Technical and Economic

Analyses in the Development

of Bioremediation Processes
Paul R. Ammann Guyh S. Koch
Paul R Ammann i s a
principal of me Bra#&
Group, an economic,
management, and
environmental consulting
Jim i n Ciambridge,
Massacbusetts. He bas
more tban tbirty years'
experience in tbe
developmat, costs, and
applications of
environmental, cbemicd
and metallurgical
tecbtwhgies. He fcwluses
on endment al
consulting in tbe areas
of CERCLA cost recovery,
evaluatiolS R&D
planning, and tecbnical
and market feasibility
analysis. Gayle S. Kocb i s
a principal of Tbe Bra#&
Croup. Sbe bas
evaluated environmental
liabilities i n connection
witb settlements,
Utigatioff, insurance
recovery, acquisitions
and sales, and strategic
planning.
environmental uabiuty
'Ihe ve y latge extent of subsugace and groundwater contamination
with toxic otganic compounds has prompted research on a number of
bioremedialprocesses. 'Ihejustification of this research has been to achieve
lower overall remedial costs than are incurred by currently existing
technologies. Laborato y studies are often undertaken with the notion that
a new set ofprocess conditions can reduce reagent consumption or the time
for treatment by a signijkant factor with an attendant reduction in overall
remediation costs. Research programs are initiated on the basis of these
simple premises. Our work has shown that many research projects have
been undertaken for the wrong reasons and that eqerimental effort has
ojen not been directed toward latge-scale implementation.
A preliminaryprocess analysis has been shown to be a very valuable
component of any research and developmentprogram on bioremedial and
other innovative technologies. As described in this article, the analysis (1)
identipes the critical engineering and cost parameters and (2) provides
guidance to the research program in the design of eqeriments and the
collection of data. 7he methodology is also useful in the review ofproposed
new technologies and treatment equipment. 7he article includes an
example of a process analysis for an actual development project directed
toward the remediation of solids contaminated with chlorinated hydrocar-
bons to illustrate the benefits and the power of the technique.
Bioremediation processes offer potential for lower-cost remediation of
soils, sludges, and sediments and surface and subsurface water contami-
nated with organic compounds than other physical, chemical, or thermal
processes. Consequently, large efforts are being directed to research and
develop bioremedial processes. Because of the large costs of R&D
programs, of developing and proving new technologies, and the improve-
ments inand the competition of existing remedial processes, it is prudent
to focus studies toward realistic commercial remedial opportunities.
This article describes an approach for the evaluation of applications of
research results to full-scale remediation. The discussion addresses the
treatment of soils, sludges, and sediments, but the methodology is also
applicable to water treatment processes.
REMBDIATION/WINTER 1993/94 115
PAUL R AMMA" GAYLE S. KOCH
AB the requirements
of even higher
etandi,wda of ckanup
ore being applied
throughout the
country, the need for
lower-cost aolutions is
becoming even more
important.
OPPORTUNXTIWNEEDS
Organic contamination is present in soils, sludges, and even in
sediments of rivers and streams. The types of contaminants vary from
volatile solvents to less volatile compounds such as polyaromatic hydro-
carbons (PAHs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Contaminants
occur as small hot spots, as well as large areas with a number of compounds
distributed throughout the area.
Organic contamination has also migrated from disposal areas into
surface waters and groundwater. Through groundwater movement, sub-
surface plumes of organic compounds exist at many locations throughout
the world.
A wide variety of remediation processes exists for the treatment of soils,
including physical (e.g., vacuum extraction), chemical (e.g., solvent
extraction), and thermal (e.g., low temperature desorption and incinera-
tion) processes. New processes are also being developed or are evolving
from the industrial sector, as equipment used for commercial reasons is
modified to satisfy needs in remediation. These existing and evolving
technologies compete with bioremediation in the environmental remediation
market.
Remediation costs for contaminated soils and waters are generally
high. As the requirements of even higher standards of cleanup are being
applied throughout the country, the need for lower-cost solutions is
becoming even more important.
In much of the published work in the bioremediation industry, the
focus is on technical issues, such as (1) reaction mechanisms and (2)
kinetics as a function of contaminant mix, soil types, and concentrations
of relevant contaminants and components. Although this type of research
is essential for the successful development of new processes, it appears
that there has been less attention paid to design concepts and the
economics of technologies that could result from the research. Early
attention to the technology development and costs is vital to achieve cost-
effective research programs.
