GPBR311-Breeding Field and Horticultural Crops

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DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS AND PLANT BREEDING

1. Course No. : GBPR 311
2. Course Title : Breeding of Field and Horticultural Crops
3. Credit Hours : 3 (2+1)
4. General Objective :
To impart knowledge to the students on the
botanical description, origin, distribution and
various breeding approaches used for the
development of varieties / hybrids in various
field and horticultural crops
5. Specific Objectives
Theory
By the end of the course, the students will be able to
i. understand the origin, distribution and different breeding methods to be adopted for the
development of varieties / hybrids in various field and horticultural crops
ii. study about the plant genetic resources, centres of diversity and breeding for resistance
to biotic and abiotic stresses
iii. learn about the influence of Genotype x Environment interaction on
yield / performance

Theory Lecture Outlines
1.
Introduction definition, aim, objectives and scope of plant breeding history
and development of plant breeding contributions of eminent scients important
concepts of breeding self pollinated, cross pollinated and vegetatively propagated
crops
2.
Cereals rice origin distribution of species wild relatives and forms
breeding objectives major breeding procedures for development of hybrids /
varieties
3.
Cereals wheat origin distribution of species wild relatives and forms
varieties
4.
Cereals maize origin distribution of species wild relatives and forms
varieties
5. Millets sorghum origin distribution of species wild relatives and forms
varieties
6. Millets bajra and ragi origin distribution of species wild relatives and
forms breeding objectives major breeding procedures for development of
hybrids / varieties
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7. Sugarcane origin distribution of species wild relatives and forms breeding
objectives major breeding procedures for development of hybrids / varieties
8. Pulses red gram and soybean origin distribution of species wild relatives
and forms breeding objectives major breeding pr ocedures for development of
hybrids / varieties
9. Pulses greengram, blackgram and bengalgram origin distribution of species
wild relatives and forms breeding objectives major breeding procedures for
development of hybrids / varieties
10. Oilseeds groundnut and sesame origin distribution of species wild relatives
and forms breeding objectives major breeding procedures for development of
hybrids / varieties
11. Oilseeds sunflower and safflower origin distribution of species wild
relatives and forms breeding objectives major breeding procedures for
12. Oilseeds castor and mustard origin distribution of species wild relatives
hybrids / varieties
13. Fibre crops cotton and kenaf origin distribution of species wild relatives
hybrids / varieties
14. Fibre crops mesta, roselle and jute origin distribution of species wild
15. Vegetables tomato, brinjal and chillies origin distribution of species wild
16. Vegetables bhendi and cucumber origin distribution of species wild
17. Flower crops chrysanthemum and marigold origin distribution of species
wild relatives and forms breeding objectives major breeding procedures for
18. Flower crops rose and gerbera origin distribution of species wild relatives
hybrids / varieties
19. Fruit crops mango and guava origin distribution of species wild relatives
hybrids / varieties
20. Fruit crops banana and papaya origin distribution of species wild relatives
hybrids / varieties
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21. Plant genetic resources definition and important features of germplasm kinds
of germplasm classification of gene pool
22. Plant genetic resources types of seed collections germplasm activities
exploration merits and demerits of exploration and collection of germplasm
23. Plant genetic resources germplasm conservation in-situ conservation ex-situ
conservation evaluation documentation distribution and utilization
24. Plant genetic resources centres of diversity types of biodiversity centres of
origin Law of homologous series centers of origin types of centres of
diversity gene sanctuaries genetic erosion main reasons of genetic erosion
extinction introgression gene banks types of gene banks
25. Ideotype breeding main features of ideotype breeding features of ideotypes of
wheat, rice, maize, barley and cotton
26. Ideotype breeding factors affecting ideotypes steps in ideotype breeding
achievements
27. Breeding for resistance to biotic stresses introduction variability in fungal
pathogens hybridization, heterokaryosis, parasexualism, mutation and
cytoplasmic adaptation
28. Breeding for resistance to biotic stresses disease resistance mechanisms of
disease resistance in plants (disease escape, tolerance, resistance, immunity and
hypersensitivity) causes of disease resistance genetic basis of disease
resistance sources of disease resistance breeding methods for disease
resistance achievements
29. Breeding for resistance to biotic stresses insect resistance mechanism of insect
resistance in plants (non preference, antibiosis, tolerance and avoidance) nature
of insect resistance genetics of insect resistance horizontal and vertical
genetics of resistance sources of insect resistance breeding methods for insect
resistance problems in breeding for insect resistance achievements
30. Breeding for resistance to abiotic stresses drought resistance mechanisms of
drought resistance (drought escape, avoidance, tolerance, and resistance)
features associated with drought resistance sources of drought resistance
breeding methods for drought resistance limitations achievements; breeding
for resistance to water logging effects of water logging mechanism of tolerance
ideotype for flooded areas breeding methods
31. Breeding for abiotic stresses breeding for salt tolerance response of plants to
salinity symptoms mechanisms of salt tolerance breeding methods for salt
tolerance problems achievements; Cold tolerance chilling resistance
effects of chilling stress on plants mechanism of chilling tolerance sources of
chilling tolerance selection criteria freezing resistance effects of freezing
mechanism of freezing resistance genetic resources for freezing tolerance
selection criteria problems in breeding for freezing tolerance

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32. Genotype, environment and their interaction genotype environment micro-
environment and macro-environment classification of environmental variation
genotype X environment interaction adaptation types of adaptation
adaptability stability models for stability analysis

References
Allard, R.W. 1960. Principles of Plant Breeding. John Wiley and Sons, New York.
Chopra, V.L. and Paroda, R.S. 1986. Approaches for Incorporating Drought Salinity
Resistance in Crop Plants. Oxford and IBH, Publishing Co., New Delhi.
Kalloo, G. 1994. Vegetable Breeding. Panima Educational Book Agency, New Delhi.
Kumar, N. 2006. Breeding of Horticultural Crops Principles and Practices. New India
Publishing Agency, New Delhi.
Phundan Singh, 1996. Essentials of Plant Breeding. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi.
Poehlman, J.M. and Borthakur, D. 1995. Breeding Asian Field Crops. Oxford and IBH
Publishing Co., New Delhi.
Sharma, J.R. 1994. Principles and Practice of Plant Breeding. Tata McGraw Hill, Publishing
Company Ltd., New Delhi.
Singh, B.D. 1983. Plant Breeding: Principles and Methods. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi.
5
Lecture No: 1
Definition, Aim, Objectives and Scope of Plant Breeding
Definition :
Plant breeding can be defined as an art and science and technology of improving the
genetic make up of plants in relation to their economic use for the mankind.
or
Plant breeding is the art and science of improving the heredity of plants for the benefit of
mankind.
or
Plant breeding deals with the genetic improvement of crop plants also known as science
of crop improvement.
or
Science of changing and improving the heredity of plants
Aim :
Plant breeding aims to improve the characteristics of plants so that they become more
desirable agronomically and economically. The specific objectives may vary greatly depending
on the crop under consideration.
Objectives of Plant Breeding :
1. Higher yield : The ultimate aim of plant breeding is to improve the yield of economic
produce on economic part. It may be grain yield, fodder yield, fibre yield, tuber yield,
cane yield or oil yield depending upon the crop species. Improvement in yield can be
achieved either by evolving high yielding varieties or hybrids.
2. Improved quality: Quality of produce is another important objective in plant breeding.
The quality characters vary from crop to crop. Eg. grain size, colour, milling and baking
quality in wheat. Cooking quality in rice, malting quality in barley, colour and size of
fruits, nutritive and keeping quality in vegetables, protein content in pulses, oil content in
oilseeds, fibre length, strength and fineness in cott on.
3. Abiotic resistance : Crop plants also suffer from abiotic factors such as drought, soil
salinity, extreme temperatures, heat, wind, cold and frost, breeder has to develop
resistant varieties for such environmental conditions.
4. Biotic resistance : Crop plants are attacked by various diseases and insects, resulting in
considerable yield losses. Genetic resistance is the cheapest and the best method of
minimizing such losses. Resistant varieties are developed through the use of resistant
donor parents available in the gene pool.
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5. Change in maturity Duration / Earliness : Earliness is the most desirable character
which has several advantages. It requires less crop management period, less insecticidal
sprays, permits new crop rotations and often extends the crop area. Development of
wheat varieties suitable for late planting has permitted rice-wheat rotation. Thus
breeding for early maturing crop varieties, or varieties suitable for different dates of
planting may be an important objective. Maturity has been reduced from 270 days to 170
days in cotton, from 270 days to 120 days in pigeonpea, from 360 days to 270 days in
sugarcane.
6. Determinate Growth : Development of varieties with determinate growth is desirable
in crops like mung, pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan), cotton (Gossypium sp.), etc.
7. Dormancy : In some crops, seeds germinate even before harvesting in the standing crop
if there are rains at the time of maturity, e.g., greengram, blackgram, Barley and Pea, etc.
A period of dormancy has to be introduced in these crops to check loss due to
germination. In some other cases, however, it may be desirable to remove dormancy.
8. Desirable Agronomic Characteristics : It includes plant height, branching, tillering
capacity, growth habit, erect or trailing habit etc., i s often desirable. For example,
dwarfness in cereals is generally associated with lodging resistance and better fertilizer
response. Tallness, high tillering and profuse branching are desirable characters in fodder
crops.
9. Elimination of Toxic Substances : It is essential to develop varieties free from toxic
compounds in some crops to make them safe for human consumption. For example,
removal of neurotoxin in Khesari lentil (Lathyruys sativus) which leads to paralysis of
lower limbs, erucic acid from Brassica which is harmful for human health, and gossypol
from the seed of cotton is necessary to make them fit for human consumption. Removal
of such toxic substances would increase the nutritional value of these crops.
10. Non-shattering characteristics: The sha ttering of pods is serious problem in green
gram. Hence resistance to shattering is an important objective in green gram.
11. Synchronous Maturity : It refers to maturity of a crop species at one time. The
character is highly desirable in crops like greengram, cowpea, castor and cotton where
several pickings are required for crop harvest.
12. Photo and Thermo insensitivity: Development of varieties insensitive to light and
temperature helps in crossing the cultivation boundaries of crop plants. Photo and
thermo-insensitive varieties of wheat and rice has permitted their cultivation in new
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areas. Rice is now cultivated in Punjab, while wheat is a major rabi crop in West
Bengal.
13. Wider adaptability: Adaptability refers to suitability of a variety for general cultivation
over a wide range of environmental conditions. Adaptability is an important objective in
plant breeding because it helps in stabilizing the crop production over regions and
seasons.
14. Varieties for New Seasons : Traditionally maize is a kharif crop. But scientists are now
able to grow maize as rabi and zaid crops. Similarly, mung is grown as a summer crop
in addition to the main kharif crop.
Scope of plant breeding (Future Prospects)
From times immemorial, the plant breeding has been helping the mankind. With
knowledge of classical genetics, number of varieties have been evolved in different crop plants.
Since the population is increasing at an alarming rate, there is need to strengthened the food
production which is serious challenge to those scientists concerned with agriculture. Advances in
molecular biology have sharpened the tools of the breeders, and brighten the prospects of
confidence to serve the humanity. The application of biotechnology to field crop has already led
to the field testing of genetically modified crop plants. Genetically engineered rice, maize,
soybean, cotton, oilseeds rape, sugar beet and alfalfa cultivars are expected to be commercialized
before the close of 20
th
century. Genes from varied organisms may be expected to boost the
performance of crops especially with regard to their resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses. In
addition, crop plants are likely to be cultivated for recovery of valuable compounds like
pharmaceuticals produced by genes introduced into them through genetic engineering. It may be
pointed out that in Europe hirudin, an anti-thrombin protein is already being produced from
transgenic Brassica napus.
Undesirable effects
Plant breeding has several useful applications in the improvement of crop plants.
However, it has five main undesirable effects on crop plants.

1. Reduction in Diversity : Modern improved varieties are more uniform than land races.
Thus plant breeding leads to reduction in diversity. The uniform varieties are more prone
to the new races of pathogen than land races which have high genetic diversity.
2. Narrow genetic base : Uniform varieties have narrow genetic base. Such varieties
generally have poor adaptability.
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3. Danger of Uniformity : Most of the improved varieties have some common parents in
the pedigree which may cause danger of uniformity.
4. Undesirable combinations : Sometimes, plant breeding leads to undesirable
combinations. The examples of man made crops having undesirable combination of
characters are Raphanobrassica and Pomato.
5. Increased susceptibility to minor diseases and pests : Due to emphasis on breeding for
resistance to major diseases and insect pests often resulted in an increased susceptibility
to minor diseases and pests. These have gained importance and, in some cases, produced
severe epidemics. The epidemic caused by Botrytis cinerea (grey mold) in chickpea
during 1980-82 in Punjab and Haryana. The severe infection by Karnal bunt (Tilletia sp.)
on some wheat varieties, infestation of mealy bugs in Bt cotton.
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History and development of plant breeding
- About 10,000 years ago when man is believed to have started agriculture.
- Plant breeding began when man first choose certain plants for cultivation.
- The process of bringing a wild species under human management is referred to as
domestication
- Domestication may be the most basic method of plant breeding
- All other breeding method become applicable to a plant species only after it has been
successfully domesticated.
- Domestication continuous today and is likely to continue for some time in future
- Ex : In case of timber trees medicinal plants, microbes
- During the long period of historic cultivation natural selection has definitely acted on the
domesticated species.
- Movement of man from one place to another brought about the movement of his
cultivated plant species
- 700 BC - Babylonians and Assyrians pollinated date palm artificially
- 17
th
century - several varieties of heading lettuce were developed in France
- 1717 - Thomas Fair Child - produced the first artificial hybrid, popularly known as
Fair Childs mule, by using carnation with sweet William
- 1727 - The first plant breeding company was established in France by the vilmorins.
- 1760-1766 - Joseph koelreuter, a German, made extensive crosses in tobacco.
- 1759-1835 Knight was perhaps the first man to use artificial hybridization to develop
several new fruit varieties.
- Le couteur and Shireff used individual plant selections and progeny test to develop some
useful cereal varieties
- 1873 - the work of Patrick Shireff was first published.
- He concluded that only the variation heritable nature responded to selections, and that
there variation arose through natural sports (= mutation) and by natural hybridization
(= recombination during meiosis in the hybrids so produced).
- 1856 - Vilmorin developed the progeny test and used this method successfully in the
improvement of sugar beets.
- 1900 - Nilson-Ehle, his associates developed the individual plant selection method in
Sweden.
- 1903 - Johannsen proposed the pureline theory that provided the genetic basis for
individual plant selection.
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- The science of genetics began with the rediscovery of Gregor Johan Mendels paper in
1900 by Hugo de veris, Tshermark and Correns which was originally published in 1866.
- The modern plant breeding methods ha ve their bases in the genetic and cytogenetic
principles.
- Numerous workers who determined the various modes of inheritance have contributed to
the development and understanding of plant breeding.
- The discovery of chromosomes as carriers of genes has led to the development of
specialized plant breeding methods for chromosome engineering.
- The totipotency of plant somatic and gametic cells allows regeneration of complete plants
from single cells. This, coupled with the development of recombinant DNA technology,
has enabled the transfer of desirable genes from any organism into plants. Crop varieties
developed in this manner are already in cultivation in several countries.

