly from Ta'izz to the important trading port of Aden, arriving around the beginning of 1329
or 1331.

Somalia
From Aden, Ibn Battuta embarked on a ship heading for Zeila
on the coast of Somalia. He then moved on to Cape Guardafui
further down the Somalia seaboard, spending about a week in
each location. Later he would visit Mogadishu, the then
pre-eminent city of the "Land of the Berbers" ( Balad
al-Barbar, the medieval Arabic term for the Horn of
Africa).[14][15][16]
When Ibn Battuta arrived in 1331, Mogadishu stood at the
zenith of its prosperity. He described it as "an exceedingly
The port and waterfront of Zeila.
large city" with many rich merchants, noted for its
high-quality fabric that was exported to other countries,
including Egypt. Ibn Battuta added that the city was ruled by a Somali Sultan, Abu Bakr ibn Sayx 'Umar,[17] who
was originally from Berbera in northern Somalia and spoke both Somali (referred to by Battuta as Mogadishan, the
Benadir dialect of Somali) and Arabic with equal fluency.[18] The Sultan also had a retinue of wazirs (ministers),
legal experts, commanders, royal eunuchs, and assorted hangers-on at his beck and call.

Ibn Battuta

Swahili Coast
Ibn Battuta continued by ship south to the Swahili Coast, a region then known
in Arabic as the Bilad al-Zanj ("Land of the Zanj"), with an overnight stop at
the island town of Mombasa. Although relatively small at the time, Mombasa
would become important in the following century. After a journey along the
coast, Ibn Battuta next arrived in the island town of Kilwa in present-day
Tanzania, which had become an important transit centre of the gold trade. He
described the city as "one of the most beautiful and well-constructed towns in
the world".[19]
Ibn Battuta recorded his visit to the Kilwa Sultanate in 1330, and commented
favorably on the humility and religion of its ruler, Sultan al-Hasan ibn
Sulaiman, a descendant of the legendary Ali ibn al-Hassan Shirazi. He further
wrote that the authority of the Sultan extended from Malindi in the north to
Inhambane in the south and was particularly impressed by the planning of the
The Great Mosque of Kilwa Kisiwani,
made of coral stones is the largest
city, believing it to be the reason for Kilwa's success along the coast. From
Mosque of its kind.
this period date the construction of the Palace of Husuni Kubwa and a
significant extension to the Great Mosque of Kilwa, which was made of Coral
Stones and the largest Mosque of its kind. With a change in the monsoon winds, Ibn Battuta sailed back to Arabia,
first to Oman and the Strait of Hormuz then on to Mecca for the hajj of 1330 (or 1332).

Near East, Central Asia and Southern Asia

After spending another year in Mecca, Ibn Battuta decided to seek employment with the
Muslim Sultan of Delhi, Muhammad bin Tughluq. In 1330 (or 1332), in need of a guide and
translator for his journey, he set off for the Seljuq controlled territory of Anatolia to join one
of the caravans that went from there to India. From the Syrian port of Latakia, a Genoese ship
took him to Alanya on the southern coast of modern-day Turkey. He then travelled overland to
Konya and afterwards to Sinope on the Black Sea coast. Ibn Battutah gave a wonderful
description of social condition of Seljuq Islamic rule of Room(modern day Turkey).He noted
that,"Wherever we stopped in this land, whether at a hospice or a private house, our neighbors
both men and women came to take care of us. When we left them they bade us farewell as if
they were our relatives and , the women were weeping." Ibn Battutah also experienced an
extraordinary social custom of Brotherhood. He describes,"in every district, town and village,
there are the organizations known as the Akhiya or Young Brotherhood. Nowhere in the world
Andronikos III
will you find men so eager to welcome strangers, and to satisfy the wants of others...even they
Palaiologos
compete each other to entertain the travelers.."[20] From Sinope he took a sea route to the
Crimean Peninsula, arriving in the Golden Horde realm. He went to the port town of Azov,
where he met with the emir of the Khan, then to the large and rich city of Majar. He left Majar to meet with Uzbeg
Khan's travelling court (Orda), which was in the time near Beshtau mountain. From there he made a journey to
Bolghar, which became the northernmost point he reached, and noted its unusually (for a subtropics dweller) short
nights in summer. Then he returned to Khan's court and with it moved to Astrakhan. Ibn Battutah noted that as soon
as he arrived in Bulghar in the month of Ramadan the call for evening prayer(maghrib salah)was announced from a
mosque.He attended the prayer.After a short while he attended Isha prayer and Tarabih prayer(special Ramadan
prayer). After this prayer he was to about take some rest.In the meantime his companion made him hurry to eat suhur

Ibn Battuta

(late night meal for fasting in Ramadan)as the dawn was about to begin.No sooner he finished the suhur the Muazzin
made the call for dawn(fajr)prayer.He did not get even a short time for sleep. Ibn Battutah also informed that while
in Bulghar he wanted to travel further north into the land of darkness.The land is all through snow covered(northern
Siberia)and only means of transport is dog drawn sled.There lived a mysterious people who were reluctant to show
their appearance.But they make trade with southern people in a peculiar way.Southern merchants bring various
goods and place them in an open area on the snow in the night and returned to their tents.Next morning they come to
the place again and found their merchandise were taken by the mysterious people and in exchange they put various
skins of fur animals which are used for making valuable coat,jacket and other winter garments.The trade is done
between merchants and mysterious people without seeing each other. As Ibn Battutah was not a merchant and seeing
no benefit of going there he abandoned the travel to this land of darkness.[21]
When they reached Astrakhan, z Beg Khan had just given permission for
one of his pregnant wives, Princess Bayalun, a daughter of Greek Emperor
Andronikos III Palaiologos, to return to her home city of Constantinople to
give birth. Ibn Battuta talked his way into this expedition, which would be his
first beyond the boundaries of the Islamic world.
Arriving in Constantinople towards the end of 1332 (or 1334), he met the
Greek emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos. He visited the great church of
Flag of the Golden Horde, during the
Hagia Sophia and spoke with a Christian Orthodox priest about his travels in
reign of z Beg Khan.
the city of Jerusalem. After a month in the city, Ibn Battuta returned to
Astrakhan, then arrived in the capital city Sarai al-Jadid and reported his travelling account to Sultan z Beg Khan
(r. 13131341). Thereafter he continued past the Caspian and Aral Seas to Bukhara and Samarkand. There he visited
the court of another Mongolian king, Tarmashirin (r. 1331-1334) of the Chagatai Khanate.[22] From there, he
journeyed south to Afghanistan, ruled by the Mongols, then crossed into India via the mountain passes of the Hindu
Kush. In the Rihla, he mentions these mountains and the history of the range. From there, he made his way to Delhi
and became acquainted with the sultan, Muhammad bin Tughluq.