BIOTREATMENT PROCESSES
It appears that biological treatment processes will play an important
role in the future in remediation of areas of contamination. Biological
treatment processes exhibit some intrinsic advantages compared to other
alternatives. These include:
Low reagent costs. Typically, nutrient requirements are small and
the costs therefore tend to be low.
Low energy costs. In the absence of a need to heat biological
treatment systems more than, say, 10" to 2OoC, energy requirements
tend to be low. Most of the energy needs are for mechanical energy
to move solids and liquids.
Low capital costs. Reaction systems in which organics in solids or
liquids are mixed with organisms and nutrients are typically simple.
For example, solids treatment processes use conveyors, reagent
116 REMEDIATION/WINTER 1993/94
TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC ANAL.YSBS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF BIOREMEDIATION PROCESSES
mix tanks, and large contactors. Consequently, the capital costs
tend to be small in comparison with other treatment systems such
as thermal desorption or incineration.
Environmental acceptance. Biotreatment processes operate at low
temperatures, and gas flows, such as air for oxidative treatment, are
small. Any air emissions of concern can be controlled at very
modest cost with existing technology. Similarly, water discharge
streams can be treated with conventional water treatment pro-
cesses. If necessary, any stream can be pasteurized to destroy
microorganisms.
There are, however, potential major disadvantages to biological
treatment processes. Some of these are:
The selection of one of
the available options
is baaed on technical
feasibility, overall
economics, and
satisfaction of
regulatory matters
and public concerrta.
Relatively long treatment times. In contrast to chemical, physical,
or thermal treatment processes in which reaction times typically
vary from seconds or minutes to less than an hour, biological
treatment processes often require days or months. Consequently,
reactor vessels are much larger than for alternative treatment
processes, and/or cleanup times may be extended significantly.
Incomplete destructioddegradation of organics. Biological water
treatment systems, such as activated sludge, are very effective for
destruction of many organic compounds. However, biological
treatment systems may not be as effective for the destruction of
certain toxic organic compounds, particularly in soils, sludges, and
sediments.
Dzflcult application. For many toxic organic compounds, specific
organisms are required to achieve degradation or destruction. In
some instances, indigenous microorganisms either have limited
effectiveness or are ineffective for reactions with toxic organic
compounds. For in-situ applications, there may be additional
complications such as preferential pathways for nutrients or
biodegradation under anaerobic conditions.
T'icity. The presence of certain elements, such as heavy metals
or compounds, may limit the effectiveness of microorganisms.
Primarily effective on otganic contaminants. Bioremediation pro-
cesses are generally iimited to soils and solids contaminated only
with organic compounds. If heavy metals are present, for example,
either bioremediation is only one component of remediation, or it
may not be cost-effective compared to alternatives.
SELECI'ION OF ALTERNATIVES
In planning the remediation of sites contaminated with organic
compounds, environmental managers usually have several process op-
tions available. The selection of one of the available options is based on
technical feasibility, overall economics, and satisfaction of regulatory
matters and public concerns. For biotreatment processes, some of the
decision criteria are described in the following section.
REMEDXATION~~INTER 1993/94 117
PAUL R AMMA GAYLE S. KOCH
Whether a cleanup i s
carried out by a
remedial contractor
or by the owner of a
property, the total
cost i s governed
by the initial
investment. . .
Technical Feasibility
Technical feasibility is, of course, critical to the selection of a remedy.
I t is also a key focus of much of the ongoing research and development
work in bioremediation.
Effective organism. The degradation of selected organic com-
pounds from initial concentrations to specified cleanup levels must
be demonstrated in a field setting. The demonstration becomes
complicated if there are multiple organic compounds or other
contaminants of concern (e.g., metals) present at a site.
Rates and extent of degradatioddestruction. The rates of biocon-
version are important to the economics, as described later, but it
is also important that the biological reactions reduce the levels of
toxic organic compounds to the required cleanup levels. This
criterion isimportant if cleanup levels continue to decrease in the
future. For example, J erger et al. (1993) reported on the slurry
reactor treatment of soils that significantly reduced the levels of
creosote but did not reach the required cleanup levels.
