AP Chemistry Notes

Stephen Akiki
Colchester High School
Download at http://akiscode.com/apchem

Special Thanks to Stephen Bosley (Boser)

Contents
1 FOREWORD/DISCLAIMER 4
2 Solubility Rules 5
2.1 Soluble . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 Insoluble . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.3 Naming Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3 Periodic Table of Elements 5
4 Poly Atomic Naming 6
5 Common Units, Constants and Charges 6
5.1 Fundamental Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
5.2 Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
5.3 Radius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
6 Atomic Theory 7
6.1 J.J. Thompson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
6.2 Robert Millikan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
6.3 Ernest Rutherford . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
6.4 Chadwick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
6.5 John Dalton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
7 Naming 8
7.1 Binary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
7.1.1 Greek Prexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
7.2 Ionic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
7.3 Acids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
7.3.1 Polyatomic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
7.3.2 Binary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
8 Cations 9
9 Reaction Type 9
9.1 Combination (Synthesis) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
9.2 Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
9.2.1 Special Binary Salt Splits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
9.3 Combustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
10 Blackbody Radiation 10
11 Bohr Model 11
11.1 Energy Level Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
11.1.1 Energy Change during Level Jumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1
12 Wavelength 11
12.1 De Broglie Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
13 Quantum Values 12
13.1 Quantum Value Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
13.2 Special cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
14 Periodicity 13
14.1 Electron Conguration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
14.2 Isoelectricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
15 Nuclear Chemistry 13
15.1 Isotopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
15.2 Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
15.2.1 Alpha Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
15.2.2 Beta Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
15.2.3 Gamma Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
15.2.4 Positron Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
15.2.5 Electron Capture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
15.3 Nuclear Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
15.3.1 Radiation Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
15.4 Nuclear Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
15.4.1 Forces Invloved . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
15.4.2 Belt of Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
15.4.3 Magic Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
15.4.4 Half-Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
16 Ionization and Anity 17
16.1 Ionization Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
16.2 Electron Anity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
17 Reactions of Metals 17
18 Chemical Bonds 17
18.1 Intramolecular . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
18.1.1 Ionic Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
18.1.2 Covalent Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
18.1.3 Metallic Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
18.2 Intermolecular . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
18.2.1 Ion-Dipole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
18.2.2 Dipole-Dipole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
18.2.3 Hydrogen Bond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
18.2.4 London Dispersion/Van der Waals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
18.2.5 Intermolecular Flowchart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
18.3 Rule of Octet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
19 Lewis Structures 19
19.1 Structures for Atoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
19.2 Structures for Ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
19.3 Structure for Ions of Molecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
19.4 Lewis Structures for Molecular Structures (Covalent) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
19.5 Resonance Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
19.5.1 Formal Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
20 Lattice Energies of Ionic Solids 21
21 Bond Lengths of Covalent Bonds 22
22 Electronegativity 22
22.1 Dipole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
22.1.1 Dipole Moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2
23 Bond Enthalpy 23
24 VSEPR 23
24.1 Bond Shape Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
25 Organic Chemistry 23
25.1 Polarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
25.2 Alkanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
25.3 Alkane Branch Structure Naming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
25.3.1 Branch Structure Naming Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
25.4 Alkenes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
25.4.1 Alkene Naming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
25.5 Alkynes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
25.5.1 Alkyne Naming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
26 Functional Groups 27
26.1 Alcohol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
26.2 Aldehyde . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
26.3 Carboxylic Acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
26.4 Ester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
26.5 Ketone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
26.6 Ether . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
26.7 Amine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
26.8 Amide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
26.9 Haloalkane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
27 Complex Ions 29
27.1 Cations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
27.2 Anions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
27.3 Coordination Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
27.4 Naming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
27.4.1 Cations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
27.4.2 Anions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
28 Acidic and Basic Redox 30
28.1 Acidic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
28.2 Basic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
29 Thermodynamics 31
29.1 Enthalpy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
29.1.1 Stoichiometry Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
29.1.2 Calorimetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
29.1.3 Hess Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
29.1.4 Standard Heat of Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
29.2 Entropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
29.2.1 State of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
29.2.2 Number of Moles of Gasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
29.2.3 Pressure of Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
29.3 Gibbs Law of Free Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
29.3.1 H, S, G, Relationship Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
30 Chemical Kinetics and Rate Laws 34
30.1 Physical State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
30.2 Concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
30.3 Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
30.4 Pressure of Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
30.5 Catalysts and Inhibitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
30.6 Rate Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
30.6.1 Order Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3
31 Reaction Mechanisms 36
31.1 Elementary Steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
32 Equilibrium 37
32.1 Types of Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
32.2 Equilibrium Constant Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
32.2.1 Converting Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
33 Gas Laws 37
33.1 Gas Units and Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
33.2 Ideal Gas Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
33.3 Real Gas Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
33.4 Combined Gas Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
33.5 Daltons Law of Partial Pressures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
33.6 Gas Collection over a Water Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
34 ICE ICE (Baby) 39
35 Acids and Bases 39
35.1 Denitions of Acids and Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
35.2 pH and pOH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
35.2.1 Changing Concentrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
35.3 Strong Acids and Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
35.3.1 Strong Acids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
35.3.2 Strong Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
35.4 Weak Acids and Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
35.4.1 K
a
Constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
35.4.2 K
b
Constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
35.5 Common Ion Eect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
35.6 Buer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
36 Equilibrium of Saturated, Soluable Salts 42
37 Kinetic Molecular Theory 42
37.1 Postulates: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
37.2 Root Mean Square Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
37.3 Eusion and Diusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
37.3.1 Eusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
37.3.2 Diusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
37.3.3 Finding the rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
38 Electro Chemistry 43
38.1 Identifying Oxidation Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
38.2 Galvanic/Voltaic Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
38.3 Calculating Cell Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
38.3.1 Nernst Equation to Find E

cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
39 Balancing Redox Reactions 44
39.1 Acidic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
39.2 Basic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
1 FOREWORD/DISCLAIMER
First and formost, I am going to say what everone has on their minds. No you really should not just forget
about taking notes anymore in AP Chemistry class because of this packet. This packet is meant to be a
review and should be used as such. However that does not mean you can use this packet as your main
notes and write notes in the margins to supplement your learning. Please take into account that this entire
thing was written over the course of 4 days. As such it is inevitable that I made mistakes in spelling and/or
formulas.
If you have any questions/comments/xes to the text you can email me at [email protected]
Good Luck
4
2 Solubility Rules
2.1 Soluble
Nitrates NO
1
3
- All nitrates are soluble
Chlorates ClO
1
3
- All chlorates are soluble
Alkali metal Cations and Ammonium cation compounds NH
+1
4
are all soluble
Chlorides, Bromides, and Iodides are all soluble EXCEPT Ag
+1
, Pb
+2
, and Hg
+2
Acetates - All are soluble except Ag
+
Sulfates - All are soluble except Ba
+2
, Pb
+2
, Hg
+2
, Ca
+2
, Ag
+1
, and Sr
+2
2.2 Insoluble
Carbonates CO
2
3
- all carbonates are insoluble except alkali metals and ammonium compounds
Chromates CrO
2
4
- all chromates are insoluble except alkali metals, ammonium, Ca
+
2, and Sr
+
2
Hydroxides OH
1
- all hydroxides are insoluble except alkali metals, ammonium, Ba
+2
, Sr
+2
, and
Ca
+2
although the last two (Sr
+2
and Ca
+2
) are only slightly soluble so a precipitate can form.
Phosphates PO
3
4
all are insoluble except alkali metals and ammonium
Sultes SO
2
3
all are insoluble except alkali metals and ammonium
Suldes S
2
all are insoluble except Alkali metals, alkali earth metals and ammonium
2.3 Naming Rules
All strong acids and bases are soluble and should be written as the ions when completing net ionic
reactions
Sulfuric acid (H
2
SO
4
) should be written as H
+
+HSO
1
4
The strong acids are: HCL, HBR, HI, HNO
3
, HClO
4
, and H
2
SO
4
Strong bases are any alkali metal hydroxides (LiOH, NaOH, etc) and Ca(OH)
2
, Sr(OH)
2
, Ba(OH)
2
All acids and bases should be left in their molecular form:
Acetic acid HC
2
H
3
O
2
3 Periodic Table of Elements
5
4 Poly Atomic Naming
Zinc Zn
+2
Silver Ag
+1
Ammonium NH
+1
4
Hydroxide OH
1
Cyanide CN
1
Nitrate NO
1
3
Acetate C
2
H
3
O
1
2
Chlorate ClO
1
3
Bromate BrO
1
3
Iodate IO
1
3
Manganate MnO
1
3
Sulfate SO
2
4
Bisulfate (Hydrogen Sulfate) HSO
1
4
Carbonate CO
2
3
Bicarbonate (Hydrogen Carbonate) HCO
1
3
Selenate SeO
2
4
Biselenate (Hydrogen Selenate)HSeO
1
4
Oxalate C
2
O
2
4
Phosphate PO
3
4
Hydrogen Phosphate HPO
2
4
Dihydrogen Phosphate H
2
PO
1
4
Chromate CrO
2
4
Per Ate Ate Ite Hypo Ite
Per Ic Ic Ous Hypo Ous
+1 Oxygen Most Common Ion -1 Oxygen -2 Oxygen
5 Common Units, Constants and Charges
5.1 Fundamental Constants
Avogadros Number (N)
6.02214199 10
23
mol
1
Plancks Constant (h)
6.62606876 10
34
J s
Speed of Light (c)
2.99792458 10
8
m/s
6
5.2 Charge
e

charge = 1.602 10
19
coulombs
p
+
charge = 1.602 10
19
coulombs
Atomic Mass Unit (amu) = 1.66054 10
24
p
+
= 1.0073 amu
n

= 1.0087 amu
e

= 5.486 10
4
amu
5.3 Radius
Angstroms (

A) = 10
10
meters
6 Atomic Theory
6.1 J.J. Thompson
Discovered e

and
charge
mass
ratio
Charge to Mass ratio: 1.76 10
8
Coulombs/Gram (Charge of e

/mass)
Plum Pudding Model of atom
6.2 Robert Millikan
Found charge and mass of e

Millikan Oil Drop:

Charge oil drops in a eld and adjust eld until drops levitate
6.3 Ernest Rutherford
Discovered 3 types of radiation (Decay Particles)
Alpha particles: He
2+
size, very damaging, stoppable -
Beta particles - e

size, damaging, hard to stop -

Gamma particles - tiny, not so damaging, unstoppable -
Also discovered proton and new dense nucleus model
Rutherford worked with particles most and discredited Thompsons model of the nucleus
6.4 Chadwick
Discovers neutron by shooting radiation at light elements and it watching it kick out a neutral particle
6.5 John Dalton
Four Postulates
Everything made of atoms
Atoms of one element dier from those of a dierent element
Atoms will combine in whole number ratios
Atoms can not be created or destroyed
Law of Constant Composition
In a compound, atom ratios are constant
7
7 Naming
7.1 Binary
Smallest atomic number comes rst
Second element ends with -ide
7.1.1 Greek Prexes
1-Mono
2-Di
3-Tri
4-Tetra
5-Penta
6-Hexa
7-Hepta
8-Octa
9-Nona
10-Deca
Example
Cl
2
O
Dichlorine Monoxide
7.2 Ionic
Finding Charge:
Na
?
3
Cl
+1
2
Na
d
c
Cl
a
b
(ab)
c
= d
7.3 Acids
7.3.1 Polyatomic
Per...ate Per...ic acid
HNO
4
pernitric acid
-ate ic acid
H +NO
3
HNO
3
(Nitric Acid)
-ite ous acid
HNO
2
nitrous acid
Hypo...ite hypo...ous acid
HNO hyponitrous acid
7.3.2 Binary
Hydro + (stem)ic
H +Br Hydrobromic acid
H +N Hydronitric acid
Hydrocarbonic acid HC
Carbonic Acid HCO
3
8
8 Cations
Which cation forms a white precipate with HCL?
Ag
+
(reversed proves Cl

).
What color is a typical Manganese solution?
Pink/light purple. The precipate is dark black.
How would you test for Al
+
and what would it look like?
Add Aluminom, it will make a precipate red and leave the solution clear.
Which cation forms a gel like precipate?
Aluminum.
Which cation turns deep red with KSCN?
Iron.
How do you conrm the presence of zinc and what color is it?
Add acid, then ammonia, which results in a white/bluish precipate.
What cation turns a deep blue with ammonia?
Copper.
9 Reaction Type
9.1 Combination (Synthesis)
When two or more chemicals react to form one product
Example
2Mg +O
2
2MgO
2Na +S Na
2
S
Metal + Non-Metal Metal Nonmetal (Binary Salt)
Metal Oxide + Water Metal Hydroxide
CaO +H
2
O Ca(OH)
2
K
2
O +H
2
O 2KOH
Metal Oxide + CO
2
Metal Carbonate
Na
2
O +CO
2
Na
2
CO
3
Nonmetallic Oxides + water Acids (nonmetal oxides retains its oxide number)
Na
2
O +SO
3
Na
2
SO
4
9.2 Decomposition
When one chemical decomposes into 2 or more
Example
2Ag
2
O