South Asia
Muhammad bin Tughluq was renowned as the wealthiest man in
the Muslim world at that time. He patronized various scholars,
Sufis, qadis, viziers and other functionaries in order to consolidate
his rule. As with Mamluk Egypt, the Tughlaq Dynasty was a rare
vestigial example of Muslim rule in Asia after the Mongol
invasion. On the strength of his years of study in Mecca, Ibn
Battuta was appointed a qadi, or judge, by the sultan. He found it
difficult to enforce Islamic laws beyond the sultan's court in Delhi,
due to lack of Islamic appeal in India.[23]

Tomb of Feroze Shah Tughluq, successor of

Muhammad bin Tughluq in Delhi. Ibn Battuta served

From the Rajput Kingdom of Sarsatti, he visited Hansi in India,
as a Qadi for 6 years during Muhammad bin Tughluq's
describing it as "among the most beautiful cities, the best
reign
constructed and the most populated; it is surrounded with a strong
wall, and its founder is said to be one of the great infidel kings,
called Tara".[24] Upon his arrival in Sindh, Ibn Battuta mentions the Indian rhinoceros that lived on the banks of the
Indus.

The Sultan was erratic even by the standards of the time and for six years Ibn Battuta veered between living the high
life of a trusted subordinate and falling under suspicion of treason for a variety of offences. His plan to leave on the
pretext of taking another hajj was stymied by the Sultan, who asked him instead to become his ambassador to Yuan

Ibn Battuta

Dynasty China. Given the opportunity to get away from the Sultan and visit new lands, he readily accepted.
En route to the coast at the start of his journey to China, Ibn Battuta and his party were attacked by a group of
bandits. Separated from his companions, he was robbed and nearly lost his life. Despite this setback, within ten days
he had caught up with his group and continued on to Khambhat in the Indian state of Gujarat. From there, they sailed
to Kozhikode (Calicut), where Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama would land two centuries later. Then he sailed to
Quilon, one of the famous port cities situated in the Southern Coast. His journey from Calicut to Quilon(Kollam)
lasted 10 days.[25] While Ibn Battuta visited a mosque on shore, a storm arose and one of the ships of his expedition
sank. The other ship then sailed without him only to be seized by a local Sumatran king a few months later.
Afraid to return to Delhi and be seen as a failure, he stayed for a time in southern India under the protection of
Jamal-ud-Din, ruler of the small but powerful Nawayath sultanate on the banks of the Sharavathi river next to the
Arabian Sea. This area is today known as Hosapattana and lies in the Honavar administrative district of Uttara
Kannada. Following the overthrow of the sultanate, Ibn Battuta had no choice but to leave India. Although
determined to continue his journey to China, he first took a detour to visit the Maldive Islands.

A view of an island in the Maldives.

He spent nine months on the islands, much longer than he had

intended. As a Chief Qadi, his skills were highly desirable in the
formerly Buddhist nation that had recently converted to Islam.
Half-kidnapped into staying, he became chief judge and married into
the royal family of Omar I. He became embroiled in local politics and
left when his strict judgments in the laissez-faire island kingdom began
to chafe with its rulers. In the Rihla he mentions his dismay at the local
women going about with no clothing above the waist, and the locals
taking no notice when he complained.[26] From the Maldives, he
carried on to Sri Lanka and visited Sri Pada and Tenavaram temple.

Ibn Battuta's ship almost sank on embarking from Sri Lanka, only for the vessel that came to his rescue to suffer an
attack by pirates. Stranded onshore, he worked his way back to Madurai kingdom in India. Here he spent some time
in the court of the short-lived Madurai Sultanate under Ghiyas-ud-Din Muhammad Damghani,[27] from where he
returned to the Maldives and boarded a Chinese junk, still intending to reach China and take up his ambassadorial
post.
He reached the port of Chittagong in modern-day Bangladesh intending to travel to Sylhet to meet Shah Jalal, who
became so renowned that Ibn Battuta, then in Chittagong, made a one-month journey through the mountains of
Kamaru near Sylhet to meet him.[3] On his way to Sylhet, Ibn Battuta was greeted by several of Shah Jalal's
disciples who had come to assist him on his journey many days before he had arrived. At the meeting in 1345 CE,
Ibn Battuta noted that Shah Jalal was tall and lean, fair in complexion and lived by the mosque in a cave, where his
only item of value was a goat he kept for milk, butter, and yogurt. He observed that the companions of the Shah Jalal
were foreign and known for their strength and bravery. He also mentions that many people would visit the Shah to
seek guidance. Ibn Battuta went further north into Assam, then turned around and continued with his original plan.

Ibn Battuta

Southeast Asia
In the year 1345, Ibn Battuta travelled on to Samudra Pasai Sultanate
in present day Aceh, Northern Sumatra, where he notes in his travel
log that the ruler of Samudra Pasai was a pious Muslim named Sultan
Al-Malik Al-Zahir Jamal-ad-Din, who performed his religious duties in
utmost zeal and often waged campaigns against animists in the region.
The island of Sumatra according to Ibn Battuta was rich in Camphor,
Areca nut, Cloves, Tin. The madh'hab he observed was Imam
Al-Shafii, with similar customs as he had seen in coastal India
Ibn Battuta is believed to have arrived in Po
especially among the Mappila Muslim, who were also the followers of
Klong Garai (named "Kailukari") Vietnam where
Imam Al-Shafii. At that time Samudra Pasai was the end of Dar
he is said to have briefly met the local princess
al-Islam for no territory east of this was ruled by a Muslim ruler. Here
Urduja (possibly of the Trn dynasty or a Cham
aristocrat).
he stayed for about two weeks in the wooden walled town as a guest of
the sultan, and then the sultan provided him with supplies and sent him
on his way on one of Sultan's own junks to China.
Ibn Battuta then sailed to Malacca on Malay Peninsula which he described as "Mul Jawi" he met the ruler of
Malacca and stayed as a guest for three days. He then sailed to Po Klong Garai (named "Kailukari") Vietnam where
he is said to have briefly met the local princess Urduja, who wrote the word Bismillah in Islamic calligraphy. Ibn
Battuta described her people as opponents of the Yuan dynasty. From Po Klong Garai he finally reached Quanzhou
in Fujian province, China.

China
On arriving in Quanzhou in Fujian province, China under the rule of
the Mongols in the year 1345, one of the first things he noted was that
Muslims referred to the city as "Zaitun" (meaning Olive), but Ibn
Battuta could not find any Olives anywhere. He mentioned local artists
and their mastery in making portraits of newly arrived foreigners these
portraits Ibn Battuta noted were for security purposes. Ibn Battuta
praised the craftsmen and their silk and porcelain; fruits such as plums
and watermelons and the advantages of paper money.[28] He described
the manufacturing process of large ships in the city of Quanzhou,[29] he
also mentions Chinese cuisine and its usage of animals such as frogs,
pigs and even dogs which are sold in the markets and also mentions
that the chicken in China were larger in comparison.

Ibn Battuta provides the earliest description of the

Great Wall of China with regards to Islamic
geography.