History of plant breeding in India
- 1871 The Government of India created the Department of Agriculture
- 1905 The Imperial Agricultural Research Institute was establish in Pusa, Bihar
- 1934 The buildings of the institute damaged in earthquake
- 1936 Shifted to New Delhi
- 1946 Name was changed Indian Agricultural Research Institute
- 1901-05 Agricultural Colleges were established at Kanpur, Pune, Sabour, Llyalpur,
Coimbatore
- 1929 Imperial council of Agricultural Research was established
- 1946 Name was change to Indian Council Agricultural Research
- 1921 Indian Central Cotton Committee was established Notable researches on
breeding and cultivation of cotton. Eg : 70 improved varieties of cotton
- 1956 Project for intensification of regional research on cotton, oilseeds and millets
(PIRRCOM) was initiated to intensify research on these crops located at 17 different
centres through out the country
- 1957 All India Coordinated maize improvement project was started with objective of
exploiting heterosis
- 1961 - The first hybrid maize varieties released by the project
- ICAR initiated coordinated projects for improvement of the other crops
- 1960 First Agricultural University established at Pantnagar, Nainital, U.P.

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Scientific contributions of eminent scientists
Name of the Scientists Contributions
Allard and Bradshaw - G x E interaction
Recurrent Selection for SCA - Hull
Recurrent Selection for GCA - Jenkins
Dominance hypothesis - Davenport
Gene for gene hypothesis - Flor
Pureline concept - Johannsen
Backcross method - Harlan and Pope
Double cross scheme - Jones
Cytoplasmic Genetic Male sterility - Jones and Davis
Ear to row method - Hopkins
Colchicine - Blackslee and Nebel
Single Seed Descent Method - Goulden
Self incompatibility - Lewis
Vertifolia effect - Van Der Plank
Centres of diversity, Law of homologus series - Vavilov
Grater initial capital hypothesis - Ashby
Progeny test - Vilmorin
First artificial hybrid - Thomas Fairchild
Triticale - Rimpau
Mutation - Hugo de Vries
Sprophytic System of self incompatibility - Hughes and Babcock
Bulk method - Nilsson & Ehle
Raphano brassica - Karpenchenko
Heterosis - Shull
Male sterility - Jones and Davis
Father of hybrid rice - Yuan Long Ping
Self incompatibility classification - Lewis
Mechanism of insect resistance - Painter
Modified bulk method - Atkins
Components of genetic variance classification - Fischer
Male sterility in maize - Rhoades
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Microcentre - Harlan
Chemical mutagen - Aurbach
Multiline concept - Jenson
Green revolution in India - M.S. Swaminathan
Semidwarf rice varieties at IRRI - T.T. Chang
Forage breeder - G.W. Burton
Forage breeder - T.J. Jenkin
Soyabean breeder - E.E. Hartwig

Some Indian Plant Breeders and their contributions
T.S. Venkatraman - An eminent sugarcane breeder, he transferred thick stem and
high sugar contents from tropical noble cane to North Indian
Canes. This process is known as noblization of sugarcane.
B.P. Pal - An eminent Wheat breeder, developed superior disease resistant
N.P. varieties of wheat.
M.S. Swaminathan - Responsible for green revolution in India, developed high
yielding varieties of Wheat and Rice
Pushkarnath - Famous potato breeder
N.G.P. Rao - An eminent sorghum breeder
K. Ramaiah - A renowned rice breeder
Ram Dhan Singh - Famous wheat breeder
D.S. Athwal - Famous pearlmillet breeder
Bosisen - An eminent maize breeder
Dharampal Singh - An eminent oil-seed breeder
C.T. Patel - Famous cotton breeder who developed worlds first cotton
hybrid in 1970
V. Santhanam - Famous cotton breeder

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Lecture No: 1a
Concepts of breeding Self pollinated, Cross pollinated and asexually
propagated crops

The mode of pollination and reproduction play an important role in plant breeding. Based
on this, crop plants are divided into three groups viz.
1. Self Pollinated
2. Cross pollinated
3. Vegetatively propagated
Self Pollinated Species:
These are all self fertilizing species. In these species development of seed take place by
self pollination (autogamy). Hence self pollinated species are also known as autogamous species
or inbreeders. Various plant characters such as homogamy, cleistogamy, chasmogamy,
bisexuality etc. favour self fertilization.
Some important features of autogamous species are
1. They have regular self pollination
2. They are homozygous and have advantage of homozygosity, means they are true
breeding.
3. Inbreeders do not have recessive deleterious genes, because deleterious genes are
eliminated due to inbreeding by way of gene fixation.
4. Inbreeding does not have any adverse effects on inbreeders.
5. In autogamous species, new gene combinations are not possible due to regular self
pollination.
6. Inbreeders are composed of several component (homozygous) lines. Hence variability is
mostly among component lines.
7. Inbreeders have generally narrow adaptation and are less flexible.
Methods of Breeding in Autogamous Species
1. Plant introduction
2. Pureline selection
3. Mass selection
4. Pedigree method
5. Bulk method
6. Single seed descent method
7. Backcross method
8. Heterosis breeding
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9. Mutation breeding
10. Polyploidy breeding
11. Distant hybridization
12. Transgenic breeding
Four breeding appr oaches viz., recurrent selection, disruptive selection, diallel selective
mating and biparental mating are used for population improvement.
Cross pollinated species
This group refers to cross fertilizing species these species produce seed by cross
pollination (allogamy) hence, referred to as allogamous species or out breeders. Various plant
characters which promote cross pollination which include dichogamy, monoecy, dioecy,
heterostylely, herkogamy, self incompatibility and male sterility.
Some important features of out breeders are
1. They have random mating. In such population, each genotype has equal chance of mating
with all other genotypes
2. Individuals are heterozygous and have advantage of heterozygosity
3. Individuals have deleterious recessive gene which are concealed by masking effect of
dominant genes.
4. Out breeders are intolerant to inbreeding. They exhibit high degree of inbreeding
depression on selfing.
5. Cross pollination permits new gene combinations from different sources.
6. In these species, variability is distributed over entire population.
7. They have wide adaptability and more flexibility to environmental changes due to
heterozygosity and heterogenety.
Methods of Breeding Allogamous species
2. Mass and progeny selection
3. Back cross method.
5. Synthetic breeding
6. Composite breeding
10. Mutation breeding (rarely)
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Three breeding approaches viz., recurrent selection, disruptive mating and biparental
mating are used for population improvement.
Asexually propagated species
Some crop plants propagate by asexual means i.e. by stem or root cuttings or by other
means. Such species are known as asexually propagated species or vegetatively propagated
species. Such species are found in both self and cross pollinated groups. Generally asexually
propagated species are highly heterozygous and have broad genetic base, wide adaptability and
more flexibility.
Methods of breeding Asexually propagated species
2. Clonal selection
3. Mass selection (rarely used)
BREEDING POPULATIONS
The genetic constitution of plants is determined by mode of pollination. Self pollination
leads to homozysity and cross pollination results in heterozygosity to exploit homozygosity in
self pollinated crops and heterozygosity in cross pollinated species, because inbreeders have
advantage of homozygosity and outbreeders have advantage of heterozygosity. Based on genetic
constitution, breeding populations are of four types viz.,
1. Homogenous
2. Heterogenous
3. Homozygous
4. Heterozygous
1. Homogenous population
Genetically similar plants constitute homogenous populations. Examples of
homogeneous populations are pure lines, inbred lines, F
1
hybrid between two pure line or inbred
lines and progeny of a clone. Pure lines and inbred lines generally have narrow adoption.

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2. Heterogenous populations
Genetically dissimilar plants constitute heterogenous populations. Examples are land
races, mass selected populations, composites, synthetics and multilines. Heterogenous
populations have wide adaptability and stable performance under different environments.
3. Homozygous populations
Individuals with like alleles at the corresponding loci are know as homozygous. Such
individuals do not segregate on selfing. Thus non-segregating genotypes constitute homozygous
populations. Examples are pure lines, inbred lines and mass selected populations in self
pollinated plants. Thus pure lines and inbred lines are homozygous and homogeneous and mass
selected varieties of self pollinated crops and multi lines are homozygous and heterogenous,
because they are mixtures of several pure lines.
4. Heterozygous populations
Individuals with unlike alleles at the corresponding loci are referred to as heterozygous.
Such individuals segregate into various types on selfing. This includes F
1
hybrids, composites
and synthetics. Thus F
1
hybrids are heterozygous but homogeneous and composites and
synthetics are heterozygous and heterogenous population. Such populations have greater
buffering capacity to environmental fluctuations.
Different types of genetic populations in plant breeding
population Brief description / definition Examples
Homogeneous Genetically similar population Purelines, inbred line, F1 hybrids
progeny of a clone
Heterogeneous Genetically dissimilar population Land races, composites synthetics
and multilines.
Homozygous Non-segregating populations Purelines, inbred lines mass selected
autogamous varieties and multilines
Heterozygous Populations segregate on selfing F
1
hybrids, composites, synthetics
and a clone
COMBINATIONS
Homogeneous and
Homozygous
Genetically similar and non
segregating populations
Purelines and inbred lines
Homogeneous and
heterozygous
Genetically similar but segregating
on selfing
F
1
hybrids between inbred lines and
progeny of a clone
Heterogeneous and
homozygous
Genetically dissimilar but non
Multilines and mass selected varieties
in autogamous species
Heterogeneous and
Heterozyous
Genetically dissimilar and
Composites and synthetics

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Lecture No. 2
Study in respect of origin, distribution of species, wild relatives and forms and major
breeding procedures.

RICE (Oryza sativa) 2n = 24

Rice is the worlds most important food crop grown in more than hundred countries of
the world.
Origin: S.E. Asia
Distribution:
It is grown in humid tropical and subtropical climate and 90 per cent of the rice is
produced and consumed in S.E. Asia. Rice producing countries are China, India, Japan, Korea,
Pakistan, Bangladesh and other S.E. Asian countries. In India A.P, Karnataka, Tamilnadu, Orissa
etc.
Rice is one of the oldest cultivated crops. The two cultivated species of rice are
i) Oryza sativa - Asian rice
ii) O. glaberrima - African rice.
Origin of cultivated rice.
The views regarding the origin of rice can be grouped in to two classes viz.,
a) Polyphyletic origin
b) Monophyletic origin.
i.Polyphyletic: Originated
from several species.
According to this theory,
the two forms of
cultivated rice viz., Asian
rice O.sativa and African
rice O.glaberrima have
evolved independently in
their respective regions
from several specie s.

South & South East Asia Tropical Africa
Perennial

Annual Weedy annual

Indica japonica javanica

Common ancestor
O.rufipogon O.longistaminata
O. nivara O. barthii
O. spontanea
O. sativa
O.staffii
O.glaberrima
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ii. Monophyletic : According to this
theory both Asian rice and African rice
arose from a common parent
(O.perennis). This view is the most
accepted one because both Asian rice and
African rice are similar except in glume
pubescence, ligule size and colour of
pericarp which is red in African rice.

According to polyphyletic origin the present day rice varieties have originated from
several species. According to monophyletic origin a single species has given rise to all varieties
of cultivated rice. viz.,
Oryza sativa
Oryza glaberrima
most of the modern rice workers believe that origin of cultivated rice monophyletic. From oryza
perennis rose the Asian rice in South East tropical Asia and African rice in the upper valley of
Niger River in Africa.
CLASSIFICIATION
The three sub species or races of cultivated Asian rice (Oryza sativa) are
i) Indica
ii) Japonica (Sinica)
iii) Javanica.
S.
No.
INDICA JAPONICA JAVANICA
1 Distribution Tropical Ex. Asia
India
Sub-tropical to warm
temprate Ex. Japan
Intermediate Sub-
Tropical Ex.
Indonesia
2 Leaves Broad, Light green Narrow, Dark green Broad, Stiff
3 Tillering Profuse Medium Low
4 Height
(Stature)
Tall Short Plant Tall
5 Grains Slender-Flat Short-Roundish Broad, thick
grains
6 Resistant
a) Temperature Sensitive Resistant Resistant
b) Drought Resistant Intermediate Sensitive

Species in the genus oryza:
According to the latest view the genus oryza include 20 wild species. Out of these two
are cultivated diploids viz. O.sativa and O.glaberrima and rest are wild species which include
both diploid and tetraploid forms.