4Ag +O
2
= Heat
Metal Carbonate

Metal Oxide + CO
2
CaCO
3

CaO +CO
2
Metal Hydroxide

Metal Oxide + H
2
O
Mg(OH)
2

MgO +H
2
O
9
Metal Nonmetal

Metal + Nonmetal (diatomic in nature)
2NaCl

2Na +Cl
2
Metal Chlorates

Metal Chlorides + O
2
Fe(ClO
3
)
2

FeCl
3
+O
2
9.2.1 Special Binary Salt Splits
These binary salts split into dierent elements
(NH
4
)
2
CO
3
NH
3
+H
2
O +CO
2
H
2
SO
3
H
2
O +SO
2
H
2
CO
3
H
2
O +CO
2
NH
4
OH NH
3
+H
2
O
H
2
O
2
H
2
O +O
2
9.3 Combustion
Hydrocarbon +O
2
CO
2
+H
2
O
........
C
x
H
y
double x (multiply by 2) then add 2
C
1
: meth
C
2
: eth
C
3
: pro
C
4
: bu
C
5
: pent
C
6
: hex
C
7
: hept
C
8
: oct
C
9
: non
C
10
: dec
10 Blackbody Radiation
When an object is heated it will emmit radiant energy
E = h
E = Energy
h = Max Plancks constant (6.626 10
34
J s)
= frequency
Photoelectric eect: Metal will give o e

s if light shines on it. Light shining on a clean sheet of

metals will release e

s if is strong enough.
10
11 Bohr Model
Neils Bohr:
1. Only orbits of certain radii, corresponding to certain denate energies are permitted for the electron in
a hydrogen atom.
2. An electron in a permitted orbit has a specic energy and is in an allowed energy state. An electron in
an allowed state will not radiate energy and therefore will not spiral into the nucleus.
3. Energy is emmitted or absorbed by the e

only as the e

changes from one allowed energy state to

another.
4. Flawed theory because it only works for hydrogen
11.1 Energy Level Formula
E
n
= (2.18 10
18
J)(
1
n
2
)
E
1
: 2.18 10
18
J
E
2
: 5.45 10
19
J
E
3
: 2.42 10
19
J
E
4
: 1.36 10
19
J
E
5
: 8.72 10
20
J
E
6
: 6.056 10
20
J
E

: 0
11.1.1 Energy Change during Level Jumps
E = E
F
E
0
n = 3 2 | 3.03 10
19
J
n = 4 2 | 4.09 10
19
J
n = 5 2 | 4.578 10
19
J
n = 6 2 | 4.844 10
19
J
12 Wavelength
12.1 De Broglie Formulas
=
h
mv
or
=
h
p
= Wavelength
h = Plancks Constant (6.626 10
34
J s)
m = Mass of particle in Kg
v = Velocity of particle (
meters
second
)
p = Momentum
Example
m = 9.11 10
28
g
v = 5.97 10
6
m/s
=
6.62610
34
Js
(9.1110
31
Kg)(5.9710
6
m/s)
= 1.22 10
10
m
11
13 Quantum Values
1. Principle Quantum number - (n)
n = 1 (lowest)
n = (at 8 or 9)
Follows Bohrs E
n
= (2.18 10
18
J)(
1
n
2
)
2. Azimuthal Quantum number - (l )
l = n - 1
if...
l = 0 S shape
l = 1 P shape
l = 2 D shape
l = 3 F shape
Example
n = 3
l = 2

3d
3. Magnetic Quantum number (orbital) - (ml )
-l and l including zero
m
0
= 0
m
1
= 1, 0, 1
m
2
= 2, 1, 0, 1, 2
4. Spin magnetic quantum number - (ms)
+
1
2
or -
1
2
13.1 Quantum Value Table
n Possible l values Subshell ml values # of orbitals in subshell total # of orbitals in shell e

in shell
1 0 1s 0 1 1 2
2 0 2s 0 1 4 8
1 2p -1,0,1 3 - -
3 0 3s 0 1 9 18
1 3p -1,0,1 3 - -
2 3d -2,-1,0,1,2 5 - -
4 0 4s 0 1 16 32
1 4p -1,0,1 3 - -
2 4d -2,-1,0,1,2 5 - -
3 4f -3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3 7 - -
13.2 Special cases
Chromium has 6 half-lled orbitals
Copper has one half-lled orbital and 5 lled orbitals
12
14 Periodicity
14.1 Electron Conguration
14.2 Isoelectricity
Two atoms are considered isoelectric when they gain or lose electrons to become ions and have the same
electron conguration as each other.
Example
Na
+1
: 1S
2
, 2S
2
, 2P
6
Ne: 1S
2
, 2S
2
, 2P
6
15 Nuclear Chemistry
Nuclear Chemistry involves changes in the nucleus of an atom.
Normal Nuclear
Reactions involve electron transfer Reactions involve decay of nucleus i.e. transforming one element into another
Reaction aected by factors such Aected by the type of decay and the halife of what is decaying
as pH, temp, pressure, [], etc.
Reactions involve relatively small energy: Reactions deal with huge amounts of energy
400 kJ-1500kJ
15.1 Isotopes
Isotopes: Atoms of the same element that have a dierent number of neutrons
X A
A
Z
X
A
X
X = Element Symbol
A = Atomic Mass
Z = Atomic Number
13
15.2 Radiation
15.2.1 Alpha Radiation
When a big nucleus ejects a He
+2
size chunk of itself.
15.2.2 Beta Radiation
When a neutrally charged particle (equal amount of p
+
s and e

s) ejects its e

s leaving only the p

+
s.
15.2.3 Gamma Radiation
When a particle experiences some type of radiation (called * here) that causes the remaining nucleus to
collapse. This causes gamma () rays to be emitted. Gamma radiation is also caused when a positron and
an electron smash into each other.
14
15.2.4 Positron Radiation
When a positively charged nucleus emits its p
+
leaving only the n

.
15.2.5 Electron Capture
When an electron in orbit falls into the nucleus (positively charged) and makes it neutrally charged.
15.3 Nuclear Equations
15.3.1 Radiation Table
Neutron:
1
0
n
Proton:
1
1
p
+
Electron:
0
1
e

Positron:
0
1
e

Alpha Particle:
4
2
He or
4
2

Beta Particle:
0
1
e

or
0
1

Example
Alpha
238
92
U
234
90
Th +
4
2
He
Beta
131
53
I
131
54
Xe+
0
1
e

1
0
n
1
1
p+
0
1
e

Positron
11
6
C
11
5
B+
0
1
e

1
1
p
1
0
n+
0
1
e

Electron Capture
81
37
Rb+
0
1
e

81
36
Kr
1
1
p+
0
1
e

1
0
n
Positron-Electron Collision (Gamma)
0
1
e+
0
1
e

0
0

15
15.4 Nuclear Stability
Understanding why are some nuclides are radioactive while others are not.
15.4.1 Forces Invloved
Electrostatic
Try to rip apart the nucleus because of like charges
Strong Nuclear
Try to pull together the nucleus because subatomic particles naturally stick together
The Glue
Neutrons act as the glue and more of it is required when the electrostatic force gets really strong
15.4.2 Belt of Stability
Area A
More neutrons than protons - Beta decay creates protons
Area B
Less neutrons than protons - Positron emission (Smaller B) or Electron Capture (Larger B)
Area C
Every element above 83 p
+
is radioactive and no glue can hold it together - Alpha decay
15.4.3 Magic Numbers
The Magic Numbers tend to be stable if you have either a proton or neutron in those numbers. If you have
both, they are very stable.
(p
+
) 2 8 20 28 50 82 -
(n

) 2 8 20 28 50 82 126
If (p
+
) and (n

) even likely stable

If either is odd could go either way
If (p
+
) and (n

) odd likely unstable

16
15.4.4 Half-Life
The time it takes
1
2
the amount of a substance to decay.
Example
5g of nuclide
1
2
life of 15 years
How much of the original nuclide remains after 45 years?
5
(15 years)
2.5
(30 years)
1.25
(45 years)
0.625g
16 Ionization and Anity
16.1 Ionization Energy
The energy needed to remove an e

(how easy it is to lose an e

). Needs energy (+).