In Quanzhou, Ibn Battuta was welcomed by the local Muslim Qadi "Fanzhang" (Judge), Sheikh al-Islam (Imam) and
the leader of the local Muslim merchants all came to meet Ibn Battuta with flags, drums, trumpets and musicians.[30]
Ibn Battuta noted, that the Muslim populace lived within a separate portion in the city where they had their own
Mosques, Bazaars and Hospitals. In Quanzhou, he met two prominent Persians one Burhan al-Din of Kazerun and
another Sharif al-Din from Tabriz[31] (both were influential figures noted in the Yuan History as "Sai-fu-ding" and
"A-mi-li-ding").[32] While in Quanzhou he ascended the "Mount of the Hermit" and briefly visited a well-known
Taoist monk in a cave.
He then traveled south along the Chinese coast to Guangzhou, where he lodged for two weeks with one of the city's
wealthy merchants.[33]

Ibn Battuta

8
From Guangzhou he went north to Quanzhou and then proceeded
towards city of Fuzhou, where he took up residence with Zahir al-Din
and was proud to meet Kawam al-Din and a fellow countryman named
Al-Bushri of Ceuta, who had become a wealthy merchant in China.
Al-Bushri accompanied Ibn Battuta northwards to Hangzhou and paid
for the gifts that Ibn Battuta would present to the Mongolian Emperor
Togon-temr of the Yuan Dynasty.[34]

Ibn Battuta describes Hangzhou as one of the largest cities he had ever
seen,
and he noted its charm, describing that the city sat on a beautiful
Huaisheng Mosque is one of the oldest in the
lake and was surrounded by gentle green hills. Ibn Batutta mentions
world.
the city's Muslim quarter and resided as a guest with a family of
[35]
Egyptian origin.
During his stay at Hangzhou he was particularly impressed by the large number of well-crafted
and well-painted Chinese wooden ships, with colored sails and silk awnings, assembling in the canals. Later he
attended a banquet of the Yuan Mongol administrator of the city named Qurtai, who according to Ibn Battuta, was
very fond of the skills of local Chinese conjurers.[36] Ibn Battuta also mentions locals who worship the Solar
deity.[37]
He also described floating through the Grand Canal on a boat watching crop fields, orchids, merchants in black-silk,
and women in flowered-silk and priests also in silk.[38] In Beijing, Ibn Battuta referred to himself as the long-lost
ambassador from the Delhi Sultanate and was invited to the Yuan imperial court of Togon-temr, who according to
Ibn Battuta was worshiped by some people in China. Ibn Batutta noted that the palace of Khanbaliq was made of
wood and that the ruler's head wife held processions in her honor.[39][40]
Ibn Battuta also reported "the rampart of Yajuj and Majuj" was "sixty days' travel" from the city of Zeitun
(Quanzhou);[41] Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen Gibb notes that Ibn Battuta believed that the Great Wall of China
was built by Dhul-Qarnayn to contain Gog and Magog as mentioned in the Quran.[41]
Ibn Battuta then traveled from Beijing to Hangzhou, and then proceeded to Fuzhou. Upon his return to Quanzhou, he
soon boarded a Chinese junk owned by the Sultan of Samudra heading for Southeast Asia, whereupon Ibn Battuta
was unfairly charged a hefty sum by the crew and lost much of what he had collected during his stay in China.

Return home and the Black Death

After returning to Quanzhou in 1346, Ibn Battuta began his journey back to Morocco. In Kozhikode, he once again
considered throwing himself at the mercy of Muhammad bin Tughluq, but thought better of it and decided to carry
on to Mecca. On his way to Basra he passed through the Strait of Hormuz, where he learned that Abu Sa'id, last ruler
of the Ilkhanate Dynasty had died in Persia. Abu Sa'id's territories had subsequently collapsed due to a fierce civil
war between the Persians and Mongols.
In 1348, Ibn Battuta arrived in Damascus with the intention of retracing the route of his first hajj. He then learned
that his father had died 15 years earlier and death became the dominant theme for the next year or so. The Black
Death had struck and he was on hand as it spread through Syria, Palestine, and Arabia. After reaching Mecca he
decided to return to Morocco, nearly a quarter of a century after leaving home. On the way he made one last detour
to Sardinia, then in 1349 returned to Tangier by way of Fez, only to discover that his mother had also died a few
months before.

Ibn Battuta

Al-Andalus and North Africa

After a few days in Tangier, Ibn Battuta set out for a trip
to the Moor controlled territory of al-Andalus on the
Iberian Peninsula. King Alfonso XI of Castile and Len
had threatened to attack Gibraltar, so in 1350 Ibn Battuta
joined a group of Muslims leaving Tangier with the
intention of defending the port. By the time he arrived,
the Black Death had killed Alfonso and the threat of
invasion had receded, so he turned the trip into a
sight-seeing tour, traveling through Valencia and ending
up in Granada.
After his departure from al-Andalus he decided to travel
through Morocco. On his return home, he stopped for a
while in Marrakech, which was almost a ghost town
following the recent plague and the transfer of the
capital to Fez.
Once more Ibn Battuta returned to Tangier, but only
stayed for a short while. In 1324, two years before his
first visit to Cairo, the West African Malian Mansa, or
king of kings, Musa had passed through the same city on
his own hajj and caused a sensation with a display of
Ibn Battuta visited the Emirate of Granada, which was the final
extravagant riches brought from his gold-rich homeland.
vestige of the Muladi populace in Al-Andalus.
Although Ibn Battuta never mentioned this visit
specifically, when he heard the story it may have planted a seed in his mind as he then decided to cross the Sahara
and visit the Muslim kingdoms on its far side.

Ibn Battuta

Mali and Timbuktu

In the autumn of 1351, Ibn Battuta left Fez and made his way
to the town of Sijilmasa on the northern edge of the Sahara in
present-day Morocco.[42] There he bought a number of camels
and stayed for four months. He set out again with a caravan in
February 1352 and after 25 days arrived at the dry salt lake
bed of Taghaza with its salt mines. All of the local buildings
were made from slabs of salt by the slaves of the Masufa tribe,
who cut the salt in thick slabs for transport by camel. Taghaza
was a commercial centre and awash with Malian gold, though
Ibn Battuta did not form a favourable impression of the place,
recording that it was plagued by flies and the water was
brackish.[43]
After a ten-day stay in Taghaza, the caravan set out for the
oasis of Tasarahla (probably Bir al-Ksaib)[44][45] where it
stopped for three days in preparation for the last and most
difficult leg of the journey across the vast desert. From
Tasarahla, a Masufa scout was sent ahead to the oasis town of
Oualata, where he arranged for water to be transported a
Sankore Madrasah in in Timbuktu, Mali.
distance of four days travel where it would meet the thirsty
caravan. Oualata was the southern terminus of the
trans-Saharan trade route and had recently become part of the Mali Empire. Altogether, the caravan took two months
to cross the 1,600km (990mi) of desert from Sijilmasa.[46]
From there, Ibn Battuta travelled southwest along a river he believed to be the Nile (it was actually the river Niger),
until he reached the capital of the Mali Empire.[47]</ref> There he met Mansa Suleyman, king since 1341. Ibn
Battuta disapproved of the fact that female slaves, servants and even the daughters of the sultan went about exposing
parts of their bodies not befitting a Muslim.[48] He left the capital in February accompanied by a local Malian
merchant and journeyed overland by camel to Timbuktu.[49] Though in the next two centuries it would become the
most important city in the region, at that time it was a small city and relatively unimportant.[50] It was during this
journey that Ibn Battuta first encountered a hippopotamus. The animals were feared by the local boatmen and hunted
with lances to which strong cords were attached. After a short stay in Timbuktu, Ibn Battuta journeyed down the
Niger to Gao in a canoe carved from a single tree. At the time Gao was an important commercial center.[51]
After spending a month in Gao, Ibn Battuta set off with a large caravan for the oasis of Takedda. On his journey
across the desert, he received a message from the Sultan of Morocco commanding him to return home. He set off for
Sijilmasa in September 1353, accompanying a large caravan transporting 600 female slaves, and arrived back in
Morocco early in 1354.[52]
Ibn Battuta's itinerary gives scholars a glimpse as to when Islam first began to spread into the heart of west
Africa.[53]