Control of reaction conditions. The microorganisms should be
consistently effective in degrading or destroying hazardous organic
compounds, and the reactions should not be subject to poisoning
or loss of effectiveness during a large-scale site remediation.
Type of equipment. Biotreatment processes are often advantageous
because they typically employ simple process equipment, such as
tanks and solids-liquids contactors.
Economics
Overall costs play a very large role in the selection of a remediation
process. Whether a cleanup is carried out by a remedial contractor or by
the owner of a property, the total cost is governed by the initial investment
for the process equipment, the direct operating costs for site cleanup, and
a financial return on the use of the equipment.
Studies. Significant expenses may be incurred for treatability
studies, pilot tests, and other studies. Study costs are generally
higher for new, unproven technologies.
Investment. The capital cost of the biotreatment process must be
recovered from its operation at one or more sites. If a process is
dedicated to one site, the soil volume must be sufficiently large so
that the allocation of the investment to the soil treatment is
acceptable. Alternatively, transportable equipment allows flexibil-
ity for treatment of larger soil volume at multiple sites. Because
there is a large element of uncertainty about how many sites and
the quantity of solids or liquids that may be treated by an
equipment package, it is important that the cost of equipment be
kept as low as possible. Investment may be reduced by using
standard equipment, such as tanks and reactors, and establishing
process conditions that allow the shortest possible treatment times.
~ ~~
118 REMEDIATION/WINTER 1993/94
TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC ANAL.YSES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF BIOREMEDIATION PROCESSES
... there may be
concern over
introduction of
microbes into the
environment,
particularly for new,
genetically deeigned
organism.
Unit treatment cas& Technologies with the lowest overall treat-
ment costs that meet the cleanup requirements are sought in the
feasibility studies.
Pmject size. Large projects can achieve economies of scale and
therefore relatively smaller unit costs.
Utilization. Equipment costs may be spread over a number of sites.
To the extent that a transportable process is not used continuously,
the owner/operator must allocate fixed costs accrued during
downtime to each site.
Regulatory Issues and Public Acceptance
All remedial processes must have operating permits and should be
acceptable to local communities and neighboring residents. In contrast to
some technologies such as incineration, in which stack emissions are of
concern, biotreatment processes should receive acceptance because solid
and liquid discharges from biotreatment processes should comply with all
applicable regulations. However, there may be concern over introduction
of microbes into the environment, particularly for new, genetically
designed organisms. Regulatory and public acceptance issues that must be
addressed include:
Permits and appmvaki. State and local permitting can be an
expensive and time-consuming process. In addition, for many
hazardous waste sites, bioremediation must be compared with
alternative treatment options and approved based on cost and
effectiveness criteria.
Risks to humansand environment. Studies should be conducted to
show that the bioremedial process will reduce risks to humans and
the environment to the desired level.
Public perceptions. Public perception of any risks introduced by
the bioremedial process must be addressed, often by holding
public meetings and making site documents and site experts
available to the public.
Many bioremediation research programs focus exclusively on techni-
cal feasibility. However, because ultimate project success will also be
strongly influenced by economics, regulatory issues, and public accep-
tance, it is important that significant attention be paid to these areas as well.
ALT ATI VETREA~ P R0 c ES S ES
Developers of bioremediation technologies must keep in mind that
these technologies will ultimately compete in the marketplace against
other remedial options. The options for the remediation of contaminated
solids and water are different.
Remediation of Soils, Sludges, and Sediments
The remediation of soils, sludges, and sediments can generally be
divided into two major categories: excavation with on-site or off-site
REMEDIATION/INTER 1993/94 119
PAUL R AMMA GAYLE S. KOCH
treatment and in-situ treatment.
Excavation with on-site or 08-site treatment. Excavation not only
adds cost to the remediation of a site, but it also poses some risk
of spreading contamination into the environment and adds health
risks to the remediation workers. However, postexcavation treat-
ment is used extensively for the remediation of contaminated
solids. Some of the most important processes are listed beIow
(Lewis, 1993):
Incineration
Thermal desorption
Thermal aeration
Solids washing
Solvent extraction
Land farming
Composting
Slurry phase bioreaction
The last three alternatives employ microorganisms to achieve degradation
or destruction of the organic contaminants.