Botanical name Chromosome
No.
Genome Origin
O.sativa 24 AA Asia
O.nivara 24 AA Asia
O.meridionalis 24 - Australia
O.longistaminata 24 AA Africa
O.perennis
O.glaberrima O.sativa
19
O.rufipogan 24 AA Asia
O.glumaepatula 24 - America
O. grandig lumis 48 CCDD America
O.glaberrima 24 AA Africa
O.barthii 24 AA Africa
O.australiensis 24 EE Australia
O.latifolia 48 CCDD America
O.alata 48 CCDD America
O.eichingeri 24 CC Africa
48 BBCC
O.minuta 48 BBCC Asia
O.punctata 48 BBCC Asia
O.officinalis 24 CC Asia
O.granulata 24 - Asia
O.meyeriane 24 - Asia
O.ridleyi 48 - Asian
O.longiglumis 48 - New Guninea
O.brachantha 24 FF Africa
O.schlechter - - New Guinea
RICE
Related species of rice and their contributing characters in rice improvement.
Species Genome Useful traits
O.alata CCDD High biomass production
O.australiensis EE Drought tolerance, BPH
resistance
O.barthii AA Drought avoidance, BLB
resistance
O.brachyantha FF Yellow stem borer and leaf
folder resistance
O.eichengeri CC BPH, GLH, WBPH
resistance
O.grandi glumis CCDD High biomass production
O.granulata unknown Shade tolerance, adaptation
to acrobic soils
O.latifolia CCDD High biomass production
O.longistaminata AA Drought tolerance
O.meridionalies AA Elongationa bility
O.meyeriana Unknown Shade tolerance, adaptation
to aerobic soils
O.minuta BBCC BPH, GLH, WBPH, BLB
and blast resistance
O.nivara AA Grassy stunt virus
resistance
20
O.officinalis CC,BB,CC BPH, GLH, WBPH
resistance BPH resistance
O.prnetate BB, BBCC BPH resistance
O.ridleyi unknown Shade tolerance, stemborer,
blast and BLB resistance
O.rufipogon AA Source of CMS
BREEDING OBJECTIVES:
1. High yield potential

2. Adaptability and stability of yield

3. Maturity early, medium and long

4. Resistance to lodging and shattering

5. Resistant to cold temperature.

6. Resistant to salinity and alkalinity

7. Resistant to diseases like blast, stem rot, Tungro, sheath blight etc.

8. Resistant to pests like stem borer, gall midge, BPH etc

9. Improved grain quality
a) Grain sha pe and size
b) Texture of Endosperm and quality of starch in Endosperm
c) Aroma & Cooking quality (Basmathi type)
d) Colour of kernel
e) Milling out turn
10. Breeding for alternate source of dwarfing gene.
11. Breeding varieties suited for direct seeding
12. Breeding varieties for dry lands
13. Breeding varieties for deep water conditions
14. Breeding varieties for export - scented rice
15. Breeding varieties to control wild rice
16. Breeding varieties to suit any other local conditions .
BREEDING PROCEDURES
1. Introduction :
All the IRRI Rice varieties from IR 8 to IR 72. Other Examples are Basmati from Punjab,
Ponni (mahsuri) from Malaysia, CR 1009 (Ponmani) from Orissa.
2. Pure line selection :
21
3. Hybridization and Selection :
a) Pedigree method
i) Inter varietal:
ii) Inter-racial
Japonica x indica cross ADT 27 (Norin 10 x GEB 24)
Ponni (Mashuri) (Taichung 65 x ME 80)
iii) Inter specific crosses
Co 31 (O.perennis x GEB 24) Drought resistance.
IR 34 Complex cross, one of the parent is O.nivara
b) Back Cross Method of breeding
4. Mutation breeding:
a) Spontaneous mutation
GEB 24
ADT 41 - Dwarf mutant of Basmati 370.
b) Induced mutation :
Jagannath rice from Orissa. Semi dwarf.
Parbhani - from Maharastra
5. Heterosis Breeding (Rice Hybrids)
APHR 1 (IR 58025A X Vajram)
APHR 2 (IR 62829A X MTU9992)
KRH1 (IR 58025A X IR 9761-10-IR)
CORH 2 (IR 58025A X C 20R)
HYBRID RICE
The utilization of the dwarfing gene (d1) from the mutant variety Dee-Geo-Woo-Gen
(DGWG) discovered in Taiwan in 1960s led to the development of Semidwarf, high tillering,
nitrogen responsive, high yielding varieties of rice throughout the world. Consequently the yield
level of rice in the tropics raised even
8-10 t/ha. Close observation of the yield performance of HYVS had revealed that the realised
yield in such varieties are showing a plateauing trend (De Datta, 1990; Pingali et al; 1990).
Among the various strategies proposed to break the yield plateau in rice productivity,
exploitation of heterosis through the development of rice hybrids had been proved to be
successful.
Heterosis in rice was reported by Jones in USA as early in 1926 and Ramaiah in 1933.
But the research work on hybrid rice was initiated in 1964, in China by Yuan Long Ping (Father
22
of hybrid Rice). The identification of Wild Abortive or WA type cytoplasmic male sterility in
1970 was a breakthrough in hybrid rice breeding. In 1971 China accepted Hybrid Rice Research
as a national cooperative project and in the year 1976, hybrid rice became a reality in China, for
the first time in world, by the release of commercial rice hybrids suited for sub-tropical and
temperate zones. Since then many of the rice growing countries had accepted the strategical
approach of exploitation of heterosis through the development of commercial rice hybrids and as
such rice hybrids were released in countries like Vietnam (for subtropical zone), Korea (for
temperate zone); besides these countries, research on hybrid rice is progressing in countries like
Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, United States, Egypt, Colombia and Brazil.
Although research on the commercial utilization of heterosis in rice has made tremendous
gains during the last 20 years, it is still in its infancy stage because the high yield potential of
hybrid rice has not been fully tapped yet. And hence various approaches are adopted in major
rice growing countries of the world to maximize the yield potential advancements of hybrid rice
production.
Breeding techniques for developing hybrid rice involve the following:
a) Three -line method or CGMS system
This system now a days known as CMS system, involving three lines viz- cytoplasmic,
genic male sterile line (A), maintainer line (B) and restorer line (R) is the most commonly used
method in China and outside. Until 1985, more than 95% of the CMS lines used in the
commercial indica rice hybrids, were of CMS-WA type which make the hybrid rice vulnerable to
biotic and abiotic stresses. And hence attempts to identify new sources of male sterile cytoplasm
led to the identification of CMS system like GA (Gambiaca), Di (Disi), DA (Dwarf wild rice),
BTC (Chinsurah Boro II) and IP (Ido Paddy 6). Mechanism of male sterility maintenance and
hybrid seed production in three-line system given in figure-1.
Many years experience had undoubtfully proved that the CGMS system involving
sporophytic and gametophytic male sterility is an effective way of developing hybrid rices and
will continue to play an important role in the next decade. However there are some constraints
and problems in such a system. The most serious is that yields of existing hybrid rice varieties
including newly developed ones, have stagnated (Yuan, 1994). They have already reached their
yield plateau, and are unable to increase the yield potential through this approach and hence new
methods and materials were adopted. In this regard two-line hybrids are promising ones, to raise
the yield ceiling in hybrid rice.

b) Two-line method of rice breeding
23
Two-line hybrids can be evolved through
- Mechanical means
- Application of gametocides
- Use of cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS)
- Use of genic male sterility (GMS)
- Use of environmentally induced genic male sterility (EGMS)
In rice EGMS system is commonly used. In EGMS systems two kinds of rice lines are made use
of viz. PGMS (Photosensitive Genic Male Sterility) and TGMS (Thermosensitive Genic Male
Sterility) which had been developed successfully in China. In this system male sterility is mainly
controlled by one or two pairs of recessive nuclear genes and has no relation to cytoplasm.
Developing hybrid rice varieties with these system has the following advantages over the
classical CMS system, as given below.
- Maintainer lines are not needed.
- The choice of parents for developing heterotic hybrids is greatly broadened.
- No negative effect due to sterile cytoplasm
- Unitary cytoplasm situation of WA will be avoided.
In this system the exploitation of heterosis can be achieved by developing intervarietal and
intersubspecific F
1
hybrids. In 1991, China had released hybrid combinations using this
approach, and some of these combinations out yielded the best existing hybrids by 10-20%
(Yuan, et al; 1994)
Detailed studies about physiological and ecological requirements of EGMS lines had been made
in China and Japan. Work is progressing in India and International Rice Research Institute, in
Philippines to identify best suited rice hybrids through this approach, for commercial
exploitation. TGMS system is considered useful in tropical and subtropical regions where as
PGMS system is useful in temperate regions.
Other possible approaches to develop two-line hybrid breeding system includes identification of
a genic male sterility system which would revert to male fertility response to application of
growth regulators and also the chemical induction of male sterility.
c) One -line method of rice breeding
Rice hybrids can be developed and popularized through the following concepts
- Vegetative propagation
- Micro propagation
- Anther culture hybrids
24
- Apomictic lines
Among the above for large scale cultivation, apomictic lines and anther cultured materials will
be economical.
25

CGMS SYSTEM IN RICE
A line

Maintenance
A line B line

X

Male sterile Male fertile

Male sterile A line
hybrid rice production

X

A line R line

S
rf1 rf1

rf
2
rf
2

S
rf
1
rf
1

rf
2
rf
2

F
rf
1
rf
1

rf
2
rf
2

S
rf
1
rf
1

rf
2
rf
2

S
rf
1
rf
1

rf
2
rf
2

F
Rf
1
Rf
1

Rf
2
Rf
2

S
Rf
1
rf
1

Rf
2
rf
2
26

Fertile F
1
hybrid rice
Breeding Centers:
IRRI International Rice Research Institute Philippines
CRRI Central Rice Research Ins titute Cuttack (orissa)
DRR Directorate of Rice Research Hyderabad. (A.P)

Name of the released varieties for different breeding objectives
1. High Yielding Varieties Swarna, Vijetha, MTU1000 (cottondorasannalu)
Jaya.
2. Early maturity Cottondorasannalu, Tellahamsa, Jagtial Sannalu,
IR-64
3. Resistant to lodging and
shattering
MTU 1061 (Indra)
MTU 1064 (Amara)
4. Resistant to cold temperature Tellahamsa, Erramallelu
5. Resistant to salinity Vikas, CSR-30 (Yamini), Swarnamukhi
(NLR145 CSR 29) Swarna
6. Resistant to diseases Blast: NLR-145, Somasila Swathi, Shravani
7. Resistant to pests BPH: Vajram, Vijetha Deepti, Krishnaveni
Gall midge : Kavya, Surekha Jagtial sannalu
8. Aroma Short slender: Chittimutyalu, Kala namak
Long slender: Pusa Basmati1, Pusa 1121,
Vasumati, Sumati
9. Red rice Heera
10. Deep water PLA 1100
11. Dryland conditions Rasi, MTU 9993 Erramallelu

Lecture No. 3
WHEAT (Triticum aestivum) 2n = 6x = 42

Wheat is the most important cereal in the world, giving about one -third of the total
production, followed closely by rice. In temperate regions it is the major source of food. The
27
chief use of wheat is, the flour for making bread. Wheat is grown in all the continents except
Antartica. It is the staple food of the 1/3
rd
of the worlds population.

Place of origin:
Diploid (2n=14) : Asia minor
Tetraploid (2n=28) : Abyssinia, North Africa
Hexaploid (2n=42) : CentralAsia
Distribution:
USA, Canada, Latin America, Europe, China, Japan, Argentina, Mexico, India, Pakistan
Every month of the year a crop of wheat is harvested some where in the world. In India
extensively cultivated in North West India, Eastern part, Central plain to some extent Southern
peninsular zone.
Classification:

Ploidy level Specie s Common name Genome
Diploid
(2n=14) 2 species
T.boeticum
(T.aegilopoides)
T.monococum

Wild einkorn
Einkorn
AA
AA
Tetraploid
(2n=28) 7 species
T.dicoccoides
T.dicoccum
T.durum
T.persicum
T.turgidum
T.polonicum
T.timopheevi
Wild Emmer
Emmer
Macaroni wheat
Persian wheat
Rivet wheat
Polish wheat
-
AA BB
AA BB
AABB
AABB
AABB
Hexaploid
(2n= 42) 5 species
T.aestivum
T.compactum
T.sphaerococcum
T.spelta
T.macha
Common or bread wheat
Club wheat
Dwarf wheat
Spelt wheat
Macha wheat
AABBDD
AABBDD
AABBDD
AABBDD
AABBDD

Fourteen species of wheat according to Vavilov:
1. T.boeoticum
2. T.monococcum
3. T.dicoccoides
4. T.dicoccum
5. T.durum,
6. T.persicum,
7. T.turgidum
28
8. T.polonicum,
9. T.timopheevi,
10. T.aestivum,
11. T.sphaerococcum,
12. T.compactu m,
13. T.spelta,
14. T.macha.

Origin of diploid wheat:
(Wild einkorn) T.boeticum (T.aegilopoides)

Natural mutation and selection

T.monoccocum Cultivated diploid
AA (2n = 14)

T. boeoticum is probably the ancester for all the cultivated wheats:

Origin of Tetraploid wheats:

T .monoccocum x Unknown species (Aegilops spelltoides)
Wild Diploid Diploid
(2n = 14) (2n=14)
AA BB
F
1
hybrid
Diploid (2n=14)
AB
Sterile

Chromosome doubling

Triticum turgidum
Amphidiploid / Allotetraploid
(2n=28)
AA BB
Fertile

Origin of hexaploid wheat

Triticum turgidum x T. tauschii
Tetraploid Diploid
2n = 4x = 28 2n = 2x = 14
AA BB DD
F
1
hybrid
Triploid
29
2n = 3x = 21
ABD
Sterile

Doubling of chromosome

Triticum aestivum
Hexaploid
2n = 6x = 42
AA BB DD
Fertile
Breeding objectives
1. High yield
High yield depends on
a) The number of heads / unit area
b) The number of grains / head.
c) The average weight of grain
While breeding for high yielding varieties all the above three components must be looked
into. Omitting any one of them may not yield results. Further while breeding for high yield it is
necessary to combine into a variety a favourable combination of genes influencing all yield
process.

2. Breeding non- lodging varieties:
This is achieved after the identification of dwarfing gene in Japanese variety Norin 10.
Most of our dwarf wheats are two gene dwarfs. E.g. Sonara 63, sonara 64, kalyan sona.
Emphasis is now on triple gene dwarfs.