10

Ibn Battuta

11

Rihla
See also: Rihla
After returning home from his travels in 1354, and at the instigation of
the Marinid ruler of Morocco, Abu Inan Faris, Ibn Battuta dictated an
account of his journeys to Ibn Juzayy, a scholar whom he had
previously met in Granada. The account is the only source for Ibn
Battuta's adventures. The full title of the manuscript
may be translated as A Gift to Those Who
Contemplate the Wonders of Cities and the Marvels of Travelling.
However, it is often simply referred to as the Rihla , or "The
Journey".
House in the Medina of Tangier, possible site of

There is no indication that Ibn Battuta made any notes during his
Ibn Battuta's grave
twenty-nine years of travels. When he came to dictate an account of
them, he had to rely on memory and manuscripts produced by earlier travellers. When describing Damascus, Mecca,
Medina and some other places in the Middle East, Ibn Juzayy clearly copied passages from the 12th-century account
by Ibn Jubayr. Similarly, most of Ibn Juzayy's descriptions of places in Palestine were copied from an account by the
13th-century traveller Muhammad al-Abdari.
Some scholars do not believe that Ibn Battuta visited all the places he
described and argue that in order to provide a comprehensive
description of places in the Muslim world, he relied on hearsay
evidence and made use of accounts by earlier travellers. For example,
it is considered very unlikely that Ibn Battuta made a trip up the Volga
River from New Sarai to visit Bolghar and there are serious doubts
about a number of other journeys such as his trip to Sana'a in Yemen,
his journey from Balkh to Bistam in Khorasan and his trip around
Anatolia. SOme scholars have questioned whether he really visited
China. However, even if the Rihla is not fully based on what its author
personally witnessed, it provides an important account of much of the
14th-century world.
Ibn Battuta often experienced culture shock in regions he visited where
the local customs of recently converted peoples did not fit in with his
orthodox Muslim background. Among the Turks and Mongols, he was
astonished at the way women behaved, remarking that on seeing a
Ibn Battuta in Egypt, a 19th-century lithograph by
Turkish couple and noting the woman's freedom of speech, he had
Lon Benett
assumed that the man was the woman's servant when he was in fact her
husband. He also felt that dress customs in the Maldives, and some
sub-Saharan regions in Africa were too revealing. He particularly made note of cannibalism practiced in West
Africa:
Sultan Mansa Suleiman was visited by a party of these negro cannibals... and gave them as his hospitality-gift
a servant, a negress. They killed and ate her, and having smeared their faces and hands with her blood came
to the sultan to thank him... Someone told me about them that they say that the choicest parts of womens flesh
are the palm of the hand and the breast...
Ibn Battuta,Rihla of Ibn Battuta

Ibn Battuta

12

Little is known about Ibn Battuta's life after completion of his Rihla in 1355. He was appointed a judge in Morocco
and died in 1368 or 1369.
For centuries his book was obscure, even within the Muslim world, but in the early 19th century extracts were
published in German and English based on manuscripts discovered in the Middle East, containing abridged versions
of Ibn Juzayy's Arabic text. During the French occupation of Algeria in the 1830s five manuscripts were discovered
in Constantine, including two that contained more complete versions of the text. These manuscripts were brought
back to the Bibliothque Nationale in Paris and studied by the French scholars Charles Defrmery and Beniamino
Sanguinetti. From 1853 they published a series of four volumes containing the Arabic text with a translation into
French.[54] Defrmery and Sanguinetti's printed text has now been translated into many other languages while Ibn
Battuta has grown in reputation and is now a well-known figure.

Legacy
Ibn Battuta himself stated according to Ibn Juzayy that:
I have indeedpraise be to Godattained my desire in this world, which was to travel through the
Earth, and I have attained this honour, which no ordinary person has attained.

Places visited by Ibn Battuta

Over his lifetime Ibn Battuta traveled over 73,000 miles (117 500km) and visited the equivalent of 44 modern
countries.[55]
A list of places visited by Ibn Battuta:
Maghreb

Tangier
Fes
Marrakech
Tlemcen (Tilimsan)
Miliana
Algiers
Djurdjura Mountains
Bjaa
Constantine - named Qusantnah.
Annaba - Also called Bona.
Tunis - At that time, Abu Yahya (son of Abu Zajaria) was the sultan of Tunis.
Sousse - Also called Susah.
Sfax
Gabs
Tripoli

Arab Mashriq

Ajloun
Al Karak
Cairo
Alexandria
Damietta

Jerusalem
Bethlehem
Hebron

Ibn Battuta

Damascus
Latakia
Egypt
Syria
Medina - Visited the tomb of the Islamic prophet Muhammad
Jeddah
Mecca - Performed the Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca.
Najaf - Visited the tomb of 'Ali ibn Abi Talib.
Rabigh - City north of Jeddah on the Red Sea.
Oman
Dhofar
Hajr (modern-day Riyadh)
Bahrain
Al-Hasa
Strait of Hormuz
Yemen
Qatif

Spain
Granada
Valencia
Byzantine Empire and Eastern Europe

Konya
Antalya
Bulgaria
Azov
Kazan
Volga River
Constantinople

Central Asia
Khwarezm and Khorasan (now Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Balochistan (now Pakistan) and Afghanistan)
Bukhara and Samarqand
Pashtun areas of eastern Afghanistan and northern Pakistan (Pakhtunkhwa)
South Asia

North India
Sindh (Pakistan)
Multan
Delhi
Present day Uttar Pradesh
Present day Gujarat
Maharashtra
Kozhikode
Malabar
Pandiyan Kingdom

Bengal (now Bangladesh and West Bengal)

Brahmaputra River in Bangladesh visited the area on his way from China.
Meghna River near Dhaka

13

Ibn Battuta
Sylhet met Sufi Shaikh Hazrat Shah Jalal.
Maldives
Sri Lanka - Known to the Arabs of his time as Serendip. Ibn Battuta visited the Jaffna kingdom and Adam's Peak.
China
Quanzhou - as he called in his book the city of donkeys
Hangzhou Ibn Battuta referred to this city in his book as "Madinat Alkhansa" . He also mentioned
that it was the largest city in the world at that time; it took him three days to walk across the city.
Beijing - Ibn Battuta mentioned in his journey to Beijing how neat the city was.
Southeast Asia
Burma (Myanmar)
Samudera Pasai Sultanate, Aceh, Northern Sumatra, Indonesia
Malacca, Malay Peninsula Malaysia
Somalia
Mogadishu
Zeila
Swahili Coast
Kilwa
Mombasa
Mali Empire and West Africa
Timbuktu
Gao
Takedda
Mauritania
Oualata (Walata)
During most of his journey in the Mali Empire, Ibn Battuta travelled with a retinue that included slaves, most of
whom carried goods for trade but would also be traded as slaves. On the return from Takedda to Morocco, his
caravan transported 600 female slaves, suggesting that slavery was a substantial part of the commercial activity of
the empire.[56]