16.2 Electron Anity
How much a gaseous atom will be attracted to a free e

(how easy it is to gain an e

). Releases energy (-).

17 Reactions of Metals
Metal Oxides = Basic
Metal + Water Metal Hydroxide + H
2
Metal + O
2
(Li or any non-Alkali metal) Metal Oxide
K + O
2
(Any other Alkali metal) Metal Peroxide (O
1
2
)
K + O
2
KO
2
Metal Oxide + H
2
O Metal Hydroxide
Na
2
O +H
2
O NaOH
Metal Oxide + Acid Salt + H
2
O
Na
2
O +HCL NaCl +H
2
O
Nonmetal Oxides = Acidic
Nonmetal Oxide + H
2
O Acid
CO
2
+H
2
O H
2
CO
3
SO
2
+H
2
O H
2
SO
3
P
4
O
10
+H
2
O H
3
PO
4
Nonmetal Oxide + Base Salt + H
2
O
CO
2
+NaOH Na
2
CO
3
+H
2
O
18 Chemical Bonds
When 2 or more atoms are strongly attached (attracted) to each other.
18.1 Intramolecular
These forces act inside an atom or molecule:
17
18.1.1 Ionic Bonding
Gain/lose e

s (strong metal + strong nonmetal)

18.1.2 Covalent Bonding
Share e

s (weak metal or nonmetal + nonmetal)

18.1.3 Metallic Bonding
There are two models that explain metallic bonding:
Electron Sea Model
1
Metal atoms are oating in a sea of e

s. No one e

belongs to any particular atom.

Orbital Bonding Model
The valence e

s are overlapped and shared so much you have bonds of delocalized e

s that are
free to move but are still holding the atoms together.
Properties that result from metallic bonding include:
Conductivity of electricity and heat
Malibility and ductility
Ability to form alloys
18.2 Intermolecular
These forces act between molecules:
18.2.1 Ion-Dipole
Ions bonding to molecules with a dipole (polver solvent). The strongest intermolecular force.
18.2.2 Dipole-Dipole
Polar near another polar. Weaker than Ion-Dipole but still strong, based on how strong the
polarity is.
18.2.3 Hydrogen Bond
Either (H N), (H O), or (H F). No shielding e

s on Hydrogen so central atoms e

pair gets full pull

of Hydrogen nucleus.
18.2.4 London Dispersion/Van der Waals
An induced dipole between 2 polar molecules. An increase in pressure or decrease in temperature will cause
one side to have a more positive force as the majority of e

s move to other side.

1
Of the two theories, this is generally the more accepted one
18
18.2.5 Intermolecular Flowchart
18.3 Rule of Octet
Atoms tend to bond in such a way as to gain, lose, or share e

s in order to gain a complete valence (outer s

and p).
19 Lewis Structures
19.1 Structures for Atoms
19.2 Structures for Ions
19.3 Structure for Ions of Molecules
19
19.4 Lewis Structures for Molecular Structures (Covalent)
1. Add valence e

s from all the atoms.

2. Write the symbols for the atoms. If there are more than 2 atoms, identify the central atom. Connect
them with a single line which represents 2 shared e

s. Subtract the number of e

s from total found in

step 1.
Central atom will be closest to Si, P or Metaloid staircase.
3. Complete octets around the atoms bonded to the central atom (Hydrogen does not get more than 2).
4. Place the remaining pairs around the central atom even if doing so gives more than an octet to the
central atom.
5. If there are not enough pairs to complete an octet in the central atom, then you ned to try using double
or triple bonds.
CH
4
CH
2
Cl
2
HNO
3
CO
2
HCN
20
19.5 Resonance Structures
Benzene
19.5.1 Formal Charge
Valence e

s of an atom - (total unbonded e

s +
1
2
total bonded e

s)
Molecular structures that tend to be the common one have a formal charge is closest to zero and any negative
charge is on the most electronegative element.
20 Lattice Energies of Ionic Solids
Coulombs Law
E =
KQ
1
Q
2
d
Q
1
/Q
2
= ion charges
d = Distance between ions of the nal crystalized lattice form.
The greater the charge, the higher the energy.
The closer the ions, the higher the energy.
Example
Which has a greater lattice energy?
+1
Na
1
Cl vs
+2
Mg
1
Cl
2
+2
Mg
1
Cl
2
has greater charges thus a higher lattice energy.
+1
Li
1
Cl vs
+1
Na
1
Cl
+1
Li is smaller than
+1
Na so
+1
Li wil be closer
to
1
Cl than
+1
Na will so
+1
Li
1
Cl will have a higher
lattice energy.
21
21 Bond Lengths of Covalent Bonds
Single - Longest
Double - Medium
Triple - Shortest
Length
Single CO
4
4
1.42

A
Double CO
2
1.24

A
Triple CO 1.13

A
22 Electronegativity
Dierence in electronegativity determines the character of the bond.
Large dierence Ionic Bond
Biggest dierence is 3.3
Medium dierence Polar Covalent
HF - 1.8
Small/No dierence Non-Polar Covalent
H
2
- 0
22.1 Dipole

H F
Arrow points towards more electronegative atom.
22.1.1 Dipole Moment
Numeric value that represents how strong the dipole is
Example
Which has the greater dipole moment?
OR
Which has greater electronegative dierence?
HI or HF
Answer: HF
22
23 Bond Enthalpy
H: Energy given o or taken in during a reaction.
H = -
Exothermic
H = +
Endothermic
Breaking bonds requires energy
Forming bonds releases energy
Example
CH
4
+ 2O
2
CO
2
+ 2H
2
OO
Breaking Forming
4 (C H) = (4 413) 2 (C=O) = (2 799)
2 (O
2
) =(2*495) 4 (H O) =(4*463)
2642 3450
H = Broken - Formed
H = 2642 - 3450 = -808 KJ
24 VSEPR
VSEPR stands for Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion. Make sure when counting bonds to treat double
and triple bonds like a single bond. Also keep in mind that bonded pairs and lone pairs repel.
24.1 Bond Shape Table
Shape Example Total e

Bonded Pairs Lone e

Pairs Hybrid Orbital

Linear BeH
2
2 2 0 sp
Trigonal Planar BCl
3
3 3 0 sp
2
Bent NO
1
2
3 2 1 sp
2
Tetrahedral CH
4
4 4 0 sp
3
Trigonal Pyramidal NH
3
4 3 1 sp
3
Bent H
2
O 4 2 2 sp
3
Trigonal Bipyramidal PCl
5
5 5 0 sp
3
d
See-Saw SF
4
5 4 1 sp
3
d
T-Shape BrF
3
5 3 2 sp
3
d
Linear ICl
2
5 2 3 sp
3
d
Octahedral SF
6
6 6 0 sp
3
d
2
Square Pyramidal BrF
5
6 5 1 sp
3
d
2
Square Planer ICl