3. Breeding for disease resistance
Rust is the major disease. Both stem rust and leaf rust are important ones. There are
different races of rust. So while breeding for rust resistance horizontal resistance is to be looked
into. Back cross method of breeding and development of multi lines are the methods.

4. Breeding for insect resistance
Hessian fly is the major pest. Resistance in most varieties is thro Antibiosis.

5. Breeding for quality.
Different wheat varieties vary greatly in their chemical composition which is
considerably influenced by environment. The varieties of hard wheat or bread wheat which have
higher gluten content. The soft wheat contain lesser gluten content which is suitable for cake
making, pastries etc. The durum wheats are unsuited for either cakes or bread but they are
suitable for making macaroni.
So depending upon the use the quality breeding objective is to be fixed.

BREEDING PROCEDURES:
1. Introduction :
Semi dwarf wheat from Mexico, Sonara 63, Sonara 64, Mayo 64, Lerma Roja 64

Earlier varieties like P
4
, P
6
, P
12
evolved at Pusa institute are result of pure line selection
from local population.

3. Hybridisation and selection
30
a) Inter varietal:
A number of successful derivatives were developed at IARI New Delhi and Punjab. NP
809 - New pusa multiple cross derivative.
However all these varieties were lodging and poor yielder when compared to other
countries. Hence the wheat hybridization programme was changed by
Dr. M.S. Swaminathan during 1963. Borloug was invited to our country and he suggested for
introduction of semi dwarf varieties from Mexico. As a result four commercial spring wheat
varieties viz., Sonara 63, Sonara 64 Mayo 64 and Lerma Roja 64 were introduced. However they
had red kernel hard wheats. These were utilised in our breeding programme and amber colour
wheat varieties like Kalyan Sona, Safed Lerma, Sharbati Sonara were released, these are double
gene dwarfs.
b) Inter specific crosses
To get Hessian fly resistance. So also for rust resistance.

c) Back cross method of breeding
Rust resistance in Chinese spring from Thatcher.
4. Hybrid wheat :
At Kansas Agri. Expt. Station USA male sterile lines were identified by crossing
T.timophevi x T. aestivum Bison variety By repeated back crossing a male sterile line resembling
Bison was evolved. At present USA and Canada are doing work on this.

Dr. M. S. Swaminathan did extensive work on this with gamma rays.
Sharbati Sonara with increased protein content was evolved.
6. Development of multilines
Borlaug developed multilines against rust. MLKS 15 was developed at IARI.
Multiline is a mixture of pure lines which are phenotypically similar but genotypically dissimilar.
Each line is produced by separate back cross method of breeding. Each line having resistance
against a particular race of a disease.

Breeding centers:
- International Maize and Wheat improvement Centre (CIMMYT) Mexico.
- Directorate of Wheat Research (DWR), Karnal.
- All India Coordinated Wheat Improvement Project (AICWIP) Karnal (earlier New.
Delhi)

Practical Achievement:
The semi dwarf varieties of wheat have been developed through the use of Japanese line
Norin 10 as a source of dwarfing gene which led to green revolution in wheat production. The
productivity of Semi dwarf varieties is about two and half times more than old tall growing
varieties. More over these varieties are highly resistant to lodging and are highly responsive to
fertilizer doses.

:Lecture No. 4
MAIZE (Zea mays) 2n = 20
Corn is the queen of cereals and it is the important crop next to rice and wheat with
regard to total area and production. It is studied to a much wider range of climatical conditions
than rice and wheat, because of its greater adoptability.
Origin: Central America
31
Distribution: USA, China, Russia, Canada and many south Asian countries
Progenitors: Zea tunicata
Z. teosinte
It belongs to the tribe Maydeae of family gramineae.
Wild relative: Teosinte: There are three species of teosinte of which Zea mexicana is annual
diploid (2n = 20) like maize.
Gamma grass another close relative belongs to genus Tripsacum
The genes Zea characterized by male terminal inflorescences with paired staminate
spikelets and lateral female inflorescences with single or paired pistil late spike lets
Genus Zea contains four species
1. Zea mays (2n = 2x = 20) = Corn
2. Zea mexicana (2n = 2x = 20) = Annual teosinte
3. Zea perennis (2n = 4x = 40) = Perennial tetraploid teosinte
4. Zea diploperennis (2n = 2x = 20) Perennial diploid teosinte
Breeding objectives :
1. Yield :
Complex character controlled by polygenes. Attention is to be paid to have ideal plant
type. Varietial hybridization as a maize breeding method did not gain popularity. The main
reason for this is difficulty in getting superior segregants.
2. Breeding for pest and disease resistance :
Shoot fly, Stem borer, Heliothis are major pests. Mexican varieties are resistant. Downy
mildews, leaf blight and helminthosporium are major diseases. Co1, CoH 2 are resistant. Taiwan
lines are resistant to downy mildew.
3. Breeding for high protein :
Composed of two fractions. a) Protein in endosperm known as Zein which is nutritionally
not balanced since it is lesser in lysine and tryptophan. 80% protein found in endosperm.
b) Protein in germ (embryo) 20% balanced one. By increasing the embryo size we can increase
protein content.
4. Breeding for increased oil content.
12-15% in germ. By increasing the embryo size we can increase oil content.
5. Alternate sources of cytoplasm
CMS - T. susceptible to helminthosporium, C and S Resistant.
6. High yielding baby corn.
32
Zea mays. variety sachharata, Sweet corn. The green cobs can be eaten as salad. The
cobs can be harvested 45 days after sowing. CoBc 1 is latest variety of baby corn.
Breeding methods:
1. Introduction :
Initially the varieties were all introduced one.
Sikkim primitive 1
Sikkim primitive 2.
Mexican line were first introduced during 16th century by Portugeese
2. Mass Selection : Prior to 1945 mass selection was the only method used for maize
improvement.
KT 1 - U. P.
RAS 1 - Rajasthan.
By adopting mass selection technique it is possible to get yield increase by 19% per cycle.
3. Ear to Row Selection :
First proposed by Hopkins for improving oil and protein content of maize. This method
involves selection of a number of phenotypically desirable ears out of a population grown in
isolation. The selecte d cobs are harvested on single plant basis and keeping part of the seeds and
remaining sown in rows. Based on the best performing rows during next season the reserve seeds
are sown.
This method is suitable for characters having high heritability like oil content and protein
content. But it was not helpful to get increased yield.
4.Modified Ear to Row method :
Proposed by Lonquist.
I. Best ear heads from population selected (100 No.) and harvested on single plant basis.
And threshed individually.
II. The single heads harvested are raised in progeny rows in more than one location
representing different environment with local checks.
III. In the main station the progeny rows are used as crossing block. Pollen from best plants
are collected, mixed and used for crossing the rows.
Select best five plants from each rows and harvest them separately record the yield.
On the basis of performance of over all locations only top 20% progenies are selected.
These 20% will include the five plants selected.
IV. The seeds from 5 plants selected are sown in progeny rows and cycle is repeated.
5. Hybridization and Selection
33
Not popular since isolation of superior recombinants was not made.
6. Heterosis breeding :
Instead of using CGMS lines, detasseling the female inbred line is followed in India.
Since use of CGMS line is costlier compared to detasseling it is not followed.
Crossing the inbreds of indigenous x exotic origin resulted in release of best hybrids.
Indian x Indian - 24 to 43% yield increase.
Indian x U.S. dent 58 % yield increase
Indian dent x Caribbean Flint 47 to 54 % yield increase
1. Single cross hybrid
2. Three way cross hybrids - Ganga -5, Trishulatha
3. Double cross hybrids - CoH 3
4. Double top cross hybrid - White kernel hybrids - Ganga safed 2, Histarch, Ganga 4.
7. Population Improvement:
Recurrent selection technique was initiated by Dhawan in 1963. The initial synthesis of
composites were done from high yielding inter varietal crosses which exhibited minimum
inbreeding depression.
Kisan, Jawahar, Vikram, Sona, Vijay, Amber.

VARIETIES / HYBRIDS RELEASED IN MAIZE

Lecture No: 5

SORGHUM (Sorghum bicolor) 2n = 2x = 20
Sorghum is one of the most important food crops in a semi arid tropics.
Origin: S.E. Africa
Distribution:
A number of land races, wild forms found in S.E. Africa, says the origin Ethiopia in
Africa from there it spread to other parts of world. It is grown in Africa, south and central India,
China, Argentina, Australia and south and central plains of US.
Progenitor of sorghum
1. S.arundinaceum
2. S.verticilliflorum
3. S.sudanense
4. S.aethiopicum
34
Classification :
Right from 16
th
century there were number of classification for the genus Sorghum. The
famous among them is Snowdens classification (1936) later refined by Garber (1950) and by
Dogget (1970).
SORGHUM

Section I Section II
Sorghum (True Sorghum) Para sorghum (other Sorghum)
S.versicolor
S.introns
S.purpureosericeum
Sub section Sub section S.nitidum
Arundinaceae (2n=20) Halepensia (2n=20, 40) S.plumosum
S.halepense
S.miliaceum

Series Series S.almum
Spontanea(grass) Sativa(grain) S.propinquum
S.sudanense S.vulgare S.radolphianum
S.aethiopicum S.subglabaesence
S.virgatum S.dochna
S.verticillifolium
S.stapfii

The latest classification was done by Harlan and De Wet (1972).
1.Bicolor (B): Grain elongate, glumes clasping the grain which
may be completely covered or exposed.
2.Guinea (G): Grains flattened dorso-ventrally.
3.Caudatum(C): grains asymmetrical, glumes 1/2 the length of
the grain.
4.Kaffir (K): Grains symmetrical (spherical), glumes clasping in
varying length.
5.Durra (D): Grains rounded obovate, wedge shaped at the base
and broadest slightly above the middle; glumes very wide.

According to them, the cultivated sorghum Sorghum bicolor is divided in to five basic
races based on the coverage of glume on the grain
Breeding objectives
1. High grain yield
2. High forage yield
3. Breeding for non-lodging sorghums.
35
4. Dual purpose genotypes with high grain and fodder biomass potential per unit time.
5. Early maturity
6. Resistance to biotic stresses (diseases like grain mold, downy mildew, rusts, leaf blight,
leaf spots etc.
7. Resistance / Tolerance to insects like shoot fly, stem borer, gall midge etc.
8. Resistance to abiotic stresses like salinity, drought with resistance to low HCN content
9. Breeding for quality characters like bread making, redgrain for biscuit making protein
and lysine content.
10. Breeding for special traits like sweet sorghums and striga resistance.
11. To isolate alternate sources of cytoplasmic genic male sterile lines
Breeding Procedure:
Sorghum is often cross pollinated crop. So to maintain varietal purity isolation distance of
400 meters is necessary. Compared to other often pollinated crop like red gram, maintenance of
inbreds is easy in sorghum. By putting brown paper and selfing the genetic purity can be
maintained.
1. Introduction : Varieties of milo and kafir sorghum introduced from USA are used in
conversion programme to convert the local long duration photo sensitive varieties to short
duration, non-photo sensitive lines.
2. Selection : Old varieties like Co1, Co2, Co4 are all selection made from local land races.
3.Hybridization and selection
a) Inter varietal
(IS 4283 x Co 21) x CS 3541, Three way cross derivative Co 25
(MS 8271 x IS 3691) - Single cross derivative Co26
b) Inter specific
Co 27 Sorghum. (Co11 x S.halapense)
Use of CMS lines.
CSH 5 2077 A x CS 3541
5. Mutation breeding :
X ray mutant from CSV 5 (148)
Co 19 is a natural mutant from Co 2
6. Back cross method :
By following backcross method of breeding sorghum conversion programme was
initiated. The long duration photosensitive germplasm was converted in to photo insensitive
short duration sorghums. This was done at USA Similar programme was done at ICRISAT also.
36
7. Population improvement :
With the use of cytoplasmic genetic male sterility as well as genic male sterility we can
go for population improvement. The local land races can be used as pollinators and by half sib
family selection, we can isolate lines. We can follow recurrent selection idea to develop superior
inbreds.
8. Use of Apomictic lines :
Some apomictic lines have been identified which can be utilised in breeding programme
and by vegetative propagation we can fix up heterosis. E.g. R473 from Hydrabad.
Breeder centers:
International sorghum improvement work is carried out by ICRISAT (International Crop
Research Institute for Semi Arid Tropics)
In India at Directorate of Sorghum Research (DSR), Hyderabad
Practical Achievements:
Hybrids are developed by using cytoplasmic genetic smale sterility combined kafir 60
Varieties: CSV
1
CSV-2, CSV-4, M35-1, CSV-13
Hybrids: CSH-1, CSH-2, 3 etc for kharif and CSH 7, 12, 13 for Rabi

Lecture No. 6
PEARL MILLET (Penisetum americanum)
(Bajra Bulrush Millet) (2n=14)

Pearl millet is also known as Bajra, is an important food crop of semi arid tropics. It is
also grown as fodder crop
Origin: W. Africa
Distribution:
Africa, India, Pakistan, South East Asia, USA and Europe
Taxonomy : The genus Pennisetum is having more than 140 species. Stapf (1954) has divided
the genus Pennisetum in to five sections viz.,
1. Gymnothrix
2. Eupennisetum
3. Penicillaria
4. Heterostachya
5. Brevivalvula
The cultivated Pennisetum glaucum belongs to the section penicillaria.
Progenitors :
37
1. Pennisetum purpureum
2. P.qumulatum
3. P. orientale
Origin and putative parents.
Stapf included 32 species is Penicillaria. Of these 32 species found is Africa, six annuals
are considered wild and probable ancestors of the cultivated one. They are
1. P perottettii
2. P. molllissimum
3. P. violaceum
4. P. versicolor
5. P. adonense
6. P. gymnothrix
The cultivated species of pennisetum is believed to have originated thro hybridization with in
these six species.