14

Ibn Battuta

Itinerary 13251332

File:Africa location map.svg

Ibn Battuta Itinerary 13251332 (North Africa, Iraq, Persia, the Arabian Peninsula, Somalia, Swahili Coast)

15

Ibn Battuta

Itinerary 13321346

File:Asia location map2.svg

Ibn Battuta Itinerary 13321346 (Black Sea Area, Central Asia, India, South East Asia and China)

16

Ibn Battuta

Itinerary 13491354

File:Africa location map.svg

Ibn Battuta Itinerary 13491354 (North Africa, Spain and West Africa)

Popular culture
The interiors of the Ibn Battuta Mall in Dubai, United Arab Emirates, inaugurated in 2005, are inspired by the
travels of Ibn Battuta, and carry the theme throughout the building.
The 2007 BBC television documentary Travels with a Tangerine, hosted by classicist Tim Mackintosh-Smith,
traces Ibn Battuta's journey from Tangier to China.
He was portrayed by Richar van Weyden in the film Ninja Assassin (2009). His fictional persona is mentioned as
being invited to the undisclosed training grounds in an oral history about the Ninja clans.
Ibn Batuta pehen ke joota is a popular Hindi nursery rhyme from the 1970s, written by the poet Sarveshwar Dayal
Saxena.
Ibn-E-Batuta is a song from the 2010 Bollywood film Ishqiya, titled after Ibn Battuta.
Layar Battuta is a song from the 2002 Malaysian album Aura sung by popular ethnic singer-songwriter Noraniza
Idris, titled after the journey of Ibn Batuta to Southeast Asia.
The 2009 IMAX film Journey to Mecca is based on Ibn Battuta's travels.
Ibn Battuta's travels are featured as part of the main plot in the modern-day settings of the episodic video game
Unearthed: Trail of Ibn Battuta, which is developed in Saudi Arabia by Semaphore.
Ibn Battuta Centre is a research institution at Marrakech (Morocco) to test rovers, landers and instruments for the
exploration of Mars and Moon.[57]

17

Ibn Battuta

Notes
[1] Dunn 2005, p.20.
[2] After outlining the extensive route of Ibn Battuta's Journey, Nehru notes: "This is a record of travel which is rare enough today with our many
conveniences.... In any event, Ibn Battuta must be amongst the great travellers of all time."
[3] Dunn 2005, pp.30-31.
[4] Travels of Ibne Batutah translated by H.A.R Gibb
[5] Aydhad was a port on the west coast of the Red Sea at 221951N 362925E (http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack.
php?pagename=Ibn_Battuta& params=22_19_51_N_36_29_25_E_). See: Peacock, David; Peacock, Andrew (2008), "The enigma of
'Aydhab: a medieval Islamic port on the Red Sea coast", International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 37: 3248, doi:
10.1111/j.1095-9270.2007.00172.x (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1111/ j. 1095-9270. 2007. 00172. x)
[6] ; ;
[7] Dunn 2005, p.54.
[8] Dunn 2005, pp.66-79.
[9] ; ;
[10] Dunn 2005, pp.41, 97.
[11] Defrmery & Sanguinetti 1854, pp. 134-139 Vol. 2 (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=m-UHAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA134).
[12] Most of Ibn Battuta's descriptions of the towns along the Tigris are copied from Ibn Jabayr's Rihla from 1184.<ref
name="FOOTNOTEDunn2005102">Dunn 2005, p.102.
[13] Ibn Battuta states that he stayed in Mecca for the hajj of 1327, 1328, 1329 and 1330 but gives comparatively little information on his stay.
After the hajj of 1330 he left for East Africa, arriving back again in Mecca before the 1332 hajj. He states that he then left for India and
arrived at the Indus river on 12 September 1333; however, although he does not specify exact dates, the description of his complex itinerary
and the clues in the text to the chronology suggest that this journey to India lasted around three years. He must have therefore either left Mecca
two years earlier than stated or arrived in India two years later. The issue is discussed by Gibb 1962, pp.528537 Vol. 2, Hrbek 1962 and
Dunn 2005, pp.132133.
[14] Sanjay Subrahmanyam, The Career and Legend of Vasco Da Gama, (Cambridge University Press: 1998), pp. 120-121.
[15] J. D. Fage, Roland Oliver, Roland Anthony Oliver, The Cambridge History of Africa, (Cambridge University Press: 1977), p. 190.
[16] George Wynn Brereton Huntingford, Agatharchides, The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: With Some Extracts from Agatharkhids "On the
Erythraean Sea", (Hakluyt Society: 1980), p. 83.
[17] David D. Laitin, Said S. Samatar, Somalia: Nation in Search of a State, (Westview Press: 1987), p. 15.
[18] Chapurukha Makokha Kusimba, The Rise and Fall of Swahili States, (AltaMira Press: 1999), p.58
[19] Leften Stavros Stavrianos, The world to 1500: a global history, (Prentice-Hall, 1970), p.354.
[20] Safarname Ibn Battutah
[21] Safarname Ibn Battutah-vol:1
[22] http:/ / www. hajjguide. org/ The_Longest_Hajj_Part2/ html/ The_Longest_Hajj_Part2_6. htm
[23] Jerry Bently, Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times (New York: Oxford University Press,
1993),121.
[24] Andr Wink, Al-Hind, the Slave Kings and the Islamic Conquest, 11th-13th Centuries, Volume 2 of Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic
World. The Slave Kings and the Islamic Conquest 11th-13th Centuries, (BRILL, 2002), p.229.
[25] (http:/ / ibnbattuta. berkeley. edu/ 10Return. html) Ibn Battuta's Trip: Chapter 10
[26] Jerry Bently, Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times (New York: Oxford University Press,
1993),126.
[27] Dunn 2005, p.245.
[28] Dunn 2005, p.258.
[29] , , 398
[30] http:/ / www. muslimheritage. com/ uploads/ China%201. pdf
[31] http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=W-2iWcxD2e8C& pg=PA237& dq=ibn+ battuta+ in+ the+ court+ of+ the+ yuan& hl=en& sa=X&
ei=YsB3Uu7CLsXH7AaMtoHQAw& ved=0CDsQ6AEwAg#v=onepage& q=sharaf%20al-din& f=false
[32] http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=XNsk7tLkMU4C& pg=PA131& dq=ibn+ battuta+ in+ the+ court+ of+ the+ yuan& hl=en& sa=X&
ei=YsB3Uu7CLsXH7AaMtoHQAw& ved=0CEAQ6AEwAw#v=onepage& q=Sharaf%20al-Din%20of%20Tabriz& f=false
[33] Dunn 2005, p.259.
[34] http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=ZF2spo9BKacC& printsec=frontcover& dq=ibn+ battuta+ china& hl=en& sa=X&
ei=0FR_UoXOA8z74QSBhYFo& ved=0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=snippet& q=al-bushri%2040%20miles& f=false
[35] http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=ZF2spo9BKacC& printsec=frontcover& dq=ibn+ battuta+ china& hl=en& sa=X&
ei=0FR_UoXOA8z74QSBhYFo& ved=0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=onepage& q=family%20Egyptian%20origin& f=false
[36] Gibb & Beckingham 1994, pp.904, 907.
[37] http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=22IbAQAAMAAJ& printsec=frontcover& dq=ibn+ battuta+ china& hl=en& sa=X&
ei=FWV_UqDAKOeF4gSX6YCQCg& ved=0CEkQ6AEwBTgK#v=onepage& q=worship%20sun& f=false