4
6 4 2 sp
3
d
2
25 Organic Chemistry
25.1 Polarity
Polarity in regards to organic chemistry relies on an element disrupting the symmetry of a molecule. For
example the double bonded oxygen in Acetone allows it to be more polar than Propane.
Acetone Propane
23
25.2 Alkanes
Spotted by seeing a single bond
CH
4
Methane
C
2
H
6
Ethane
C
3
H
8
Propane
C
4
H
10
Butane
C
5
H
12
Pentane
C
6
H
14
Hexane
C
7
H
16
Heptane
C
8
H
18
Octane
C
9
H
20
Nonane
C
10
H
22
Decane
Pentane
CH
3
(CH
2
)
3
CH
3
25.3 Alkane Branch Structure Naming
To name all single-bonded Carbon chains, see subsection on Alkanes above.
To name a branch structure rst look for the longest unbroken Carbon chain, this is the root name. Then
take the root prex of the alkyl (the branch of the root chain) and add -yl (for instance Methane becomes
methyl). Number the Carbon chain giving the side with an alkyl the lowest number. The end result should
be something such as 2 Methyl Butane.
2 Methyl Butane
24
25.3.1 Branch Structure Naming Table
25
25.4 Alkenes
Spotted by seeing a double bond
CH
2
Methene
C
2
H
4
Ethene
C
3
H
6
Propene
C
4
H
8
Butene
C
5
H
10
Pentene
C
6
H
12
Hexene
C
7
H
14
Heptene
C
8
H
16
Octene
C
9
H
18
Nonene
C
10
H
20
Decene
25.4.1 Alkene Naming
Naming Alkenes is similar to naming Alkanes save for the naming of the root chain. To name the root chain
you must give side where the double bond is the lowest number and name all branches after using this number
scheme. You should end up with something like 2 Pentene
2 Pentene
25.5 Alkynes
Spotted by seeing a triple bond
CH Methyne
C
2
H
2
Ethyne
C
3
H
4
Propyne
C
4
H
6
Butyne
C
5
H
8
Pentyne
C
6
H
10
Hexyne
C
7
H
12
Heptyne
C
8
H
14
Octyne
C
9
H
16
Nonyne
C
10
H
18
Decyne
26
25.5.1 Alkyne Naming
Naming Alkynes is similar to naming Alkenes. Identify the root chain as you would using Alkenes except
now you identify the triple bond instead of the double bond.
2 Hexyne
26 Functional Groups
When discussing functional groups, the letter R is used to signify any hydrocarbon or hydrocarbon
chain.
26.1 Alcohol
Root Name: -ol
Identication: R-OH
Ethanol
26.2 Aldehyde
Root Name: -al
Identication: R-CHO
Ethanal
27
26.3 Carboxylic Acid
Root Name: -oic
Identication: R-COOH
Propanoic Acid
26.4 Ester
Root Name: A-yl B-oate
Identication: R-COO-R
Ethyl Propanoate
B

CH
3
CH
2
CO
A

OCH
2
CH
3
26.5 Ketone
Root Name: -one
Identication: R-CO-R
Acetone
26.6 Ether
Root Name: A-yl B-yl Ether
Identication: R-O-R
Propyl Methyl Ether
A

CH
3
CH
2
CH
2
O
B

CH
3
28
26.7 Amine
Root name: -amine
Identication: R-NH
2
Methylamine
26.8 Amide
Root Name: -amide
Identication: R-CONH
2
Ethanamide
26.9 Haloalkane
Root Name: None, use standard naming of root chain
Identication: Some Hydrogens in a a hydrocarbon are replaced with a halogen (F, Cl, Br, I)
2 Chloro Butane
27 Complex Ions
Complex Ions are usually metal ions with attached ligands (Lewis Bases).
27.1 Cations
[Cr(H
2
O)
6
]
+3
The charge of a cation is the charge of the transition metal (Cr in this case).
29
27.2 Anions
[Al(OH)
4
]
1
The charge of a anion is determined by the individual charges of the elements.
Al
+3
+ 4(OH)
1
3 - 4
-1
27.3 Coordination Number
Generally (especially with cations) the coordination number is twice the charge of the transition metal.
Example
[Cr(H
2
O)
6
]
+3
Cr
+3
3 2 = 6
27.4 Naming
27.4.1 Cations
Give the prex associated with the coordination number
Give appropriate name for ligand
Name the transition metal
Give roman numeral of transition metal
Example
[
Chromium

Cr (H
2
O)

Aqua
Hexa

6
]
+3
Hexa Aqua Chromium (III)
27.4.2 Anions
Give prex associated with the coordination number
Give appropriate Ligand name
Name transition metal with -ate ending
Give roman numeral
Example
[Al(OH)
4
]
1
Tetra Hydroxo Aluminate
No roman numeral because Al is always +3
28 Acidic and Basic Redox
28.1 Acidic
Find oxidation number
Write
1
2
reaction with e

s
Add H
2
O, then H
+
and balance accordingly
Balance for e

s and everything else

Add together both balanced
1
2
reactions and cancel out where possibly to simplify
30
28.2 Basic
Find oxidation number
Write
1
2
reaction with e

s
Add H
2
O, then H
+
and balance accordingly
Add OH amounts to both sides equal to the number of H
+
Cancel out the H
+
with the OH to form H
2
O
Move all H
2
O to one side
Balance for e

s and everything else

Add together both balanced
1
2
reactions and cancel out where possibly to simplify
Example
+7
Mn O

4
+
+3
C
2
2
O
4
2

+1
Mn O
2
2
+
+4
C O
2
3
(4OH +C
2
O
4
2CO
3
+ 2e

+ 2H
2
O) 3
(2H
2
O +MnO
4
+ 3e

MnO
2
+ 4OH) 2
12OH + 3C
2
O
4
6CO
3
+ 6e

+ 6H
2
O
4H
2
O + 2MnO
4
+ 6e

2MnO
2
+ 8OH
4OH + 3C
2
O
4
+ 2MnO
4
2MnO
2
+ 6CO
2
3
29 Thermodynamics
The study of energy and its transformations
Units of Energy:
Joules and Calories
1 cal = 4.184 J
The two main driving forces of thermodynamics is Enthalpy and Entropy:
29.1 Enthalpy
Enthalpy stands for the Heat of the reaction and is denoted by H.
If:
H<0
Reaction is exothermic
H>0
Reaction is endothermic
There are 4 ways to nd H.
29.1.1 Stoichiometry Problems
Example
How much heat is released when 3.2 grams of Hydrogen is reacted with excess Oxygen?
2H
2
+O
2
2H
2
O
H

= 572 KJ
3.2 g H2
1

1 mole H2
2.02 g H2

572 KJ
2 mole H2
= 453.069 KJ
Ratio =
Energy Released
Coefficient of Hydrogen in formula
31
29.1.2 Calorimetry
Find the H by running a reaction and heating or cooling a substance.
q = m c T
q = Heat released or absorbed
m = Mass of what is being heated (grams)
c = Specic heat. Unique to every substance (
J
gC
)
Specic heat of water is 4.184
T = Change in temperature
Example
Burn 0.1 grams of CH
4
and it heats 100 grams H
2
O from 20