1. Breeding for high grain yield
To get high yields the following plant characters are necessary
a) more number of tillers
b) well filled, compact, long panicle.
c) heavy grains.
d) Uniformity of ripening.
Under irrigated conditions photo insensitivity and early maturity are essential for multiple
and relay cropping.
2. Breeding for improved grain quality.
It can be achieved by incorporating yellow endosperm to improve vitamin A content or
white endosperm to improve protein content.
3. Breeding for drought tolerance :
This can be achieved thro evolving lines having shorter duration so that they can escape
drought, lines with more adventitious roots, lines with high leaf water potential and high
chlorophyll stability index are to be evolved.
38
4. Breeding for disease resistance
Downy mildew is the major disease. Ergot and smut comes next. Of late, rust at late stage
is also becoming a major problem.
Lines having Local Bellary cytoplasm (732 A) are observed to be downy mildew resistant.
5. Breeding for alternate source of cytoplasm in male sterile lines.
Original Tift 23 A evolved at Tifton, Georgia is highly susceptible to downy mildew.
Because of this the HB series went out of cultivation. The indigenous 732 A obtained from
Bellary is resistant. Similarly L 111A of Ludhiana is also tolerant.
A
1
, A
2
, A
3
and A
4
are there 732 A belongs to A
4
cytoplasm.
6. Breeding for to have high forage value :
The forage cumbu must have following characters.
a) high sugar content in the stem juice
b) Increased leaf number with more breadth.
c) Digestibility.

Breeding Procedures
1. Introduction : Hybrid bajra from Punjab.
Tift 23 A from USA
2. Selection : Pure line selection : Co 2, Co 3,
Interspecific hybridisation.
Pennisetum glaucum x P.purpureum

Cumbu napier hybrids.
4. Heterosis breeding : Hybrid bajra
In earlier days before the identification of male sterile lines utilising the protogynous
nature hybrids were released. The hybrids were produced by sowing both parents in the ratio of
1:1.
After the discovery of cytoplasmic genic male sterile line Tift 23A by Burton in Tifton,
Georgia led to development of hybrids. Earlier hybrids of India viz., HB1, HB2 to HB5 were
produced utilising Tift 23 A. But due to susceptibility to downy mildew they went out of
cultivation. Even before the discovery of CGMS lines by Burton it was discovered by Madhava
39
Menon and his coworkers at Coimbatore. Unfortunately due to failure of publishing it was not
recognised.
To over come the problem of downy mildew male sterile lines L 111A and 732 A were
isolated and at present used in breeding programme.
There are number of CMS lines developed by private agencies like
Nath seeds, Mahyco, Mahendra.
ICRISAT entry WCC 75 is an example for population improvement. This was developed
from world composite by recurrent selection method. It was developed from derivatives of
numerous crosses between diverse sources of germplasm and Nigerian early maturing land races
known as Gero millets. Another example is ICMV 155 of ICRISAT.
6. Synthetic varieties :
Synthetics are produced by crossing in isolation a number of lines tested for their GCA.
E.g. ICMS 7703.
It is a result of crossing between 7 inbred lines of India x African crosses
At IARI Tift 23 A was gamma irradiated and 5071 A resistant to downy mildew was
evolved. With this the hybrid NHB 3 was evolved (5071 A x J 104)
Breeding centers:
International Crops Research Institute for Semi Arid Tropics (ICRISAT,) Hyderabad
All Indian Pearl Millet improvement project (AIPIP) Jodhpur (Rajasthan)
Practical achievements
Varieties: PS B 8, PSB 15, mukta
Hybrids : HHB 45, HHB 50 from Hissan GHB 30, GHB 27 from Gujarat
40
FINGER MILLET (Elusine coracana) (2n = 36)
Ragi

The common name finger millet to derived from finger like branching of panicle Ragi
is derived from Sanskrit worel Ragika.
Origin: According to vavilor Africa
According to Decandole India
Distribution: India, Africa, Pakistan.
Progenitors : E. indica is wild in India and Africa
E. stricta is wild only in Africa
Wild relatives :
The genus Eleusine comprises of 11 species of which 6 are diploids and 5 are tetraploids.
1. Eleusine indica
2. Eleusine oligostachya
3. E.tristachya
4. E. poranansis
5. E. jaegeri
6. E. flacifolia
(2n = 36)
1. Eleusine coracana
2. E. africana
3. E. longipoides
4. E. verticillata
5. E. cagopoides
Breeding objectives:
1. Higher yields
2. Early maturity
3. Better quality
4. Resistance to diseases
5. Resistance to pests
6. Resistance to Abiotic stress

Breeding techniques
41
1. By introduction
Indaf 5 Ragi from Karnataka.
2. By selection
Pure line selection. Earlier varieties were all evolved by pure line selection.
3. Hybridization and selection
The African types are with long fingers, bold grain with stiff straw. Further they are
photosensitive and have un even grain maturity. Because of this character they are not
recommended for cultivation in India. The Indian types are with short fingers, small grains and
photo insensitive. The African types are utilised in hybridization programme, to develop extra
long fingered varieties coupled with disease and drought resistance. The Indian African cross
derivatives are known as Indaf varieties which are interspecific.
Other state varieties
E.g. Indaf 5 cauvery x IE 929
Indaf 9
Artificial induction of male sterility through use of gametocide, GA3, 2-4-D are being
attempted.
5. Mutation breeding : T20 - mutant from AKP - 7.

Practical achievements:
Varieties saroda, Kalyani, Simhadri, Padmavathi, Ratnagiri, Godavari, Gauthami

Lecture No: 7
Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum) 2n = 80
Origin: India
The wor d sugarcane is derived from Sanskrit word sharkara meaning sugar. It includes
3 cultivated species like S. officinarum, S. barberi, and S. sinense.
Wild species
1. S. spontaneum,
2. S. robustum.
Cultivated species:
S. officinarum (2n = 80)
S. sinense (2n = 118)
S. barberi (2n = 82 124)
42
S. officinarum is also known as noble cane. The term noble was given by Dutch scientists
in Java to tall, handsome, large barelled and colourful canes of this species. The canes of this
species have thick stem, soft rind, low fibre, high sugar content, high cane yield, and resistance
to smut.
1. S. robustum S. officianarum (New Guinea)
2. S. officinarum X S. spontaneum S. barberi and S. sinense (North India).
Origin of cultivated species:
The wild progenitor for S. officinarum is S. robustum
S. officinarum x S. sponataneum
Mutation, selection, hybridization
S. spontaneum

S. barberi.
Distribution : India, Brazil, Cuba, China, USA, Mexico, France, Germany and Australia. In
India, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Haryana, Andhra Pradesh, Tamilnadu, Karnataka, Bihar and
Punjab. India stands first in sugar and sugarcane production in world.
Breeding objectives:-
1. High cane yield / height of stem, thickness, tillering capacity, no of villable canes / plant
and weight of individual cane.
2. Moderate high sucrose content
3. Early to full season maturity
4. Resistance to diseases.
a) Red rot b) Smut c) Wilt d) Mosaic
e) Ratoon stunting disease f) Grassy shoot
5. Resistance / tolerance to insect pests
a) Shoot borer b) Cane borer c) Pyrilla d) Mealy bugs
e) White flies f) Termites g) White grub
6. Tolerance to abiotic stresses
a) Drought b) Salinity c) Flooding d) High temperature
7. Wider adaptability
Breeding procedures:
1. Hybridization: 3 basic types of crosses are made
43
i) Biparental crosses:- These are the crosses resulting from 2 known parental clones.
This is easily achieved by bringing together the two parents in an isolated area or under
lanterns
ii) Area crosses: In this system several male sterile female clones are pollinated by one
male parent in an isolated area.
iii) Melting pot crosses: Melting pot crosses or polycrosses are made by bringing together
arrows of large number of superior / potential parental cultivars in an isolated area.
Natural cross pollination is allowed. This procedure allows the evaluation of breeding
behaviour of a large number of clones at a minimum expense.
2. Breeding for resistance to diseases:-
1. Red rot:- It is a major problem in sub-tropical countries. The major sugarcane varieties which
are found to be resistant to this disease are
Co 1148, 1336, 6304, Co 5659, CoS 698 etc.
Smut: Serious disease in many sugarcane growing countries resistant commercial varieties in
India are
Co 449, 527, 853, 1148, 1336.
3. Mutation Breeding:
According to Heinz x-ray - Irradiation to induce mutations in sugarcane were carried out in 1927.
Many mutation breeding programmed with x rays and gamma rays were started during early
sixties in India.
- Mutation breeding in sugarcane aims at creating economic mutants for higher cane yield,
non flowering and resistance to various diseases such as redrot, smut, downy mildew
and to various insect borers.
- Gamma-rays as well as chemical mutagens such as EMS are applied mostly on buds.
4. Abiotic stress tolerance / reistance:-
- Common abiotic stresses for sugarcane as in other crops are drought, flooding, salinity,
high temperature freezing temperature
- According to Zobel, they are following 3 basis steps for breeding stress resistance
cultivars.
(i) Identifying and characterizing crop traits that are needed for resistance against a
particular stress
(ii) Identifying and characterizing the genotypes that are capable of filling the needs are
determined under step I above.
44
(iii) Manipulating genes to pr oduce an adapted variety that has the required characteristics
and fills other specific needs.
5. Biotechnology:
- Regeneration of sugarcane plant from callus has been possible.
Breeding centres:-
1. Sugarcane breeding institute, Coimbatore
2. Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research, Lucknow
3. State sugarcane research stations, such as shahjahanpur (UP), Seorali, (Deoria) (UP), Pusa
(Bihar), Padegaon (Maharashtra) and Anakapalli (AP).

Drought : Co 285, Co 740, Co 997, Co 1148
Frost : Co 1148, N Co 310
Salinity : Co 453, Co 62125
Lodging : Co 6304, Co 7117, CoS 7918
Water logging : Co 1157, Co 975, Co 785, Bo 91, Bo 104, Bo 106, Bo 109
Top borer : Co J 67, Co 1158
Inter nodal borer : Co C 671, Co 975
Red rot : Co 7627, Co J 64, CoR 8001.

Lecture No: 8
PULSES

The pulse crops in general give lower yields than the cereals. Pulses are rich in protein and it
takes more energy weight for weight to synthesise protein than carbohydrates. When you
compare the energy requirement of various metabolic pathways. one gram of glucose can give
rise to 0.8g of carbohydrate but on an average only about 0.5 g protein and even less of oil.
The protein from pulses are incomplete. Legumes are good source of lysine, tryptophan and
theonine but are low in suphur containing amino acids methionine, cystine and cystene which are
adequate in cereals. So a mixture of cereals and pulses are recommended for food. Many grain
legumes contain toxic inhibitors which are removed while cooking.
Further maintenance of nitrogen fixation in roots require prolonged use of photosynthate and
thus may reduce the energy available for storage in seeds.
Main reasons for low yield compared to cereals
1. Indeterminate growth habit
45
2. Long continued natural selection
3. Cultivation on poor soils
4. Inadequate use of fertilizers
5. Inadequate plant protection measures
6. Rainfed cultivation
7. Photo sensitiveness

RED GRAM (Cajanus cajan) (2n = 22)
Pigeon pea / Red gram is an important pulse crop next to chickpea in India. India is a
largest producer i.e. 90% of the worlds production
Origin: Africa and India
Distribution: India, Uganda, Kenya, West Indies, Burma etc. In India, Maharashtra, Uttar
Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh and under irrigated belt in
Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan.
Progenitor: Cajanus cajanifolius
Atylosia lineate
Genus Cajanus and Atylosia and have many similarities. Cajanus has more than 30
species. The view is that Cajanus arose from Atylosia . In western ghats, West Bengal and Orissa,
Atylosia species are known as wildtur. Now this genes has been included in Cajanus.
1. Evolution of long duration high yielding variety suitable for rainfed to replace the local
land races :
SA1 - Released during 1940
2. To evolve short duration (105 days) varieties suitable for irrigated / mixed crop with
ground nut.
ICPL 87 - ICRISAT
3. Breeding for bold grain type with desirable seed coat color
HY 3C long duration variety with dull white seed coat and bold grains.
4. Breeding for vegetable type
Green pods with bold seeds are used as substitute for green peas in some areas are
perennial types
5. Breeding for resistance to pests.
Heliothis is the major pest, terminal cluster types are highly susceptible. All our varieties
are highly susceptible.
46
6. Breeding for disease resistance :
Sterility mosaic, root rot, blight are important diseases. Wild species
Cajanus scaraboides, C.lineata are having resistance.
7. Breeding for high protein content and quality
Mean protein content 23%. The wild species have 27% to 29%, Red seed coat contains
more polyphenol (Tannin) than white seed coat. So preference is towards white seed coat. Red
grain contains lesser amount of sulphur containing amino acid. When we increase protein content
there will be lesser amount of these amino acids. So care is to be taken to increase them.
8. Breeding high yielding perennial redgram suitable for bund cropping
Breeding procedures
1. Introduction :
E.g. Prabhat short duration variety from IARI, ICPL 87 from ICRISAT.
2. Pure line selection
Earlier breeding work was based on the assumption that Redgram is a self pollinated
crop. However it was later found to be often cross pollinated crop.
3. Hybridization and selection :
Inter varietal : VBN 1 ( Prabath x NY 34) (T.12 x102)
Inter generic : C. cajanus x Cajanus lineata
C.cajanus x C. scaraboides are being attempted
4. Mass selection :
Using male sterile line and recurrent selection methods.
Two populations are used, one is seed parent and the other is pollen parent. The seed
parent must have one or two easily identifiable recessive character and the pollen parent more
dominant genes. The seed and pollen parents are sown in alternate rows so as to maximize
natural cross pollination.
The F
1
s and selfed ones are identified in So generation. The identified F
1
s are space planted in
the next generation S
1
. In S
2
generation they are yield tested in 3 environments and best ones are
either recycled or taken to conventional breeding programme.
LRG-30 variety was susceptible to wilt was irradiated and wilt resistant variety was
developed as ICPL-270
Red gram Ideal plant type
47
a) Long duration:
The genotype that have steady rate of growth and have a moderate harvest index.
High seed weight
Long pods
Increased number of pod bearing branches.
b) Short duration :
Dwarf in nature with erect branches having high dry matter production
High seed wt.
Long pods.
Increased no of seeds / Pod
Less flower dr op.
c) Breeding centers:
Internation Crop Research Institute for Semi Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) Hyderabad
Practical Achievement:
Varieties: Prabhat, Vishakha, Sharada, ICPL 87
Hybrids: ICPH 8
48
SOYBEAN (Glycine max) 2n = 40