18

Ibn Battuta
[38] http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=9-m4X84BBgwC& printsec=frontcover& dq=ibn+ battuta+ china& hl=en& sa=X&
ei=0FR_UoXOA8z74QSBhYFo& ved=0CDsQ6AEwAg#v=onepage& q=china& f=false
[39] http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=LXyyYs2cRDcC& pg=PT158& dq=ibn+ battuta+ in+ the+ court+ of+ the+ yuan& hl=en& sa=X&
ei=YsB3Uu7CLsXH7AaMtoHQAw& ved=0CEkQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&
q=ibn%20battuta%20in%20the%20court%20of%20the%20yuan& f=false
[40] Dunn 2005, p.260.
[41] Gibb & Beckingham 1994, p.896.
[42] ; ;
[43] ; ;
[44] Levtzion & Hopkins 2000, p.457.
[45] Bir al-Ksaib (also Bir Ounane or El Gaib) is in northern Mali at 211733N 53730W (http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack.
php?pagename=Ibn_Battuta& params=21_17_33_N_5_37_30_W_). The oasis is 265km (165mi) south of Taghaza and 470km (290mi)
north of Oualata.
[46] ; ;
[47] The location of the Malian capital has been the subject of considerable scholarly debate but there is no consensus. The historian, John
Hunwick has studied the times given by Ibn Battuta for the various stages of his journey and proposed that the capital is likely to have been on
the left side of the Niger River somewhere between Bamako and Nyamina.<ref name="FOOTNOTEHunwick1973">Hunwick 1973.
[48] Jerry Bently, Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times (New York: Oxford University Press,
1993),131.
[49] ; ; ;
[50] Dunn 2005, p.304.
[51] ; ;
[52] ; ;
[53] Noel King (ed.), Ibn Battuta in Black Africa, Princeton 2005, pp. 45-46. Four generations before Mansa Suleiman who died in 1360 CE, his
grandfather's grandfather (Saraq Jata) had embraced Islam.
[54] ; ; ;
[55] Jerry Bently, Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times (New York: Oxford University Press,
1993),114.
[56] Candice Goucher, Charles LeGuin, and Linda Walton, Trade, Transport, Temples, and Tribute: The Economics of Power (http:/ / www.
learner. org/ courses/ worldhistory/ support/ reading_11_1. pdf), in In the Balance: Themes in Global History (Boston: McGraw-Hill, 1998)
[57] Ibn Battuta Centre (http:/ / www. ibnbattutacentre. org/ ?)

References
Sources
Chittick, H. Neville (1977), "The East Coast, Madagascar and the Indian Ocean", in Oliver, Roland, Cambridge
History of Africa Vol. 3. From c. 1050 to c. 1600, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp.183231,
ISBN0-521-20981-1.
Defrmery, C.; Sanguinetti, B.R. trans. and eds. (1853), Voyages d'Ibn Batoutah (Volume 1) (http://books.
google.co.uk/books?id=mdQOAAAAQAAJ) (in French and Arabic), Paris: Socit Asiatic. The text of these
volumes has been used as the source for translations into other languages.
Defrmery, C.; Sanguinetti, B.R. trans. and eds. (1854), Voyages d'Ibn Batoutah (Volume 2) (http://books.
google.co.uk/books?id=m-UHAAAAIAAJ) (in French and Arabic), Paris: Socit Asiatic.
Defrmery, C.; Sanguinetti, B.R. trans. and eds. (1855), Voyages d'Ibn Batoutah (Volume 3) (http://books.
google.co.uk/books?id=w_YHAAAAIAAJ) (in French and Arabic), Paris: Socit Asiatic.
Defrmery, C.; Sanguinetti, B.R. trans. and eds. (1858), Voyages d'Ibn Batoutah (Volume 4) (http://books.
google.co.uk/books?id=AdUOAAAAQAAJ) (in French and Arabic), Paris: Socit Asiatic.
Dunn, Ross E. (2005), The Adventures of Ibn Battuta, University of California Press, ISBN0-520-24385-4. First
published in 1986, ISBN 0-520-05771-6.
Elad, Amikam (1987), "The description of the travels of Ibn Baa in Palestine: is it original?", Journal of the
Royal Asiatic Society 119: 256272, doi: 10.1017/S0035869X00140651 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/
S0035869X00140651).

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Ibn Battuta
Gibb, H.A.R. trans. and ed. (1958), The Travels of Ibn Baa, A.D. 13251354 (Volume 1), London: Hakluyt
Society.
Gibb, H.A.R. trans. and ed. (1962), The Travels of Ibn Baa, A.D. 13251354 (Volume 2), London: Hakluyt
Society.
Gibb, H.A.R. trans. and ed. (1971), The Travels of Ibn Baa, A.D. 13251354 (Volume 3), London: Hakluyt
Society.
Gibb, H.A.R.; Beckingham, C.F. trans. and eds. (1994), The Travels of Ibn Baa, A.D. 13251354 (Volume 4),
London: Hakluyt Society, ISBN978-0-904180-37-4. This volume was translated by Beckingham after Gibb's
death in 1971. An separate index was published in 2000.
Hrbek, Ivan (1962), "The chronology of Ibn Battuta's travels" (http://kramerius.lib.cas.cz/search/i.
jsp?pid=uuid:65a4a519-3e45-11e1-bdd3-005056a60003), Archiv Orientalni 30: 409486.
Hunwick, John O. (1973), "The mid-fourteenth century capital of Mali", Journal of African History 14 (2):
195208, doi: 10.1017/s0021853700012512 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0021853700012512), JSTOR
180444 (http://www.jstor.org/stable/180444).
Janicsek, Stephen (1929), "Ibn Baa's journey to Bulghr: is it a fabrication?", Journal of the Royal Asiatic
Society 61: 791800, doi: 10.1017/S0035869X00070015 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0035869X00070015).
Levtzion, Nehemia; Hopkins, John F.P., eds. (2000), Corpus of Early Arabic Sources for West Africa, New York,
NY: Marcus Weiner Press, ISBN1-55876-241-8. First published in 1981. Pages 279-304 contain Ibn Battuta's
account of his visit to West Africa.
Yule, Henry (1916), "IV. Ibn Battuta's travels in Bengal and China" (http://archive.org/stream/
cathaywaythither04yule#page/n9/mode/2up), Cathay and the Way Thither (Volume 4), London: Hakluyt
Society, pp.1106. Includes the text of Ibn Battuta's account of his visit to China. The translation is from the
French text of Defrmery & Sanguinetti (1858) Volume 4.