C to 33.29

C.
q = 100 4.184 13.29 = 5560 J = 5.560 KJ
0.1 grams CH4
1

1 mole CH4
16 g CH4
= 0.00625 moles CH
4
5.560
0.00625
= 889.6
KJ
Mole
29.1.3 Hess Law
Multiple reactions can be added together then Hs can be added together.
Example
Si + 2H
2
SiH
4
H = +34
KJ
Mole
Si +O
2
SiO
2
H = 911
KJ
Mole
H
2
+
1
2
O
2
H
2
O H = 242
KJ
Mole
Find H for:
SiH
4
+ 2O
2
SiO
2
+ 2H
2
O
SiH
4
Si+2H
2
H = 34
KJ
Mole
Si+O
2
SiO
2
H = 911
KJ
Mole
2H
2
+ 2O
2
H
2
O H = 484
KJ
Mole
SiH
4
+ 2O
2
SiO
2
+ 2H
2
O H = 1429
KJ
Mole
29.1.4 Standard Heat of Formation
Standard heat (enthalpy) of formation (H

f
)
2
is the energy involved in forming one mole of a chemical from
its elements under standard conditions.
Elemental substances (O
2
, H
2
, etc.) always have a H of zero.
Example
Find the H for:
2H
2
O
2
2H
2
O +O
2
H
f
H
2
O
2
= 187
H
f
H
2
O = 285
2(187)
2H
2
O
2

374

2(285)
2H
2
O +O
2

570
H =

product

reactant
H = 570 (374) = 196
KJ
Mole
2
This symbol may be shortened to H or H
f
in this subsection.
32
29.2 Entropy
Entropy stands for the Disorder of the reaction and is denoted by S.
If:
S<0
Order is increasing
S>0
Disorder is increasing
29.2.1 State of Matter
If:
Solid Liquid
S = +
Gas Solid
S =
Solid Liquid Gas
Lowest S Highest S
29.2.2 Number of Moles of Gasses
Solids and liquids do not apply
Example
N
2(g)
+ 3H
2(g)
2NH
3(g)
4 moles gas 2 moles gas | S =
2 moles gas 4 moles gas | S = +
29.2.3 Pressure of Gas
When pressure increases, disorder decreases.
When pressure decreases, disorder increases.
Example
What has more disorder?
N
2
at 1 atm
N
2
at 0.001 atm
Answer: N
2
at 0.001 atm
29.3 Gibbs Law of Free Energy
Gibbs Law determines G which signies whether a reaction is spontaneous or not.
G = H (T S)
G = Free Energy in a system
H = Enthalpy (KJ)
S = Entropy (
KJ
K
)
S MUST be converted from
J
K
to
KJ
K
.
T = Temperature in Kelvin
To convert C

K add 273
33
If:
G<0
Spontaneous
G>0
Not spontaneous
29.3.1 H, S, G, Relationship Table
H = - S = + G = - Always spontaneous
H = - S = - G = - Spontaneous at low temperatures
H = + S = + G = + Spontaneous at high temperatures
H = + S = - G = + Never spontaneous
Example
POCL
3
2PCl
3
+O
2
H = 542 KJ
S = 179
J
K
What temperature is it spontaneous at?
0 = 542 KJ (T 0.179
KJ
K
)
542 = 0.179T
T = 3027.93 K
30 Chemical Kinetics and Rate Laws
Factors that aect reaction rates
30.1 Physical State
Solid
An increase in surface area means in an increase in the rate.
Gas - Gas
Liquid - Gas
Liquid - Liquid
30.2 Concentration
3
Molarity =
moles
liter
[HCL] = 3M
An increase in concentration is generally an increase in rate.
30.3 Temperature
An increase in temperature is an increase in rate.
30.4 Pressure of Gas
An increase in pressure is an bincrease in rate.
30.5 Catalysts and Inhibitors
A catalyst lowers the activation energy while an inhibitor increases the activation energy.
3
Molarity is signied by []s
34
30.6 Rate Laws
A+B C +D
rate = k[A]
m
[B]
n
k = Constant
m = Order of A
n = Order of B
Order of 0 No eect
Order of 1 Linear - Double the concentration and you double the rate
Order of 2 Squared - Double the concentration and you quadruple the rate
Example:
Trial [A] [B] Rate
1 0.1 M 0.1 M 0.04 M/s
2 0.2 M 0.1 M 0.08 M/s
3 0.1 M 0.2 M 0.04 M/s
Solve for m:
trial 2
trial 1
= (
[]
[]
)
m
=
rate
rate
= (
0.2
0.1
)
m
=
0.08
0.04
2
m
= 2
m = 1
Solve for n:
(
0.2
0.1
)
n
=
0.04
0.04
1
n
= 1
n = 0
rate = k[A]
1
[B]
0
Solve for k:
0.04 = k[0.1]
1
[0.1]
0
k = 0.4
30.6.1 Order Table
Comments Zero Order First Order Second Order
Rate Law rate = k rate = k[A]
1
rate = k[A]
2
Integrated Rate law [A] [A]
0
= kt ln[A] ln[A]
0
= kt
1
[A]

1
[A]0
= kt
[A] = kt + [A]
0
ln[A] = kt +ln[A]
0
1
[A]
= kt +
1
[A]0
Graph [A] vs Time ln[A] vs time
1
[A]
vs time
K = Slope Slope = k Slope = k Slope = k
Half-Life (t 1
2
) t 1
2
=
[A]0
2k
t 1
2
=
0.693
k
t 1
2
=
1
k[A]0
35
Example:
2N
2
O
5
4NO
2
+O
2
[N
2
O
5
] Time (s)
0.1 0
0.0707 50
0.05 100
0.025 200
0.0125 300
0.00625 400
1. What is the order of the reaction?
[A] = straight
1
[A]
= straight
ln[A] = straight
Order of 1
2. What is the k constant value?
ln(0.0707)ln(0.1)
500
=
0.347
50
= 0.00693
k = 0.00693
3. What is the concentration of N
2
O
5
at t = 150?
ln[A] = (0.00693)(150) +ln(0.1)
ln[A] = 3.34
[A] = 0.0354 M
4. What is the rate at 150 seconds?
rate = k[A]
rate = 0.00693 [0.0354]
rate = 2.45 10
4
M/s
5. What is the half life?
t 1
2
=
0.693
k
t 1
2
=
0.693
0.00693
t 1
2
= 100 s
31 Reaction Mechanisms
Many/most reactions do not take place in one step. If a reaction were to react in one step, then you could
use the balanced reaction to determine the rate law. For example, assume the following occured in one step.
MgCl
2
+ 2Hbr 2HCl +MgBr
2
rate = k[MgCl
2
]
1
[HBr]
2
In reality though, things are not always as easy.
Through experimentation we gure out that the rate law for:
NO
2
+CO NO +CO
2
is
rate = k[NO
2
]
2
Because the rate law does not link up with the equation, it is not a single step reaction.
36
31.1 Elementary Steps
Unimolecular - 1 reactant
Bimolecular - 2 reactants
Terrmolecular - 3 reactants
32 Equilibrium
The state where the concentration or partial pressures (if it is a gas) of all the reactants and products remain
constant with time. For equilibrium to occur, the forward reaction rate must equal the reverse rate. In other
words, the amounts do not have to be equal, but the rates must be.
32.1 Types of Equilibrium
Static No movement
Dynamic Movement such as a sealed container of water
32.2 Equilibrium Constant Expressions
aA+bB

cC +dD
K
c
=
[C]
c
[D]
d
[A]
a
[B]
b
K
p
=
(PC
c
)(PD
d
)
(PA
a
)(PB
b
)
K
c
= Concentration constant
K
p
= Partial Pressure constant
32.2.1 Converting Constants
To convert between the two constants K
c
and K
p
use the formula:
K
p
= K
c
(RT)
n
n =