In-situ treatment. Degradation or destruction of organic com-
pounds without excavation has some advantages over the pro-
cesses described above. One important factor is the savings of the
excavation cost, which may be significant, but not as large as the
treatment costs. In addition, risks to humans and the environment
through direct contact or inhalation of contaminants are reduced.
Some of the alternatives that are available include:
Soil vapor extraction (SVE)
Vapor extraction with heating or fracturing (hardrock)
Solidification/containment
Vitrification (fusion of soils)
Infrared heating
Soil flushing (active or natural)
Soil flushing with biotreatment
Bioventing
Remediation of Contaminated Water
The remediation of contaminated surface and groundwater can also be
divided into two major categories: surface treatment and in-situ treatment.
Surface treatment. There are several options available for the
surface treatment of contaminated water. Many are derivatives of
municipal wastewater treatment systems. Water treatment plants
may be comprised of several modules according to the chemical
complexity of the water. For example, organic removal or destruc-
120 REMEDIATION/WINTER 1993/94
TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC &M,YSB IN THE DEVBU~PMENT OF BIOREMEDIATION PROCESSES
The solids are
excavated, screened to
remove oversize Solid8
... and conveyed to
storage bins.
tion may be preceded by a metals removal step. Some of the
organic treatment or removal modules may be:
ChemicaVUV oxidation
Adsorptiodabsorption
Biotreatment processes
Air stripping (with or without heat)
When hazardous wastes have contributed to contamination of either
surface waters or groundwaters that have migrated off-site, the contami-
nated plume may be collected in wells and either treated off-site or
pumped back to the site where the contamination is located. Physical
barriers such as slurry walls may also be used to impede or prevent
contaminant migration.
In-situ treatment. In contrast to the surface treatment approaches
described above, new developments have been directed toward
the in-situ degradation of organic contaminants in groundwater.
There are two general approaches:
Injection of microorganisms and nutrients
Pumping groundwater, surface addition of organisms, and
reinjection (in this concept, the aquifer becomes the reactor,
saving the costs of construction of reactors at the surface)
At various stages in the bioremediation R&D process, managers should
evaluate and update their perception of the competitive positioning of their
technology versus alternative, competing technologies. Further R&D
expenditures can then be focused on areas that are likely to have usable,
commercially feasible results.
TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC ANAL.YSIS
OF ON-SITE BIODEGRADATION PROCESSES
As an example of the technical and economic analysis approach to
evaluating conceptual remedial alternatives, a slurry-phase biodegradation
process for treatment of soils contaminated with organic compounds is
considered. A conceptual process is shown in Figure 1. The solids are
excavated, screened to remove oversize solids (which in this case, for
simplicity are only a small fraction), and conveyed to storage bins. From the
bins, the solids are conveyed to one of the bioreactors. The reactor is partially
filled with liquids before the solids are added. One tank is used for the
preparation of the chemical reagentdnutrients and the addition of microor-
ganisms, if needed. The bioreactors are operated in batch mode. When the
reaction is complete, the slurry isdischarged to settling ponds, where most of
the solids separate from the solution. Theoverflow solution is fdtered and
collected in a tank for analysis prior to recycle or discharge. The treated soil
can bereturned to the excavation area after analysis indicates that the levels
of contaminants are below the target concentrations.
REMEDIATION~~INTER 1993/94 121
PAUL R. AMMA GAYLE s. KOCH
Figure 1. Conceptual Slurry-Phase Biodegradation Process.
Preparati on Tanks
7 I
Wast e Liquid
Storage Tanks
Recycl e t o Process
To disposal
Treat ed Soil
The process operating parameters are described in Table 1. It is
assumed that the plant operates 350 days a year, twenty-four hours a day.
The soil slurries are heated to the optimal temperature for the biodegra-
dation process.
As an illustration, a factored capital cost estimate for a project has been
developed and is shown in Table 2. For this process the total investment
is calculated at about $2.3 million. Note that it is important to include all
foreseen capital costs, including not only purchased equipment, but also
installation, instrumentation, and other ancillaries, foundations and site
improvements, land, engineering design, startup, taxes, and any other
expected costs. In addition, contingencies in the range of 5 percent to 35
percent should be added; the amount is related to the level of engineering
detail available at the time of the estimate.