Further reading
Ferrand, Gabriel (1913), "Ibn Batt" (http://www.archive.org/stream/relationsdevoyag1a2ferruoft#page/426/
mode/2up), Relations de voyages et textes gographiques arabes, persans et turks relatifs l'Extrme-Orient du
8e au 18e sicles (Volumes 1 and 2) (in French), Paris: Ernest Laroux, pp.426458.
Gibb, H.A.R. trans. and ed. (1929), Ibn Battuta Travels in Asia and Africa (selections), London: Routledge.
Reissued several times. Extracts are available on the Fordham University site (http://www.fordham.edu/
halsall/source/1354-ibnbattuta.html).
Gordon, Stewart (2008), When Asia was the World: Traveling Merchants, Scholars, Warriors, and Monks who
created the "Riches of the East", Philadelphia, PA.: Da Capo Press, Perseus Books, ISBN0-306-81556-7.
Harvey, L.P. (2007), Ibn Battuta, New York: I.B. Tauris, ISBN978-184511-394-0.
Lee, Samuel (1829), The Travels of Ibn Batuta (http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wjAtGKM_-WIC),
London: Oriental Translation Committee. A translation of an abridged manuscript. The text is discussed in
Defrmery & Sanguinetti (1853) Volume 1 pp. xvi-xvii (http://books.google.co.uk/
books?id=mdQOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR16).
Mackintosh-Smith, Tim (2002), Travels with a Tangerine: A Journey in the Footnotes of Ibn Battutah, London:
Picador, ISBN978-0-330-49114-3.
Mackintosh-Smith, Tim (ed.) (2003), The Travels of Ibn Battutah, London: Picador, ISBN0-330-41879-3.
Contains an introduction by Mackintosh-Smith and then an abridged version (around 40 percent of the original) of
the translation by H.A.R. Gibb and C.E. Beckingham (1958-1994).
Mackintosh-Smith, Tim (2005), Hall of a Thousand Columns: Hindustan to Malabar with Ibn Battutah, London:
John Murray, ISBN978-0-7195-6710-0.
Mackintosh-Smith, Tim (2010), Landfalls: On the Edge of Islam with Ibn Battutah, London: John Murray,
ISBN978-0-7195-6787-2.

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Ibn Battuta

21

Waines, David (2010), The Odyssey of Ibn Battuta: Uncommon Tales of a Medieval Adventurer, Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, ISBN978-0-226-86985-8.

External links
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Ibn Battuta

A Tangerine in Delhi (http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200602/a.tangerine.in.delhi.htm/)

Saudi Aramco World article by Tim Mackintosh-Smith (March/April 2006).
The Longest Hajj: The Journeys of Ibn Battuta (http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200004/default.
htm) Saudi Aramco World article by Douglas Bullis (July/August 2000).
Google Books (http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zKqn_CWTxYEC) link to a 2004 reissue of Gibb's
1929 translation.
French text from Defrmery and Sanguinetti (18531858) with an introduction and footnotes by Stphane
Yrasimos published in 1982: Volume 1 (http://classiques.uqac.ca/classiques/ibn_battuta/voyages_tome_I/
ibn_battuta_t1.pdf), Volume 2 (http://classiques.uqac.ca/classiques/ibn_battuta/voyages_tome_II/
ibn_battuta_t2.pdf), Volume 3 (http://classiques.uqac.ca/classiques/ibn_battuta/voyages_tome_III/
ibn_battuta_t3.pdf).