Product Coefficients

Reactant Coefficients
33 Gas Laws
33.1 Gas Units and Conversions
1 Atm = 760 Torr (mmHg) = 101.3 kPa = 14.7 PSI
33.2 Ideal Gas Law
Pv = nRT
P = Pressure (Atm)
v = Volume (L)
n = Number of moles
R = 0.0821 (constant)
T = Temperature (Kelvin)
Example
3 grams of HCl at 26

C in a 3 Liter container. What is the pressure?

P(3)
3
=
(
3 grams
36.5 g/mole
)(0.081)(26+273)
3
P = 0.0664 Atm
37
33.3 Real Gas Law
For use when the ideal gas law fails. The ideal gas law fails when these two postulates fail:
Molecules do have volume
Molecules are attracted
This law is also used when there are conditions with high pressure and low temperature.
Pv = nRT

(P +
n
2
a
v
2
) (v nb) = nRT
a = constant that xes the intermolecular force issue
b = constant that xes the volume issue
a and b are unique to each type of gas
All other variables are the same as the ideal gas law
33.4 Combined Gas Law
P
1
V
1
T
1
=
P
2
V
2
T
2
33.5 Daltons Law of Partial Pressures
For a mixture of gases in a container, the total pressure (P
tot
) is equal to the sum of the pressures each gas
exerts as if it were alone.
P
tot
= P
1
+P
2
+P
3
+ +P
n
Example:
A mixture of 1g H and 1g He in a 1 L container is at 27

C. Calculate the mole fraction of each gas, partial

pressures of each and total pressure.
H
2
1 g
1
2
= 0.5 moles

x =
(H mole)
(H +He moles)
=
0.5
0.75
= 0.667
He 1 g
1
4
= 0.25 moles

x =
0.25
0.75
= 0.333
H
2
He
Pv = nRT Pv = nRT
P(1) = (0.5)(0.0821)(300) P(1) = (0.25)(0.0821)(300)
P = 12.3 Atm P = 6.15 Atm
P
tot
= 12.3 + 6.15 = 18.45 Atm
38
33.6 Gas Collection over a Water Solution
Example:
A 0.986 g sample has Zinc and some impurities. Excess HCl is added and reacts with thte Zinc but not the
impurities. Find the percent Zinc in the sample if 240 mL of H
2
are collected over H
2
O at 30

C and 1.032
Atm (HINT: This is the P
tot
).
P
tot
= P
1
+P
H2O
1.032 = P
1
+ 0.042
P
1
= 0.99 Atm H
2

Pv = nRT
(0.99)(0.240) = n(0.0821)(303)
n = 0.0096 mole H
2

0.0096 mole H
2
= 0.0096 mole Zn
0.0096 mole Zn
1

65.4 g Zn
Mole
= 0.628 g Zn
0.628 g Zn
0.986 g total
100 = 63.7%Zn
34 ICE ICE (Baby)
Given initial values for a system at equilibrium and one of the equilibrium values, you should nd:
a - The other equilibrium values
b - The equilibrium constant
Example:
A closed system initially containing 1 10
3
M H
2
and 2 10
3
M I
2
at 448

C is allowed to reach
equilibrium. Analysis of the equilibrium mixture shows the [HI] = 1.7 10
3
M. Find the equilibrium
concentration for H
2
and I
2
as well as the K
c
value.
H
2
+I
2

2HI
Initial 1 10
3
M 2 10
3
M 0 M
Change 0.935 10
3
0.935 10
3
1.87 10
3
Equilibrium 0.065 10
3
1.065 10
3
1.87 10
3
[H
2
] = 0.065 M
[I
2
] = 1.065 10
3
M
K
c
=
[1.87 10
3
]
2
[1.065 10
3
][0.065 10
3
]
35 Acids and Bases
35.1 Denitions of Acids and Bases
1. Arrhenius
An acid dissociates in water to form H
+
ions and a base dissociates to form OH

ions.
2. Bronsted-Lowry
Acids are proton donors (H
+
) and a base is a proton acceptor.
Conjugate acid base pair
Acid 1
HNO
3
+
Base 2
H
2
O
Acid 2
H
3
O
+
+
Base 1
NO

3
3. Lewis Acid
Acid is an e

pair acceptor while a base is an e

pair donor.
39
35.2 pH and pOH
pH and pOH are measures of the amount of ions in a solution that either cause the solution to be acidic or
basic.
pH Scale
Basic 0 14 Acidic
Important Formulas
pH = log[H
+
]
pOH = log[OH

]
pH +pOH = 14
[H
+
] = 1 10
pH
[OH

] = 1 10
pOH
Example
What is the concentration of HCl with a pH of 3?
[HCl] = 0.001 M
35.2.1 Changing Concentrations
M
1
V
1
= M
2
V
2
(0.25 M)(5 mL) = M
2
(50 mL)
M
2
= 0.025 M
35.3 Strong Acids and Bases
Strong acids and bases completely dissociate in water.
35.3.1 Strong Acids
HCl
H
2
SO
4
HBr
HI
HNO
3
HClO
4
35.3.2 Strong Bases
Group 1 - Hydroxides
NaOH
KOH
Group 2 - Heavier Hydroxides
Ca(OH)
2
Sr(OH)
2
Ra(OH)
2
35.4 Weak Acids and Bases
Weak acids and bases do not completely dissociate in water.
40
35.4.1 K
a
Constant
HA

H
+
+A

HA+H
2
O

H
3
O
+
+A

K
a
=
[H
+
][A

]
[HA]
Example
Benzoic acid dissociates as follows:
HC
7
H
5
O
2

x
H
+
+
x
C
7
H
6
O

2

x
2
[HC
7
H
5
O
2
] = 0.4 M
K
a
= 6.3 10
5
What is the pH?
K
a
=
[H
+
][C7H5O

2
]
[HC7H5O2]
6.3 10
5
=
x
2
0.4
35.4.2 K
b
Constant
The K
b
constant is used when bases are involved in a reaction (as opposed to K
a
which is used in reactions
with acids). To convert between K
b
and K
a
use the following formula:
K
a
K
b
= K
w
K
w
= 1 10
14
Example
F