An estimate of the operating costs is shown in Table 3. For this
example, the cost of chemical reagents is estimated at about $45 per cubic
yard ($33 per ton) of soils. Although most of the reagent costs should be
low, hydrogen peroxide, for example, could be very expensive. The
electrical energy costs are calculated at about $20 per cubic yard ($15 per
ton). Intrinsically, the electrical machinery requirements are low, However,
because of the long treatment times, the energy of the mixers in the tanks
122 REMEDIATION~~INTER 1993/94
TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC ANALYSES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF BIOREMEDIA~ON PROCESSES
Table 1. Operating Parameters for the Slurry-Phase Biodegradation
Process.
Annual operation
Bioreadors
50 weeks per year
7 days per week
350 days per year
24hours per day
20,000 gallons each
3 reactors
5 days per week
1 shift per day
25to 30 percent Soils slurry density
Operating temperature 20 to 30 degrees Centigrade
Granular, sandy soils
Table 2. Illustrative Capital Cost Estimate for the Slurry-Phase
Biodegradation Process.
Item
Purchased equipment
Equipment installation
Insulation
Instrumentation and control
Piping
Electrical installation
Buildings and foundations
Yard improvements and service facilities
PHYSICAL COST
Land
SUBTOTAL
Engineering design and construction
Stamp expense
Sales taxes and shipping costs
I
800
750
1,550
0
1,550
750
2,300
REMEDIATION~~INTER 1993/94 123
PAUL R AMMA" GAYLE S. KOCH
Table 3. Illustrative Operating Costs for Slurry-Phase Biodegradation
Process.
Bases: 5,924 cubic yards per year
350 days per year
24 hours per day
New Investment: $2,226,901 (with 25% contingency)
Item Unit Cost ($/yd3)
1. PROCESS MATERIALS
Reagents and miscellaneous
2. UTILITIES
Electrical energy
3. OPERATION
Hourly and supervision
4. MAINTENANCE
Labor and supplies
5. SAMPLING AND CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
6. OTHER
DIRECT OPERATING COST
45
20
60
30
40
20
215
may become significant. Here is one example of how minimizing reaction
times can reduce operating costs. The third component is the cost of hourly
labor and supervision. The staffing requirements are very important-to
minimize costs, the process should operate unattended as much as
possible. For the small throughput in this example, the labor and
supervision costs are estimated at about $60 per cubic yard ($45 per ton).
This example illustrates how the conceptual design must consider staffing
needs.
Another cost item is maintenance-in this example the cost is
calculated at about $30 per cubic yard ($23 per ton). Maintenance is directly
related to the plant design; the use of state-of-the-art equipment and simple
process designs can minimize maintenance needs. Because operation is at
ambient temperatures, maintenance should be less of a factor in
bioremediation processes than, say, high-temperature incineration equip-
ment. Sampling and analysis costs were estimated at $40 per cubic yard
($30 per ton).
If the remediation is carried out by a contractor, there are typically other
indirect costs, which include project management and home office
support. In our example, these costs are estimated at approximately $20
per cubic yard ($17 per ton).
124
TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC ANALYSES IN TKE DEVELOPMENT OF BIOREMEDIATION PROCESSES
Figure 2. Illustrative Treatment Costs for a Slurry-Phase Biodegradation Process.
400
- 300
2
9
u
N
Q)
.
200
u,
c.
v)
0
u
c.
.-
C
= 100
0
Not e: Costs are very speci fi c to process and site
condi ti ons. Therefore, these costs should not
be used for site or technol ogy eval uati ons.
5 10 15 20
Project Size (Thousand Cubic Yards)
1 I I
25
Overall, the operating costs in the illustrative example total an
estimated $215 per cubic yard ($165 per ton). These costs are for a
particular plant design and operating rate. An extension of the analysis to
examine the costs as a function of a project size shows the importance of
the cost components described above (Figure 2). Although chemical
reagents and utilities are almost independent of the project size, unit labor
and maintenance costs, amortization, and profit decrease with larger
quantities of soils tested.
In-Situ Treatment
To avoid costs and potential problems associated with excavation and
handling of soils, significant research and development efforts are being
devoted to in-situ treatment of contaminated soils and groundwater.
Concepts include biodegradation, and chemical and thermal processes, as
described earlier.