Article Sources and Contributors

Article Sources and Contributors

Ibn Battuta Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=625884420 Contributors: -Midorihana-, 152.163.207.xxx, A3RO, ABF, Aa77zz, Aaronbrick, Abdulghani Desai, Abscando,
Adam Bishop, Adel the king, Adhoc12, Afasmit, Agh.niyya, Ajh16, Al-Andalusi, Alansohn, Alcoved id, Aleator, Alexf, Alicetrees, Aminder uppal, Aminullah, Ammar shaker, Analytikone,
Anbu121, Andre Engels, Andrewa, Anjouli, Anonymous Dissident, Antandrus, Apteva, Arab Hafez, Arjayay, Arunvrparavur, Ashashyou, Ashley kennedy3, Astatine-210, Aumnamahashiva,
Ayersalisa, Aziz1005, BCube, BD2412, Bakasuprman, Bald Zebra, Balmenjoa, Balthazarduju, Bayrak, Bejnar, Bemes, Ben Ben, Bender235, Betacommand, Bgwhite, Bidabadi, BigFatBuddha,
Blanche of King's Lynn, Bluerasberry, Bluezy, BobShair, Bobllfixit, Bobo192, Boneyard90, Bosniaque, Bossk-Office, Briangotts, Bryan P. C. C., Bucketsofg, Bukalemun3, CJLL Wright,
CaliforniaAliBaba, Caltas, CambridgeBayWeather, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanadianLinuxUser, Carbon Caryatid, Catgut, Cdecoro, ChemTerm, Chewings72, Chiswick Chap, Chris the
speller, Chris troutman, ChrisGualtieri, Chrislk02, CimanyD, Ckruschke, Closedmouth, Cmacauley, Conversion script, Cooper892, Ctg4Rahat, Cuchullain, D, DBigXray, Dachshund, Dandrake,
Danny, Darth Panda, Darwinek, Davidbena, Davshul, Dbachmann, Deadbeef, Deeptrivia, Denisarona, Deor, DevOhm, Devper94, Dialectric, Dimadick, Dinkytown, Discospinster, Dismas,
Dissident93, Don Alessandro, Donama, DougsTech, Downwards, Dr3W21, Drmies, Drpickem, Dthomsen8, Dureo, Dvl007, Dvyost, Dylanvt, Dzlinker, EagleFan, Eclecticology, EdJohnston,
Edward321, Elkost, Elonka, Enerelt, English Bobby, Eosyt360, Epicgenius, Erutuon, Esowteric, Eumolpo, EvKnight13, Evestri, Excirial, FKmailliW, Faizhaider, Farhansher, FayssalF,
FeanorStar7, Fetofs, Feydey, Finavon, Folantin, Fort5000, Fraggle81, FredD, Fredcimato, Freddyalfonsoboulton, Fsotrain09, Funandtrvl, F, GHYU666, Gaius Cornelius, GarbagEcol, Geeked,
Geoff Plourde, Geographer, Geonarva, GeorgeMoney, Ghostexorcist, Gianori, Gidonb, Gilliam, Ginsuloft, GorgeCustersSabre, Gothicartech, Goustien, Grafen, Graham87, Graphium, Gregkaye,
GregorB, Grenavitar, Gthb, Gumruch, Gunkarta, Gurch, HAL(Old), HDCase, Hadal, Happysailor, Haruth, Hasan-aga, Hatim000, Hey282, Hillbillyholiday, Historian of the arab people, Hmains,
Hooth, Hope(N Forever), Hugo999, Humaliwalay, Hydrogen Iodide, IRP, Ian Pitchford, Ihavenoname13, Imc, Incognit000, IndianGeneralist, Indon, Infobacker, Intothefire, Inwind, Iranian40,
Iridescent, Irishpunktom, Isa alcala, Islescape, Iste Praetor, Itaine, Italia2006, Ixfd64, J. W. Love, J.delanoy, JHMM13, Jab843, Jacobolus, Jaggajat, Jagged 85, JakeMGame, JamesMoose,
Jaraalbe, Jargon777, Javierito92, JayC, Jdp1230, Jeff3000, Jeffrd10, Jerse, Jheald, Jj137, John Baez, JohnI, Johnbod, Jojhutton, Jon.bobby123, Jonathan.Mercury, Jonathansammy, Joseph Solis in
Australia, JovanAndreano, Joy, Joyson Prabhu, Jprg1966, Jquarry, Julia Rossi, Jusdafax, K6ka, KRLS, Kabesang Tales, Kandar, Kansas Bear, Karl-Henner, Khalid hassani, Khazar2, Kikos,
Kirrages, Koavf, Kummi, L Kensington, LAAFan, Lao Wai, LarryJeff, Lateg, Lauren68, Lectiodifficilior, Liesbeth98, Lieutenant of Melkor, Lifebonzza, Lightmouse, Liibaan Haldha,
LittleOldMe, LloydKame, Llywrch, Lucidity, Lugia2453, Luna Santin, Lylefor, M.shady, MK8, MONGO, MVPxHaxorzz, MZMcBride, Maajed, Mac Davis, Magere Hein, Maoster, Mar4d,
Marek69, Mariocurtotti, Marquez, MarsRover, Martian.knight, Materialscientist, Mathwhiz 29, Matt.smart, Mattisse, Mayooranathan, Md.altaf.rahman, Mel Etitis, Melonkelon, Member, MercZ,
Merhawie, Merlin112112, Mets501, Mhakcm, Mhockey, Middayexpress, MightyWarrior, Mike Rosoft, Mikemachinedude, Mild Bill Hiccup, Millahnna, Minesweeper, Missie Wolfe, Missvain,
Moarrikh, Moe Epsilon, Mogism, Mohonu, Mohsinwaheed, Moony22, Mr Stephen, Mrhawley, Mtloweman, Mufka, Mughal Lohar, Mulder416, Mustafaahmedhussien, Mutinus, Mutos124,
NCurse, NERIC-Security, NawlinWiki, Nbarth, Ndkl, Neutron Jack, Nick Number, Nicke Lilltroll, Nigosh, Nishkid64, Noopur28, Notthebestusername, Ogress, Omar-toons, Omeiryusuf,
Onewhohelps, Orange Suede Sofa, Ordinary Person, Oswald Glinkmeyer, Ottawa4ever, Palvior, Patrick T. Wynne, Paul Drye, Penguwin, Per Honor et Gloria, Peter Ellis, PhilKnight, Philg88,
Philip Trueman, Phlar, PhnomPencil, PiMaster3, Piano non troppo, Pigman, PimRijkee, Plastikspork, Poeloq, Popiloll, Porphyrogen71, Pouya, PrinceRegentLuitpold, PrincessofLlyr, Prodego,
Profoss, QuartierLatin1968, Quenhitran, QuiteUnusual, Qxz, R'n'B, R000t, Rain drop 45, Rama's Arrow, Rarevogel, RazielZero, Readeraml, RexNL, Rfa689, Riar83, Ricardogpn, Rich
Farmbrough, Risingstar12, Rjwilmsi, Robin klein, Roelvandijk, Roger Davies, Roverlager, Roversi, RoyBoy, Rrburke, Rsrikanth05, Runehelmet, Ruud Koot, Rzafar, S710, S711, SDC, SJP,
SQGibbon, Saddhiyama, Salgueiro, Samjikombasseril, Samsam22, Sango123, SchreiberBike, Scott, Sean.hoyland, Seb az86556, Seba5618, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Serag4000, Sfan00 IMG,
Sfeldman, Shabmir, Shadowjams, Shaolin128, Sharqawii, Shelter012, Shenme, Shivashree, Sigismondo, Silvrous, Simbahs, Simon Rup, Simplyxlnt, Skarebo, Skeatsbeats6, Skeptic2, Sladew,
Slazenger, Sluzzelin, Smtchahal, Snoyes, Solraps, Some jerk on the Internet, Spasage, Spitfire, Sreejithk2000, Srihariramadas, StN, Stbalbach, Stevenmitchell, Stewartadcock, Storm Rider,
Striver, Sue H. Ping, Sun Creator, Supertouch, Swarm, Syedkidd, Symane, Tachfin, Taharqa, Tajik, Takahara Osaka, Talodar, Tar-ba-gan, Taranah, Tech77, ThaGrind, That Guy, From That
Show!, The Epopt, The Thing That Should Not Be, TheProject, Theopolisme, Thingg, Tide rolls, Tiimoora, Tilewon44, Timeraner, Tobby72, Tom harrison, Tommy2010, Tomseattle,
TonyStarks, TorontonianOnline, Tpbradbury, Tracker1312, Trasman, Trust Is All You Need, Tugaworld, Twthmoses, Tyler W., Ugog Nizdast, Uhijklmn, Utcursch, VanSisean, Vegaswikian,
Vervin, Vrenator, Wavelength, Webkami, Wensgot, Wetman, Widr, Wik, Wikipelli, William Avery, Woohookitty, XJaM, XPTO, Xanchester, Yamamoto Ichiro, Z10x, Zain1987, Zapvet,
Zee602, Zickzack, Zoicon5, ZxxZxxZ, , , , 1262 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

File:Yahy ibn Mahmd al-Wsit 005.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Yahy_ibn_Mahmd_al-Wsit_005.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors:
AndreasPraefcke, Ashashyou, Aziz1005, Calame, EDUCA33E, Emijrp, Johnbod, Mel22, ZxxZxxZ
File:Tabriz School Shirin.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tabriz_School_Shirin.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: anonym. Original uploader was
at ru.wikipedia
File:Zeila, Somalia.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Zeila,_Somalia.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: G. Massaia
File:GreatMosque.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:GreatMosque.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: en:user:Claude McNab
File: III .jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:_III_.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: unknown Byzantine period art.
File:Golden Horde flag 1339.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Golden_Horde_flag_1339.svg License: Creative Commons Zero Contributors: Vorziblix
File:Feroze Sha's tomb with adjoining Madrasa.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Feroze_Sha's_tomb_with_adjoining_Madrasa.JPG License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Nvvchar (talk). Original uploader was Nvvchar at en.wikipedia
File:405-Maldives.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:405-Maldives.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Patrick Verdier
File:Po Klong Garai.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Po_Klong_Garai.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Andre Lettau
File:The Great Wall of China at Jinshanling.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_Great_Wall_of_China_at_Jinshanling.jpg License: Creative Commons
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File:Ventanas con arabescos en la Alhambra.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ventanas_con_arabescos_en_la_Alhambra.JPG License: Creative Commons
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Lecocq at nl.wikipedia
File:TumbaIbnBatuta.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TumbaIbnBatuta.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Ruben
File:Handmade oil painting reproduction of Ibn Battuta in Egypt, a painting by Hippolyte Leon Benett..jpg Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Handmade_oil_painting_reproduction_of_Ibn_Battuta_in_Egypt,_a_painting_by_Hippolyte_Leon_Benett..jpg License: Creative Commons
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