+H
2
O

HF +OH

K
a
= 7.2 10
4
What is the K
b
constant?
K
b
=
110
14
7.210
4
= 1.39 10
11
Find the pH and pOH.
K
b
=
[HF][OH

]
[F

]
1.39 10
11
=
x
2
(
0.002
20+13.3
)
x = 9.13 10
7
pOH = 6.04
pH = 7.96
35.5 Common Ion Eect
The eect of ionization of a weak electrolyte (acid/base) is decreased by adding a strong electrolyte that
has an ion in common with the weak electrolyte.
35.6 Buer
Made of 2 components:
1. Weak acid
2. The salt of that acid
41
36 Equilibrium of Saturated, Soluable Salts
Solubility is how well a solute dissolves in a solvent
4
.
Example:
CaCO
3 (s)

Ca
+2
(aq)
+CO
2
3 (aq)
K
sp
= [Ca
+2
][CO
2
3
]
K
sp
is the solubility product
A large K
sp
means the solution is very soluable (meaning lots of products)
A small K
sp
means the solution is not very soluable.
1. Given K
sp
, nd the ion concentration.
K
sp
= [Ca
+2
][CO
2
3
] = 4.5 10
9
[Ca
+2
] = [CO
2
3
] =

4.5 10
9
= 6.7 10
5
M
2. Given K
sp
, nd the solubility (g/L).
6.7 10
5
M =
6.710
5
1

100.1
1mole
= 6.37 10
3
g/L
3. Given solubility, nd ion concentration.
Solubility of Silver Chloride at 25

C is 1.3 10
7 g
100 mL
1.3 10
7 g
100 mL

g
L

10
10
= 1.3 10
6 g
L
1.310
6
L

1 mole
143.35 g
= 9.11 10
9 m
L
4. Given solubility, nd K
sp
K
sp
= [Ag
+
][Cl

] = (9.11 10
9
)
2
= 8.3 10
17
37 Kinetic Molecular Theory
37.1 Postulates:
The volume of the individual particales of a gas can be assumed to be negligible.
So volume is determined by the space between molecules
The gas particles are in constant motion. The pressure exerted by a gas is due to collisions of the gas
with the walls of the container.
Gas particles are not attracted to one another.
The average kinetic energy of a gas is directly proportional to the Kelvin temperature.
K
energy
=
3
2
(0.0821)T
OR
K
energy
=
1
2
(Molar Mass)(V elocity)
2
A) CO at 760 torr and 0

C
B) N
2
at 760 torr and 0

C
C) H
2
at 760 torr and 0

C
Q. Which will have the highest kinetic energy?
A. All will have the same kinetic energy
Q. Which will have a higher velocity?
A. H
2
will because if all kinetic energies are constant according to the formula k =
1
2
mv
2
the
smallest mass will yield the highest velocity to keep k constant.
4
Virtually every salt is soluable to some degree.
42
37.2 Root Mean Square Velocity
U
rms
=

3RT
M
R = 8.314
J
KMole
M = molar mass (Kg/mole)
NOT g/mole
37.3 Eusion and Diusion
37.3.1 Eusion
When you pass a gas through a small opening into an evacuated chamber.
37.3.2 Diusion
When you mix gases
37.3.3 Finding the rate
The formula for nding the rate is as follows:
Rate of Effusion of Gas 1
Rate of Effusion of Gas 2
=

(Molar Mass 2)

(Molar Mass1)
WHich euses faster, He or NO
2
?
He - it moves faster because it is smaller
For the reaction: H
2
+N
2
at 20

C and having a rate of eusion for H

2
being 10 mL/min what is the
rate for N
2
?

10
x
=

28

2
x =
10

28
= 2.67 ml/min
The rate for the gas is 24 mL/min, at the same temperature methane has a rate of 47.8 mL/min. What
is the molar mass of the unknown gas?

24
47.8
=

16

x
x = 63.7 g/mole
38 Electro Chemistry
38.1 Identifying Oxidation Numbers
H
2
O H
2
SO
4
Cl
2
H +1 H +1 Cl 0
O -2 S +6
O -2
The chemical that has been oxidized is the reducing agent. The chemical that has been reduced is
the oxidizing agent.
38.2 Galvanic/Voltaic Cells
There are two beakers with salt and e

s in each solution. A salt bridge between the two solutions allows

passage of ions. One side is identied as the cathode an the other the anode. The cations go to the cathode
and the anions go to the anode. The e

s go to the cathode.
43
38.3 Calculating Cell Potential
E

cell = E

reduction +E

Oxidation
Example
Cu
+2
+Zn Zn
+2
+Cu
Oxidation
Zn Zn
+2
+ 2e

= 0.76
Reduction
Cu
+2
+ 2e

Cu
e

= 0.34
E

cell = 0.34 + 0.76 = 1.1 volts

38.3.1 Nernst Equation to Find E

cell
The Nernst equation to be used under standard conditions is:
E

cell = E

0.0592
n
log(Q)
E

= Normal standard potential

n = Number of moles of e

s changing
Q = Reaction Quotient =
[Product]
[Reactant]
Example
Cu
(s)
+Cu
+2

1 M
Cu
+2

0.1 M
+Cu
(s)
Q =
0.1
1
= 0.1
n = 2 (2 e

being transfered)
E

= 0(1M 1M = Novoltage
E

cell = 0
0.0592
2
log(0.1)
This Nernst equation is to be used when the temperature is not standard and the concentrations
are not equal.
E

cell = E

RT
nF
ln(Q)
R = 9.31
volt coulomb
mole Kelvin
F = 96,500 per mole e

T = Temperature in Kelvin
Example
Zn +Cu
+2

2 M
Cu +Zn
+2

0.5 M
E

cell = 1.1
0.0592
2
log(
0.5
2
)
E

cell = 1.1178 volts

39 Balancing Redox Reactions
39.1 Acidic
+2
Cr
2
2
O
2
7
+
1
Cl

+3
Cr
+3
+
0
Cl
2
Half-Reactions
[2Cl

Cl
2
+ 2e

] 3
14H
+
+ 6e

+
+6
Cr
2
O
7
2Cr
+3
+ 7H
2
O

14H
+
+ 6Cl

+Cr
2
O
7
2Cr
+3
+ 7H
2
O +Cl
2
44
39.2 Basic
CN

+MnO

4
CNO

+MnO
2
Half-Reactions
2OH +H
2
O +CN

CNO

+ 2e

+ 2H
+
2OH

H2O
4OH

+ 4H
+

2H2O
+3e

+MnO

4
MnO
2
+ 2H
2
O + 4OH

(2OH +H
2
O +CN

CNO

+ 2e

+ 2H
+
2OH

H2O
) 3
(4OH

+ 4H
+

2H2O
+3e

+MnO

4
MnO
2
+ 2H
2
O + 4OH) 2

6OH

+ 3CN

3CNO

+ 6e

+ 3H
2
O
H
2
O + 6e

+ 2MnO

4
2MnO
2
+ 2OH

H
2
O + 3CN

+ 2MnO

4
3CNO

+ 2MnO
2
+ 2OH
45