OCTOBER 2009 P RI MEFACT 937

Irrigation salinity causes and impacts

Cynthia Podmore
Advisory Officer, Natural Resource Advisory
Services, Wagga Wagga
What is irrigation salinity?
Salinity is the accumulation of salts (often
dominated by sodium chloride) in soil and water to
levels that impact on human and natural assets
(e.g. plants, animals, aquatic ecosystems, water
supplies, agriculture and infrastructure). Irrigation
salinity occurs in irrigated landscapes (Figure 1).
Primary and secondary salinity
Primary (or inherent) salinity is the natural
occurrence of salts in the landscape for example
salt marshes, salt lakes, tidal swamps or natural salt
scalds. Secondary salinity is salinisation of soil,
surface water or groundwater due to human activity
such as urbanisation and agriculture (irrigated and
dryland).
Salt sources
Salt may come from several sources including:
aeolian or wind borne salt from ocean spray or
sedimentary deposits including dune sand and
clay particles from the rivers and lakes of the
Murray-Darling Basin
cyclic salt from ocean spray or pollution dissolved
in rainwater then deposited inland
connate or fossil salt incorporated in marine
sediments at the time of deposition, during
periods when Australia was partly covered by sea
rock weathering that allows salt to be released as
minerals break down over time.
The hydrological cycle
The hydrological cycle is the movement of water
from the atmosphere to the earth and back again.
Salts are highly soluble, so water is the key to the
movement of salts in the landscape.

Figure 1. Causes of irrigation salinity. Source: Slinger & Tenison (2007).

2 PRIMEFACT 937, IRRIGATION SALINITY CAUSES AND IMPACTS
The groundwater system
The watertable is the surface below which all the
spaces in soil and rock are filled with water. Water
in this saturated zone is called groundwater. Above
this is the unsaturated zone where the spaces are
dry or only partially filled with water.
Water moving downwards past the plant root zone
is called leakage. Water may leak from rivers,
streams, dams and irrigation channels. Leakage
that reaches the saturated zone is called
groundwater recharge and groundwater that leaves
the saturated zone is called groundwater discharge.
Recharge areas are usually up-slope of discharge
areas. When groundwater is at or near the soil
surface discharge occurs as seepage, springs, and
base flow to streams allowing groundwater to
evaporate and/or be evapotranspired.
Causes of irrigation salinity
Irrigation salinity occurs due to increased rates of
leakage and groundwater recharge causing the
watertable to rise. Rising watertables can bring salts
into the plant root zone which affects both plant
growth and soil structure. The salt remains behind
in the soil when water is taken up by plants or lost to
evaporation.
Recharge rates in irrigation areas can be much
higher than dryland areas due to leakage from both
rainfall and irrigation. This causes potentially very
high salinisation rates. Watertables within two
metres of the soil surface indicate the potential for
salts to accumulate at the soil surface.
Inefficient irrigation and drainage systems are a
major cause of excess leakage and increase the
risk of salinity and waterlogging in irrigation areas.
Poor water distribution on paddocks results in some
areas being under-irrigated, causing salts to
accumulate (where watertables are high) and other
areas being over-irrigated and waterlogged.
Groundwater mounds can develop under irrigation
areas as a result of leakage from inefficient systems
and restrictive layers. This puts pressure on the
regional groundwater system forcing saline
groundwater into waterways. Irrigating with saline
water adds salt to the soil and increases the need
for applying more irrigation water to leach salts past
the plant root zone.
Salt affects plants through:
1. direct ion toxicity to plant tissue e.g. leaf burn
2. altered nutrient interactions e.g. reduced
availability of some elements
3. influence on osmosis i.e. plants have difficulty
extracting soil water.
Continual under-irrigation also increases salinity as
salts contained in the irrigation water need to be
flushed or leached periodically to prevent them
accumulating to levels that limit productivity.
Inappropriate matching of crop, soil type and
irrigation method can also cause excessive
leakage. For example, irrigating high water-use
crops using inappropriate irrigation methods should
not be carried out on permeable soils (high sand
content).
Other factors which influence leakage rates include
soil type (Figure 2), climate and the amount (or
removal) of deep-rooted perennial vegetation.
Replacing deep-rooted perennial pasture with
irrigated annual crops reduces the level of
evapotranspiration as rates are low following
cultivation and during fallow periods. As a result,
more water will infiltrate the soil profile and enter the
watertable.