One of the important oil yielding crop of world it is miracle crop giving
42 45 per cent protein and 19-20 per cent oil it belongs to family leguminoseae
Origin: China
Distribution: USA, Brazil, China, Argentina and India.
Progenitors: G. usuriensis
G. tomentolla
G. tabacina
G gracilis
Glycine max is originated from G. usuriensis and G. tomentolla
1. Breeding for short duration high yielding varieties
The yield of soy bean plant is determined by size, number of seeds per pod and number of
pods / plant. The number of pods/ plant is determined by number of nodes / plant, number of pods /
node. Each of the above components of yield are polygenic in inheritance and so it is complex.
The duration is also determined by multiple genes. Maturity is correlated with height of the plant.
Early varieties will be short is stature.
2. Breeding varieties suitable for rice fallows
Short plants 65 -70 days duration. Suitable for inter cropping also in banana and sugarcane.
3. Breeding for quality
a) Seed coat color and quality Yellow, Black, Brown Green
b) Oil content and quality
c) Protein content
a) Seed coat color:
May be yellow, green, black, brown or combination of all the above colours. For oil
extraction yellow color is preferred because of high oil content where as black seeded varieties are
low in oil content but high is protein content.
b) Oil content and quality:
Oil content is greatly determined by environment :
Yellow seed coat varieties are rich in oil. Complex character determined by poly genes.

c) Protein content and quality:
49
Ranges from 35 to 50%, protein content is negatively correlated with oil content so while breeding
for high protein content a compromise is to be made.
4. Breeding for vegetable type
AVRDC, Taiwan has evolved vegetable types
5. Breeding for forage type of soybean
6. Breeding for non-shattering type
E.g. Lee, Co2
7. Breeding for YMV resistant lines
Co 2
Breeding Methods:
1. Introduction :
EC 39821 from Taiwan - released as Co1
Co1
Clark,
4. Mutation breeding.

Breeding centers:
- Asian Vegetable Research and Development Centre (AVRDC) Taiwan
- International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) Nigeria
- In India National Research Centre for Soybean (NRCS) Indore (M.P)

Practical Achievements:
Varieties: Bragg, Clark 63, Hardee, MACS 13 etc.

Lecture No: 9
GREEN GRAM (Vigna radiata) 2n = 22
Also known as mung bean
Origin: India
Distribution : India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Srilanka, Philippines, Taiwan, Thailand, Nepal and
Southern Asian countries. In India, Maharashtra, UP, MP, Karnataka, Gujarat A.P, Tamil Nadu
and Rajasthan.
Progenitor: Vigna radiata var: sublobata
Breeding objective:
50
1. High yield, medium duration dry land varieties
2. High yielding, short duration irrigated varieties :
Lines having rapid growth rate or dry matter increase associated with high harvest index.
3. Breeding for rice fallows
4. Breeding for disease resistance , YMV, Leaf crinkle virus , Tarai local Lm 214 - resistant
5. Breeding for quality
a) Mung bean has highest digestibility among grain legumes from 83 to 90%. Varieties having
bold seeds to use as sprouts is the aim.
b) Transfer of high methionine content from black gram to green gram.
c) High dal r ecovery - 80% and more
d) Less hard seed.
Breeding Methods:
1. Introduction - Pusa baisaki
2. Pure line selection - Co1
Inter Varietal :
Inter specific - To transfer high methionine content from black gram to green gram.
V. radiata x V.umbellata rice bean to transfer resistance to bean fly crossing with
V.radiata var. sublobata resistance to bruchids
Co4 - mutant of Co1
6. Embryo culture :
Green gram x Black gram
Ideal plant type
1. 60 - 65 days duration with determinate habit for irrigated conditions
2. 80 days duration with indeterminate type for dry land condition
Plants with more pods and seeds, increased branches poding from base of main stem with
synchronised maturity non - shattering habit.
Varieties:
Jawahar 45, WGG-2, LGG-127
51
Black gram (Vigna mungo) 2n = 22
Origin: India
Distribution: India, Pakistan, Sirlanka, and South Asian countries. In India, Maharashtra, UP,
MP, Karnataka, Gujarat A.P, Tamil Nadu and Rajasthan.
Progenitor: Vigna mungo var silvestris
Vigna radiata var sublobata common progenitor of green gram and black gram.
Breeding objectives
1. Evolving medium duration high yielding varieties for dry land cultivation.
2. Evolving short duration high yielding varieties suitable for irrigated conditions.
This can be used as mixed crop in cotton, turmeric Short duration varieties are Co2, Vamban
1, 2 and 3.
3. Evolving short duration varieties suitable for rice fallow conditions
4. Breeding varieties resistant to diseases
YMV is a serious disease. Leaf crinkle virus, powdery mildew.
5. Pest : White fly vector for YMV and leaf crinkle, leaf eating caterpillar
6. Breeding for better quality
24% protein. There are lines having 27% protein. These can be utilized.
Quality of black gram is determined by
a) Protein content
b) Methionine content 1.17%
c) cooking quality - Time
d) % of hard seeds.
e) Dal recovery 70%
Breeding methods
1. Introduction :
a) Intervarital
b) Inter specific :
Vigna mungo x V.mungo var. sylvestris - Pantnagar. YMV resistant lines obtained. but pod
shatters. More number of back crosses suggested.
Vigna mungo x V.radiata for increasing pod length, digestibility. Sterility is the main problem. Few
plants obtained revert back to parental form.
4) Mutation breeding
5) Embryo rescue - Attempted in inter specific crosses.
Ideal plant type
52
For irrigated and Rice fallows
Determinate type, short duration, high dry matter producing with 30cm plant ht.
Photo insensitive.
For rainfed condition.
Semi determinate with pod setting from base of the main stem; higher pod length and more number
of seeds / pod.
Breeding centers:
ICRISAT, - Hyderabad
ICARDA, - (International Crops for Agricultural Research in Dryland Areas) Syria
AVRDC - (Asian Vegetable Research and Development Centre)
IIPR - (Indian Institute of Pulse Research), Kanpur
Varieties:
Black gram : T9, T27, LBG-17, LBG-402

53
Bengal Gram Chickpea (Cicer arietinum) 2n = 16
The most important pulse crop India is the largest producer of chickpea in the world.
Origin: According to Vavilov (1926) S.W. Africa and Mediterranean region
Later, Vander Maesun (1984) Turkey and Syria
Distribution: India, Pakistan, Mexico, Turkey, Ethiopia, Burma and Maynmar. In India M.P.
U.P. Rajasthan, Haryana accounts 75-80% of the Indias production other states are Maharashtra,
Bihar, West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh.
Progenitors :
Cicer bijugum
C. echinospermum
C. reticulatum
Genus Cicer has 49 species, out of these nine are annual and forty are perennial
Breeding Objectives:
1. Increased seed yield
2. Increased biomass, tall, erect and compact cultivars
3. Resistance to diseases like A, blight, Fusarium wilt , Root rot, Botrytis grey mold.
4. Resistance to insect pests Pod borer
5. Tolerance to stress environments
a) Cold b) Heat c) Drought d) Saline and Alkaline.
Plant type in chickpea
1. Compact plant type
2. Medium tall are preferred
3. Optimum number of primary and secondary and minimum number of tertiary branches
4. Photo thermo sensitiveness
5. Determinate growth habit for harvesting uniform produce
6. Well developed nodules
1. Pedigree method: for resistance breeding (disease, insect, nematode, orobanche spp)
2. Modified bulk method : for stress situations (drought, cold, heat, iron deficiency)
3. Back cross method: for interspecific hybridization. Limited backcross (one or two) for
desi x kabuli introgression and also for resistance breeding. Resistance to fusarion wild
can be easily transferred from desi to kabuli type
4. Somaclonal variation: through plant tissue culture appears to be a potential tool for
generation and exploitation of useful variability.
Lecture No: 10
GROUND NUT (Arachis hypogcaea) (2n = 40)

It is important oil seed crops in India, grown in subtropical and warm temperate zone also
called as peanut or monkey nut. It contains 45-55 per cent oil and 25-30 per cent protein.
Origin: Brazil
54
Distribution:
India, China, USA, Africa, South and South East Asia In India, Gujarath, Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan Uttar Prdesh,
Punjab.
Progenitor:
Arachis monticola
A prostrata
A silvestres
Putative parents and origin of cultivated ground nut.
The cultivated ground nut is a Allotetraploid having A and B genomes. The genus Arachis is
sub divided into 7 sections. The cultivated ground nut comes under section Arachis. This section
includes 12 species of which hypogaea is the only cultivated species having 2n = 40. The other one is
A.monticola. The rest ten species are diploids.
Groundnut an unpredictable Crop
Ground nut is popularly known as unpredictable legume. Since the pods are borne below
ground positively geotropic we cannot predict its performance before harvest as in the case of other
crops. Further Ground nut is highly influenced by environment.
If there is no favourable environment yield alone will not be affected but also the quality characters.
Less boron means low shelling % and more of immature seeds moisture stress leads to lower yield
as well as reduction in well developed kernels. Oil percentage is also influenced by environment.
Excess moisture leads to more vegetative growth and reduction in yield. Compared to any other crop
here. G x E interaction is more pronounced.
Besides abiotic stress, biotic stress also play a major role rust and leaf spot in diseases, red
hairy caterpillar and leaf minor in pests cause major havoc.
Seed multiplication ratio is 1:5. This is also one of the bottlenecks in the spread of improved
varieties.

Classification :
The genus Arachis is subdivided in to the following seven sections. (Gregory and Gregory,
1973)
Arachis
Erectoides
Rhizomatasae
Extranervosae
Triseminate
Ambinervosae
Caulorhizae.
55
1. Arachis 2n
Arachis villosa 20
A.batizoccoi 20
A. cardinassi 20
A.chacoense 20
A.monticola 40
A.hypogaea 40
2. Erectoides
A.tuberosa 20
A.paragurensis 20
3. Rhizomatasae
A.glabarata 40
A.hagen beckii 40
4. Extra nervosae
A. Villosulicar pa 20
A.marginata 20
5. Triseminate
A.pusilla 2n = 20
6. Ambinervosae
none, named
7. Caulorhizae
A. repens 2n = 20
In hybridization programme intersectional hybridization is not successful but intra sectional
hybridization is successful keeping wild species as female is more successful.
According to Smart 1961 A.hypogaea has been sub divided in to two sub species
viz. A.hypogaea subsp. hypogaea
A.hypogaea subsp fastigiata
According to this hypogaea the first two nodes bear vegetative branches then next two
branches bear inflorescence
fastigiata : Inflorescence are borne on second and subsequent nodes of primary branches.
Karpavickas (1968) recognised two other botanical varieties in each of the sub species.
A.hypogaea subsp hypogaea
var. hypogeae. Virginia type spreading
var hirsuta hirsuta type semi spreading.
A. hypogaea sub. sp. fastigata
Var. fastigata (Valencia type)
subsp var vulgaris Spanish bunch.
In India the cultivated types are grouped into
i) Bunch type Valencia Spanish bunch
ii) Semi spreading - Virginia bunch
iii) Spreading - Virginia runner.
56
1. Breeding high yielding bunch ground nut with dormancy suitable for dry land conditions
The dry land bunch type sown during June - July often caught up in early N.E. monsoon rains
which results in germination of varieties. So it is necessary to breed varieties having dormancy. Semi
spreading varieties are dormant TMV 7 slightly dormant varieties, BSR.1, ALR 2 dormant for 15
days.
2. Breeding varieties for quality
a) High shelling percentage > 75%
Thin shelled varieties have high shelling percentage.
b) High oil content > 50%
TMV 10 the semi spreading variety is having 52% oil. Oil content is highly influenced by
environment.
ALR. 2-52% oil
c) High sound mature kernel (SMK)
Which is also influenced by environment. Increased boron application results in high shelling
percentage and high SMK %
d) Table purpose varieties
Hand picked kernel for export market. Valencia types are suitable for this.
3. Breeding disease resistance varieties.
Rust and leaf spot are causing major damage. If the onset of rust is in initial stage it results in
total failure. Late leaf spot hinders harvest of crop due to foliage loss.
Tomato spotted wilt virus or Bud necrosis of late gaining importance. NCAC 17090 -
resistant
4. Breeding for pest resistant varieties
Red hairy caterpillar, leaf miner are major pests.
5. Breeding short duration (85 days) varieties suitable for irrigated conditions
Breeding Methods:
1. Introduction:
All the ground nut lines are introduced ones.
2. Selection:
a) Pure line selection
TMV 2 - Selection from local Gudiyatham bunch.
b) Mass selection
JL 24 from Taiwan variety.
3. Hybridization and Selection
a) Inter varietal
Bunch x Bunch - VRI 2 (Co2 x JL 24)
SSP x Bunch - VRI 3 (R 33-1 x Ah selection)
b) Inter specific
For transfer of disease resistance.
Arachis sp :
A.hypogaea x A.batizoccoi
2n = 40 2n = 20 (Resistant)
Triploid sterile
57
doubled
Hexaploid
Reduced to tetraploid.
A. chacoense
2n = 20
A.monticola - for thin shelled conditions
Extranervosa sp.
A.villoulicarpa for increased number of pods.