A conceptual in-situ biodegradation process is illustrated in Figure 3.
In contrast to the slurry phase reactor in Figure 1, the surface facilities are
reduced to essentially solution storage tanks, reagent makeup tanks, and
solution filtration equipment. An array of injection and recovery wells
replace the slurry-phase bioreactors and the solids handling equipment.
125
PAUL R AMMA GAYLE S. KOCH
Figure 3. Conceptual In-Situ Biotreatment Process.
Reagent Preparation Tanks
The net effect is a lower investment. An important difference, however, is
that a slurry-phase reactor provides the most intimate contact between the
liquid and soil phases for reaction, whereas the naturally occurring ground
is an imperfect reactor for carrying out chemical reactions.
Estimates of the operating costs, assuming similar solution composi-
tions to the slurry-phase treatment process, are presented in Table 4. The
apparent advantage is lower utilities, operation, and maintenance costs.
What is not captured in this cost estimate for in-situ treatment is the fact
that the overall effectiveness for contact between reagents and the
contaminants may be very low and cleanup standards may not be reached
except after extraordinarily long times. Hence, treatment costs may actually
be more expensive than projected.
FOCUS OF R&D
biodegradation system should be to:
This simple analysis shows that the focus of research on this conceptual
1. Demonstrate adequate degradation of the hazardous organics to
meet cleanup standards.
126 REMEDIATION~~INTER 1993/94
TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC ANALYSES IN THE DEVELQPMENT OF BIOREMEDIATION PROCESSES
Table 4. Illustrative Operating Costs for In-Situ Biotreatment.
Bases: 5,000 cubic yards per year
350 days per year
24 hours per day
New Investment: $600,000
Unit Cost ($/yd3)
Item
1. PROCESS MATERIALS
Reagents and miscellaneous
2. UTILITIES
Electrical energy
3. OPERATION
Hourly and supervision
4. MAINTTNANCE
Labor and supplies
5. SAMPLING AND CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
6. OTHER
DIREC" OPERATING COST
45
3
40
7
40
15
150
2. Ascertain conditions that achieve the maximum rates while attaining
the goals of sufficient or complete biodegradation.
3. Select reaction conditions that use the lowest-cost reagents.
Laboratory studies should be conducted so that, to the extent possible, the
reaction conditions simulate the larger scale reactions.
The next step in the evaluation process is to compare the bioremediation
parameters to competing alternative technologies. Is $215 per cubic yard
high or low? Is the process equally competitive at high volumes as at low
volumes? How does the process compare in meeting cleanup goals? Will
permitting and public acceptance be an advantage or disadvantage
compared to alternative technologies? What is the likely return on further
investment in R&D? If these issues are addressed early, the success of
bioremediation R&D can be improved significantly by providing focus to
the effort and building the management support critical for project success.
CONCLUSION
Biotreatment processes provide alternatives for the remediation of
contaminated solids, such as soils, sludges, and sediments, and for
contaminated groundwater. Engineers and regulators faced with the
remediation of these sources of toxic compounds have many treatment
R E M E D L A T I O N ~ ~ ~ R 1993/94 127
PAUL R AMMA GAYLE S. KOCH
alternatives from which to select. Many thermal, physical, chemical, and
biological treatment processes have been demonstrated on a large scale
and are in use. None of these processes is universally applicable to all
situations because of technical limitations and/or unacceptably high costs.
Bioremediation processes offer attractive options in situations where
organic contamination is the primary problem; and in many situations, the
costs are lower than competing technologies. However, before embarking
on potentially expensive and time-consuming R&D, it is important to
examine technical and economic feasibility. By identlfying early on the
parameters that will lead to success, and by understanding alternative
technologies and their competitive position in the remediation market
place, companies can more effectively guide their R&D projects to
successful commercial results.
REFERENCES
1. Jerger, D.D., D.J. Cady, and J.H. Exner. 1993. Full-Scale Slurry-Phase Biological
Treatment of Wood-Preserving Wastes. Paper presented at In Situ and On-Site Bioreclamation,
the Second International Symposium, San Diego, April 5-8.
2. Lewis, Ronald F. 1993. SITE Demonstration of Slurry-Phase Biodegradation of PAH
Contaminated Soil. A k G Waste 43cApril): 503.
128 REMEDIATION/WINTER 1993/94