Figure 2. The permeability of different soil textures
influences leakage rate to the groundwater system.
Source: Slinger & Tenison (2007).
The effect of salt on plants and soil
The effect of salt on plants
As salts accumulate in saline discharge areas they
can reach levels that affect plants in a number of
ways. This leads to poor plant health, a loss of
productive species and dominance of salt-tolerant
species.
Osmotic effect
Under normal conditions, plants readily obtain water
from the soil by osmosis (movement of water from a
lower salt concentration outside the plant to a higher
salt concentration in the plant). As soil salinity
increases this balance shifts making it more difficult
for plants to extract water.
Toxic effect
Plant growth can be directly affected by high levels
of toxic ions such as sodium and chloride. Excess
sodium accumulation in leaves can cause leaf burn,
necrotic (dead) patches and even defoliation. Plants
affected by chloride toxicity exhibit similar foliar
symptoms, such as leaf bronzing and necrotic spots
in some species. Defoliation can occur in some
woody species.
Ionic imbalance
An excess of some salts can cause an imbalance in
the ideal ratio of salts in solution and reduce the
ability of plants to take up nutrients. For example,
relatively high levels of calcium can inhibit the
uptake of iron (lime induced chlorosis), and high
sodium can exclude potassium.
Salinity tolerance
Salt-tolerant plants (halophytes) can tolerate high
internal concentrations of salts and take up salt with
water. Examples include saltbush (Atriplex species)
and bluebush (Maireana species).
Salt-resistant plants (glycophytes) cannot tolerate
salt internally and exist in saline environments by
excluding salt at their roots.
Most agricultural plants fall into the salt-resistant
category of glycophytes. They can maintain growth
in mildly saline soil by excluding salts at the roots
(Greenway and Munns 1980). However, in
extremely saline soils glycophytes are unable to
both exclude salt and obtain sufficient water for
maintenance (QDNR 1997).The impact of salinity
varies with plant species, stage of growth,
management practices, varieties and soil fertility.
Effect of waterlogging on salinity tolerance
Waterlogging exacerbates the effect of salinity.
Waterlogged plant roots are unable to exclude
sodium and chloride due to the increased rates of
transport of these ions, and concentrations in the
plant shoot increase. Poor aeration also affects soil
biology responsible for converting nutrients to their
plant available form, causing nutrient deficiencies.
The effect of salt on soi l
Highly saline soils often become highly sodic. The
ion imbalance and effect on the soil will depend on
the type of salt present. Sodium and magnesium
ions can destroy soil structure whereas calcium
carbonate may improve soil structure (due to
calcium) and increase soil pH (due to carbonate).
Highly saline soils may have dark greasy patches
where organic matter has been destabilised. On
very salty sites a complete loss of groundcover and
visible salt crystals often occur on the soil surface
making it vulnerable to erosion.
Impacts of irrigation salinity
In the irrigation areas of NSW an estimated 4800 ha
are affected by salinity (Tenison 2009). The areas
most at risk include:
Murrumbidgee Irrigation Areas near Griffith
Murray Irrigation Areas around Deniliquin
J emalong Irrigation District west of Forbes.
The impacts of irrigation salinity are much the same
as for dryland salinity. They include agricultural,
environmental and social impacts.
Agri cul tural
Direct costs of increasing salinity to agricultural
producers include:
reduced agricultural production (Figure 3)
reduced farm income
reduced options for production
reduced access and trafficability on waterlogged
land
reduced water quality for stock, domestic and
irrigation use
damage to and reduced life of farm structures
such as buildings, roads, fences and
underground pipes and services
reduced productivity of agricultural land
animal health problems e.g. saline water supply
farm machinery problems (bogging, rusting)
breakdown of soil structure, increased erosion
and nutrient loss
loss of beneficial native flora and fauna
decreased land value.

Figure 3. Leaf burn in rice crops irrigated with highly
saline water. Saline water application over 2 dS/m
EC
W
will result in rice yield decline. Source: Slinger &
Tenison (2007).
Envi ronmental
Environmental impacts from land and stream
salinity include:
decline of native vegetation and loss of habitat
loss of nesting sites and decline in bird
populations
decline in wildlife fauna other than birds
reduced food for wildlife populations
increased soil and wind erosion
reduced wetland habitat and decline in fish and
aquatic populations
PRIMEFACT 937, IRRI GATI ON SALINITY CAUSES AND IMPACTS 3

4 PRIMEFACT 937, IRRIGATION SALINITY CAUSES AND IMPACTS
reduced aesthetic value
reduced recreational and tourism values
reduced biodiversity in stream fauna, riparian
vegetation and wetlands
increases in weeds and undesirable changes in
plant populations (Figure 4)
damage to state/national parks and wildlife
sanctuaries.


Figure 4. Species tolerant of waterlogging, for
example Pin rush, become dominant. Source:
Slinger & Tenison (2007).
Soci al
Impacts on the framework and structure of our
society from increasing salinity include:
reduced aesthetic value of the landscape
(Figure 5)
reduced recreational and tourism values
reduced agricultural incomes due to productivity
losses
flow-on impact on employment
reduced regional population (in both rural and
urban communities)
increased pressure for consolidation of
agricultural properties
reduced service levels to regional towns
(especially <5000 persons)
increased social adjustment costs e.g. welfare,
marriage breakdown and bankruptcy.


Figure 5. Salinity induced by poor drainage and
irrigation layout. Source: Slinger & Tenison (2007).
Further reading
Primefact 936, Dryland salinity causes and
impacts
Primefact 938, Urban salinity causes and impacts
Primefact 939, Salinity symptoms
References
DNRQ (1997) Salinity Management Handbook.
Department of Natural Resources Queensland.
Greenway, H. and Munns, R. (1980) Mechanisms of
salt tolerance in non-halophytes. Annual Review
Plant Physiology, 31:149-190.
Slinger, D. & Tenison, K. (2007) Salinity Glove Box
Guide: NSW Murray & Murrumbidgee Catchments,
NSW Department of Primary Industries.
Tenison, K. (2009) Salt Training Manual (unpub), NSW
Department of Primary Industries.
State of New South Wales through Department of Industry
and Investment (Industry & Investment NSW) 2009. You may
copy, distribute and otherwise freely deal with this publication
for any purpose, provided that you attribute Industry &
Investment NSW as the owner.
ISSN 1832-6668
Check for updates of this Primefact at:
www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/primefacts
Disclaimer: The information contained in this publication is
based on knowledge and understanding at the time of writing
(October 2009). However, because of advances in
knowledge, users are reminded of the need to ensure that
information upon which they rely is up to date and to check
currency of the information with the appropriate officer of
Industry & Investment NSW or the users independent
adviser.
J ob number 9603 PUB09/116