Gregory in USA extensively adopted and released varieties.
Co2 EMS from POL 1
TMV 10 Natural mutant from Argentina local.
TG 1 to TG 6 (Vikaram) from BARC Trombay.
GNLM - Gujarat Narrow Leaf Mutant.
6. Embryo rescue technique :
A.puscilla x A.hypogaea crosses. But not much successful. Cotyledon culture is a success.
7. Transgenic plants
Transgenic plants for disease resistance. Transfer of a particular gene from wild species thro
use of medium of carrier (plasmid) micro projectile bombardment direct transfer. Transfer of disease
resistance gene from wild species through plasmid is a success.
Breeding centres:
ICRISAT, Hyderabad
NRCG, (National Research Centre for Ground Nut Junagarh)
Practical Achievements
Varieties: Kadiri-3, JL-24, Tirupathi 1, 2, 3, 4 TMV 2, J11, Vemanara, Jagtial-88
58
SESAME (Sesamum indicum) (2n=26)

It is an ancient oil seed crop of tropics and warm sub-tropics. It is also called as gingelly.
Origin: India, and Ethopia (Africa)
Distribution: India, Pakistan, Africa, China, Mexico, Iran, Iraq etc.
Progenitors: Sesamum angustifolium
S. radiatum
S. alatum
Wild species utilised in breeding programme
1. S.alatum 2n = 26
Resistant to phyllody S.alatum x S.indicum alatum is having dormancy.
2. S.malabaricum (2n = 26) Occurs in Travancore of Kerala. It freely crosses with cultivated
gingelly. Oil content is low 32% It is utilised to induce male sterility in cultivated sesame.
3. S.laciniatum 2n = 32
Tolerant to phyllody, drought and jassid resistant.
Fertile auto allopoly ploid produced by crossing S.indicum x S.laciniatum
Sterile, Double.
4. S.prostratum occurs in S.India (2n = 26)
Tolerant to drought.

Breeding objectives
1. Breeding high yielding varieties tolerant to drought.
2. Breeding white seeded varieties
Finest quality of oil is obtained from white seeded lines.
3. Development of mono stemmed varieties.
By this more population per unit area and yield can be increased. Monostemmed varieties are low
yielders.
4. Development of multicapsule / axil and multicarpellary varieties.
5. Rice fallow varieties :
Shorter in duration.
6. Non- shattering varieties
African lines.

7. Resistant to disease
Powdery mildew;
59
Phyllody - transfer from wild species.
Breeding Methods :
1. Introduction : African lines.
2. Pure line selection.
TMV6 - Andhra local.
3. Hybridization and selection.
a) Inter varietial
b) Inter specific : Male sterile lines evolved by crossing with S.malabaricum.
4. Population improvement
5. Poly ploidy breeding
Epipetalous nature makes emasculation and crossing easier
Use of CMS lines is also being attempted.
7. Embryo rescue technique.
Varieties Gouri, Madhavi, Rajeshwari, Swetha

Lecture No: 11
SUNFLOWER (Helianthus annuus) (2n=34)

It is an important oil seed crop. Oil content ranges from 46-52 per cent and is of high
quality having non-cholesteral properties.
Origin: America
Distribution: USSR, Romania, Canada, USA In India this crop is introduced in 1969 from
USSR. In India it is cultivated in Tamil Nadu Karnataka, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh,
Punjab and Haryana
Progenitors: Helianthus petiolaris
H. gigants
Wild species: H hirsutus
H rigidus
The genus Helianthus comprises of 67 species. Two species H .annuus and
H. tuberosus are cultivated as food plants genus has basic chromosome number of 17 and
diploid, tetraploid and hexaploid species are found.
Cultivars of sunflower:
60
a) Giant types: 6 - 14 feet tall. Late maturing, Large heads 12 - 30 in diameter, seeds
large, white or grey or with black stripes. Oil content is very low. E.g. Mamoth
Russian.
b) Semi dwarf varieties :
Medium tall - 4 to 6 feet, Early maturing. Heads 7 - 9 in diameter. Seeds smaller,
black, grey or striped. High oil content 35%. E.g. Jupiter, Pole star.
c) Dwarf types
2 to 4 feet tall. Early maturing. Head size 5 - 6 diameter. Small seeds, high oil
content 37%.
E.g. Sunrise, Morden, Co1, Co2
Breeding objectives
1. To develop short duration varieties suitable for dry land and irrigated conditions .
Dryland successful in black soils only. In red soil under rainfed it is not successful.
2. Breeding varieties with high oil content :
Ranges 38 to 48%. Complex character yield and oil content are negatively correlated. To
increase oil content the shell must be thin.
3. Breeding for self fertile lines.
Protoandry and self incompatability mechanism operates in sunflower. Hence hand
pollination is necessary. To avoid this self fertile lines can be evolved.
4. Breeding for disease resistance.
Maharastra hybrid susceptible to powdery mildew. Hence ban is there. Powdery mildew,
rust, charcoal rot, Alternaria. Wild species like H.hirsuta are moderately resistance to
Alternaria.
5. Resistant to pests
Heliothis , Grass hopper Jassids.

Breeding Methods :
1. Introduction : Morden from Canada.
2. Mass selection:
Ec 68414 from Russia. Co1 mass selection from Morden. Useful for characters which are
highly heritable. E.g. Plant height, disease resistance.
a) Intervarietal :
61
b) Interspecific :
Wild species of North American origin and best Soviet varieties were crossed and
number of varieties were evolved.
They are resistant to Verticillium wilt also
4. Mutation
Co3 (Mutant from Co2 thro gamma rays)
5. Head to row and remnant seed method
Developed by Pustovoit in Russia. By this method oil content is increased. In this
method the following are the steps:
a) From open pollinated type a large no (10,000 to 12,000) plants are selected based on
Head size.
b) The selected lines are analysed for oil content and high oil content lines are isolated
(1000 plants).
c) Part of the seed reserved and the part is sown in progeny rows along with check to
estimate yield.
d) Second season testing is also done. The best lines are identified.
a. The remnant seed of elite plants which give high yield were raised in isolation
and multiplied for crossing interse next season.
b. The multiplied lines also tested for oil content and high yielding high oil
content lines were raised in isolation and crossed interse.
By mass selection, recurrent selection and use of male sterile lines population can be
improved and utilised for breeding.
Development of inbred lines and crossing them to harness heterosis was first done as
early as 1920 in Russia. During 1970 cytoplasmic geneic male sterility was identified in wild
types and obsolete cultivars. Now this system is being extensively used for production of
hybrids.
First hybrid
BSH 1
APSH 11
A number of CGMS lines were bred by Government as well as private seed growers and are
utilised now.
Male sterility can also be inducted by GA 100 ppm.
62
Steps
1. Development of inbreds.
2. Evaluation of inbreds for combining ability.
3. Conversion of inbreds into CGMS lines and R lines.
4. Production of hybrids.
Breeding centre:
Directorate of oil seed Research (DOR) Hyderabad.
All India coordinated sunflower improvement project (Bangalore)
Practical achievements
Varieties EC 68414, EC 68415, Mordern, Co-1, surya
Hybrids BSH-1, KBSH-1, LSH-1, APSH-1 LDMRSH-1, 3
63
SAFFLOWER (Carthamus tinctories) (2n=24)
Safflower is an important oil seed crop of India. The oil is edible but best usedin industry
particularly in the manufacture of paints and varnishes. It is also used for its reddish dye called
carethamine extracted from florets oil is excellent source of unsaturated fatty acid. Oil content is
32 per cent of which above 72 per cent is Linoleic the factor which reduces the blood chotesterol.
It belongs to the family compositeae
Origin: Africa and Afghanistan
Distribution
Afghanistan, India, Pakistan, USA, Egypt middle east in India, Maharashtra, Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka together accounts for more than 90 per cent of countrys area
Progenitor Carthamus oxycantha
C. lunatus
Related species : The wild species Carthamus oxycanthus is found in many parts of Punjab. It is a
dwarf bushy plant, very spiny, forming small achenes. The oil content is 15 to 16 percent
Classification of safflower :
Safflower can be grouped in to two broad categories.
1. The outer involucral bracts spinose, lanceolate mainly cultivated for oil. Flowers yellow in colour.
2. Involucral bracts moderately spined or spineless which are cultivated mostly for the dye than the
spiny types. Flowers orange in colour.
1. Breeding for high oil content :
Normal oil content is 32% of which 72% is linoleic acid, the factor which reduces blood cholesterol.
Oil content is negatively correlated with yield. Wild species of C.oxycanthus having 28% oil were
utilised in hybridization programme to increase yield and oil content but success was not achieved.
2. Breeding for non-spiny varieties with high oil content.
A very limited success was achieved in safflower
3. Breeding varieties having thin shell
Thin shelled varieties have high oil content.
4. Breeding varieties for dry land conditions.
Under dry land conditions the spiny nature will be more pronounced. How ever dry land varieties
with less pronounced spines were evolved. E.g. K.l.

5. Breeding varieties resistant to pest and diseases :
Pests like Prodenia and Heliothis are important pests. The wild species C.oxycanthus is moderately
resistant to pests. This is being utilised in breeding programme.

Breeding methods:
The breeding methods are similar to that of sunflower.

Lecture No: 12
CASTOR (Ricinus communis) (2n=20)

64
It is an oil seed crop. It belong to the family Euphorbiaceac. Its oil is mainly used as
lubricant, in industry or as a medicinal purpose. It requires warm climate
Origin: Africa
Distribution: African countries (Egypt), China, India, middle East etc. In India Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka, Maharashtra
Classification: Monotypic, all varieties of castor from giant perennials to short internode dwarf
have the same chromosome number.
Zugovosky (1962) has described three species in the genus Ricinus
1. R. communis
2. R. macrocarpus
3. R. microcarpus
But this is not accepted by Botanists.
There are sub species which are considered to be ecological extreme varieties i.e. poly
morphic of cultivated type. They are
R. communis subsp persicus (Persian)
ssp. chinensis ( chinese species)
ssp. zanzi barensis ( Zanzibar)
ssp. sanguinens (Crimson species)
ssp. africanus (African)
ssp. mexicanus (Mexican)
Red castor varieties (Popova 1930)
Subsp gibsoni
subsp cambogenisis
1. Long duration varieties for dry lands
2. Short duration high yielding varieties suitable for irrigated mixed cropping
conditions
3. Breeding non shattering spineless varieties
Baker variety of USA Non - Shattering.
4. Breeding for insect resistance
Semi looper, jassid. Hopper burn - serious in dry land varieties.
Triple bloom - TMV 5. - Triple bloom condition gives resistance.
5. Breeding varieties with low ricinin content.
65
Breeding Methods:
1. Introduction.
Hospet varieties.
Russian lines.
2. Selection
a) Pureline selection
b) Mass selection
TMV 6. (VP 1 x RC 962)
By using recurrent selection technique.
5. Mutation breeding Aruna castor
SA2 Natural Mutant from TMV 1.
GAUCH - 1
100 % pistillate lines.
Geneic male sterility
Temperature plays a major role.
GCH 4
66
MUSTARD (Brassica nigra) (2n=16, 18, 20, 22, 36)
Important oil seed crop grown in cool season sub tropics, higher elevations and winter
crops. Seeds contain 40 45 per cent oil and 38-41 per cent protein.
Origin: India
Distribution:
China, Canada, India, Europe, Pakistan, collectively contribute 90 per cent of the global
production. In India Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Punjab, Assam, Bihar and West Bengal.
Progenitor: Exact progenitor is not known.
The genus Brassica contains more than 3000 species of which 40 are of economic importance.
Cultivated Brassica can be broadly divided in to two distinct types viz.
Vegetable type : cabbage, cauliflower, turnip
Oil seed type - rape seed and mustard.
Taxonomy :
Harberd (1972) examined 85 species of Brassica and grouped species of the genus into
cytodemes. These cytodemes are composed of different species with the same chromosome
number and which are cross fertile and other having species with different chromosome number
and cross infertile. According to him most important agricultural species are four diploids, three
allopolyploids, each belong to a separate cytodeme.
Four diploids are :
1. B.nigra - Black mustard
2. B.oleracea - Cabbage
3. B.campestris - Rape seed.
4. B.tourne frotii - Wild turnip
Three allopoly ploids
1. B.napus - Rape seed of Europe
2. B.juncea - Indian mustard
3. B.carinata - sthipplam mustard (veg / oil seed)
The genetical relationship between the oilseed brassicas are diagramaticaly represented as
follows.
B.nigra BB (Diploid)
n= 8

(Cultivated) (Cultivated)
B.carinata BC B.juncea AB
n= 17 n = 18
(Diploid) (Diploid)
B.oleracea CC B.napus AC B.campestris AA
n = 9 n = 19 n = 10
67
B.napus will cross readily with B.campestris but with extreme difficulty in case of
B.oleracea.

Botanical name 2n Economic characters
Rape seed
1. Brassica compestris
20 Indian Rape Seed. Self sterile in nature. Important
oil seed crop of North India. 3 Cultivated types.
B.campestris var. Brown sarson
B.campestris var. Yellow sarson
B.campestris var. toria
2. B.napus 38 European Rape Seed. Self fertile.
Mustard
1. B.nigra 16 Black mustard : Native of Eurasia. 28% fixed oil.
Used as medicine pungent due to glucoside
sinigrin.
2. B.alba 24 White mustard : Young seedling used as Salad,
yellowish seed 30 % oil.
3. B.juncea 36 Indian mustard. RAI 35% oil. Leaves used as
herb contains sinigrin.

1. Seed yield : Yield is the end product of many biological processes which are under control of
complex polygenic systems. An ideal plant type is having increased branch number, pods per
plant, seeds per pod and seed size. Further yield increase could result from increase in biomass
and harvest index. Increased biomass can result from reduced photo respiration and increased
light saturated rate of photosynthesis.
2 Early maturity : For use in various multiple cropping sequence.
3. Resistance to abiotic factors
Frost resistance is needed to prevent yield losses. Winter hardiness is very important.
4. Resistance to biotic stress
Powdery mildew
Black leg
Sclerotinia rot, alternaria blight
mustard aphid - so far no resistance source identified.
5. Herbicide resistance : (Atrazine, simabine)
A few sources of resistance is available.
6. Shattering resistance
B.napus - highly shattering
B. juncea - tolerant. Introgressive breeding done.
68
7. Increased oil content and quality
High oil content 45% yellow seed varieties > oil.
For industrial purpose > Erucic acid.
Development of low erucic acid cultivars for edible purpose.
Reduced linolenic acid content is also desirable.
8. Meal quality
Meal having less Glucosinolate content.

Breeding methods :
1. Introduction - Regina from Sweeden
2. Simple selection
Intervarietal
a) Bulk method
b) Pedigree method
c) single seed descent
Inter specific
4. Back cross method
Recurrent Selection, mass selection
CMS lines
8. Tissue culture technique for production of homozygous diploids
Saline resistance screening. Induction of mutation in haploids.
9. Embryo rescue technique for inter specific crosses.
Breeding centres:
National Research Centre for Mustard (NRCM) Bharatpur (Rajasthan)
Coordinated project at Bharathpur.
Practical Achievements
Varieties Kranti, RLM 198, Krishna, Varun, Pusa Kalyani etc.

Lecture No: 13 & 14
Cotton (Gossypium sps) (2n = 2x = 26
69
2n = 4x = 52)
Cotton is grown in tropical and sub-tropical regions of more than 80 countries of the
world.
Origin: Central Africa
Distribution: China, USA, India, Pakistan, Egypt. In India Rajasthan, Maharashtra, M.P.
Gujarat, A.P. Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
Progenitors: Gossypium africanum
G. raimondii
Gossypium africanum reached India by traders and travelers and differentiated into two species
G. herbaceum and G. arboreum
Cultivated Species:
I. Asiatic cottons or old world cotton (Diploid cotton 2n = 26)
1. G. arboreum
2. G. herbaceum
II. New world cotton (Tetraploid cottons 2n = 52)
3. G. hirsutum American / upland cotton
4. G. barbadense Egyption / sea island cotton
G. hirsutum is predominant species which contributes about 90% to the current world
production. Besides cultivated species there are about 46 wild species India is the only country
where all the 4 cultivated species are grown for commercial cultivation.
1. High yield (more bolls, bigger bolls and high lint percentage)
Lint % = weight of fibre
weight of cotton

Lint index = 100 seed weight X lint %

100 lint %
2. Early maturity
3. Superior fibre quality
4. Better plant type
5. Resistance to diseases like fusarium wilt, rots etc.,
6. Resistance to insects like boll worms, Jassids, Thrips etc.,
7. Resistance to abiotic stresses.
Breeding Procedures:
1. Introduction : Cambodia cotton in South India, MCU- 1
70
2. Selection : K1 cotton reselection from SRT -1
a) Inter varietal : MCU 5 - Multiple cross derivative
MCU 6 - Multiple cross derivative
MCU 9 - (MCU 5 x MCU 8)
b) Inter specific hybridization
African linted species (G. africanum) reached America through pacific ocean and after
crossing with American lintless wild diploid species G. rarimondii gave birth to tetraploid
cotton. The chromosome doubling took place in nature resulting in the development of fertile
amphidiploids
G. herbaceum x G. rarimondii
Var africanum linted lintless
Old world cotton American cotton
Diploid (2n=2x=26) Diploid (2n=2x=26)
AA DD

F
1
hybrid
Diploid 2n=2x=26
AD
Sterile
Doubling of chromosomes

G. hirsutum
New world cotton Amphidiploid
2n = 4x = 52
AA DD

India is the first country in the world to release first commercial hybrid in cotton.
Both intraspecific and interspecific hybrids are evolved in cotton.
a) Intraspecific : G.hirsutum x G.hirsutum Shankar (H4) cotton of Surat
(Gujarat 67 x American nectariless)
b) Interspecific hybrids : Varalakshmi (Laxmi x SB 289E)
(hirsutum) x (barbadense)
71

MCU 7- Xray irradiated mutant of L 1143
MCU 10 - Gamma irradiated mutant of MCU 4
Indore 2
MCU 5
Rasmi
5. Population improvement followed in USA
a) Recurrent selection : Pima S
1
Pima S
4
of G.barbadense
b) Synthetic variety : Deltapine 15 developed at konyvllwer USA.
c) Composite : Pima 17 of G.barbadense.
6. Biotechnology has helped in developing transgenic cotton with resistance to Helicoverpa. The
resistant gene has been transferred from bacteria Bascillus thuringiensis into cotton plant by
Monsanto Seed Company in U.S.A.
Breeding centers:
International Cotton Advisory Committee (ICAC)
Central Institute of Cotton Research (CICR) Nagpur
All India Coordinated Cotton Improvement Project (AICCIP) Coimbatore
Varieties: MCU 5, MCU 10, K9, K10
Hybrids:
Interspecific hybrids - Varalakshmi, HB 224
Intraspecific hybrids - Dhanalaxmi, H4, H6
Desi cotton - DH 7, DH9
Male sterility based hybrids - Suguna, PKVHY3, ARDH- 7

72
JUTE
Corchorus sp (2n=14)
Tiliaceae
The genus Corchorus includes about 40 species. In India only 8 species occur. Two
cultivated species are
C.capsularis : White jute 50 races occur in this
C.olitorius : Tossa jute 8 races occur in this.
Both the species are not crossable. Among the two olitorius yields more fibre/unit area.
The fibre is finer, softer, more, lustrous and less rooty than capsularis. Olitorius occupies about
25% of jute area in India. One of the draw backs of Tossa jute is pre mature flowering if the
varieties are sown earlier in March-April in early monsoon rains. The pre mature flowering leads
to profuse branching and deterioration in fibre quality.
Capsularis strains are characterised by a single flush of flowering at the end of single
vegetative period. Based on maturity, the varieties in Capsularis are divided in to
Early - Flowering in July
Medium - August
Late - September.
1. Breeding for high yielding short duration jute varieties.
Early varieties are generally low yielders whereas late varieties are high yielders. So to
combine high yield with earliness is one of the main objectives. Yield is positively correlated
with plant height, basal diameter of stem, fibre-stick ratio. Higher photo synthetic capacity with
increased lamina length, breadth, petiole length and leaf angle at 40
O

also contribute to yield.
2. Breeding for quality fibre
In jute quality is negatively, correlated with yield. The quality characters are
a) Fibre length.
b) Fibre strength
c) Fibre colour
d) Lustre
e) Percentage and quality of retting
Environment plays a major rote in quality. Alternate and fluctuating bright sunshine,
humidity and temperature and rainfall at minimal level are favourable for improved quality.
73
Further retting in clear and slow running water gives good quality fibre. The tall and thick
plants in general gives inferior fibre than that in short and thick plant.
3. Breeding for pest and disease resistant varieties
In pests, stem borer and aphids cause greater damage and in diseases Macrophomena is
major. Though resistance sources are available in other related species, the crossability barrier
prevents transfer.
4. Breeding varieties for high seed yield :
Since jute is cut for fibre at 50% flowering stage, it is essential to reserve some plants for
production of seeds. The fibre obtained from seed crop will be poor in quality. Hence it is
necessary to breed varieties specially for high seed production with out loosing quality
characters.
5. Breeding for olitorius varieties having non-shattering habit coupled with non-pre
flowering habit.
JRO 524
JRO 7885
Sudan green x JRO 632
Breeding Methods :
1. Germplasm building and Utilisation
Central Jute Technological Research Institute, Calcutta is maintaining the Jute collections. This
shows wide range of variability thus offering a great scope for improvement by selection and
hybridsation.
2. Introduction : Introduced short duration varieties are Jap green, Jap red, Jaichung sudan
green.
a) Inter vareital: Multiple crossing and selection are followed both in olitorius and capsularis
improvement.
In olitorius improved varieties are JRO 524, JRO 7885.
In capsulanis JRL 412, JRL 919
Since yield and quality are negatively correlated a balance must be struck in breeding for
improved varieties.

b) Inter specific cross:
74
So far not successful. Attempts were made by straight cross mixed pollen method, Stigmatic
paste method, self anther paste method, stigma cut method polyploidy breeding. But none of
them proved successful. Difference in embryo endosperm growth is the reason
4. Mutation breeding : Using x rays useful jute mutants were obtained at Calcutta JRC 7447 and
Rupali two varieties.
75
MESTA, KENAF
BIMLI JUTE, DECCAN HEMP
Hibiscus cannabinus (2n=36)

ROSELLE / JAMAICAN SORREL
Hibiscus sabdariffa (2n=36, 72)

Both the species are important jute supplements and show wide adaptability unlike jute.
At present both the species are known as Mesta.
Place of origin :
H.cannabinus have its possible origin in Africa and H.sabadariffia - Asia.
Kenaf is used for making ropes, twines, fishing nets and also in the paper pulp making
from kenaf stalks especially fine paper, structural boards.
H.cannabinus : mesta
Compared to jute mesta is of inferior in quality in respect of fineness, lusture, and colour.
Mesta varieties show poor performance in spinning because the fibre is coarse, stiff, brittle and
irregular in cross section mesta alone cannot be spun in jute machines unless it is mixed with jute
in some proportion.
H.sabadarifra var.altissima (Roselle )
Roselle is an useful substitute to jute. It is also called as Siamijute two types are available.
i. Tall non branching types cultivated for fibre.
ii. Dwarf, bushy wild type used as green and edible calyx as pickle.
1. Breeding of high yielding short duration mesta varieties
(Similar to Jute)
2. Breeding for quality fibre
(Similar to Jute)
3. Breeding for pest and disease resistant varieties.
Breeding Procedures:
Same as Jute.
Lecture No: 15
Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) (2n=24)
76

Tomato is one of the most important vegetable crops grown throughout the world.
Origin: Peru and Mexico
Distribution: Europe, USA, India, Japan and China. In India it is grown in all the states
Other species: L. pimpinellifolium - Fusarium wilt, early blight resistant
L. peruvianum - Leaf curl virus resistant
L. cheesmanii - Salt resistant
L. hirsutum - Fruit borer resistant
L. pennellii - Drought tolerant
Breeding objectives
1. Breeding for earliness
2. Breeding for increased fruit yield
3. Fruit quality like large round, uniform size, deep red colour and increased shelf life etc.
4. Breeding for disease resistance like (Fusarium wilt, late blight anthracnose, bacterial
wilt).
5. Breeding for insect resistance (fruit borer, whitefly etc).
6. Breeding for Abiotic Stresses (cold tolerant, drought tolerant, salt tolerant, low
temperature tolerant, herbicide tolerant.
7. To breed varieties for prolonged storage and transportation e. g, flavr Savr
8. To breed varieties suitable for processing
1. Introduction: Seeds of improved varieties are introduced from one ecological area to
another and evaluated. E.g.,Marglobe.
2. Pureline selection: Arka vikas, Arka saurab.
3. Back cross method: is commonly utilized in wide crosses or in interspecific gene
transfer for resistant to diseases.
4. Pedigree method: has the most common method in tomato. In this method single plant
selection is initiated in F
2
and is continued through successive generations till pure lines
are obtained (up to F
6
generations)
5. Single seed decent method
77
8. Biotechnological methods: Breeding for resistance to abiotic stress tomato is sensitive
to low and high temp from the stage of germination to ripening. E.g., Transgenic variety
Flavr Savr was developed for long shelf life and transportation.
Practical Achievement
Varieties, Sioux, Marglobe, Pusa Ruby, Pusa early dwarf, Fire ball, Best of all Arka
vikas, Arka saurab.
78
Chilli (Capsicum annuum) (2n=24)
Chillies are also called as pungent pepper grown all over the world except in colder
climates. Bell peppers are constituents of many foods, add flavour, colour, vitamin C and
pungency.
Origin: Tropical America
Distribution: Mainly cultivated in Brazil, Mexico, Spain South and Central America China and
India. In India, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamilnadu and H.P etc.
Five major cultivated species in the Genus Capsicum
1. Capsicum annuum
2. C. frutescens
3. C. chinense
4. C. pendulum
5. C. pubescens.
Classification of chilli type based on fruit characters
1. C. annuum var acuminatum (Nepal pepper): Fruits long thin, pendulous and pungent

2. C. annum var longum: Long chilli the fruit are long and stout with a very broad base

3. C. annuum var grossum: Big chilli sweet pepper, bell pepper, fruits large and bell shaped
turn, bright red on ripening, little pungent, used as vegetable

4. C. annuum var ceraciferma: very small chilli fruits, and round, slightly pungent.

5. C. fruitiscens var minima: Bird pepper with white and long pedicel, fruits small and
highly pungent e.g., Golconda Mirapa, Seema mirapa

1. Earliness
2. Desirable fruit shape and size (obovate and round fruit in bell pepper and long fruits in
chilli)
79
3. Superior fruit quality (pleasing flavour, high sugar / acid ratio, high pigment content and
vitamin C in bell pepper and high capsaicin.
4. Resistance is to diseases (fruit rot, Cercospora leaf spot, powdery mildew, bacterial leaf
spot, phytophthra root rot, root knot, common TMV
5. Resistance to insects (thrips, mite, aphid, fruit borer)
6. Resistance or tolerance to abiotic stress (heat, water stress, salinity etc).
Breeding methods:
1. Pure line selection: This method is applicable to land races or local cultivars being
grown by farmers. e.g., G1, K1, Co1, Sindhu.
2. Pedigree method: involves selection of superior plants following hybridization between
superior cultivars. e.g., Andhra jyothi, Pusa jwala
3. Backcross method: Used to transfer single gene or few genes from primitive cultivars or
wild forms to leading cultivars.
4. Heterosis breeding: F
1
hybrids are popular is USA and Europe and gaining popularity in
India after the initiation. The first hybrid in India was Bharat developed by Indo
American hybrid seed company, Banglore (1973) followed by several companies
5. Mutation breeding: Found to be effective and efficient breeding tool in pepper.
6. Biotechnological methods:
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Brinjal / Egg Plant (Solanum melongena) (2n=24)
Brinjal is an important commercial vegetable crop grown in India.
Origin: Indo-Burma
Distribution: India, Japan, Indonesia, China, Bulgaria, Italy, France, USA and African
countries. In India all the states grow brinjal
Wild species: Solanum torvum
S. nigrum
S. indicum
S. mamosum
1. High yield
2. Earliness
3. Fruit shape, size and colour as per consumers preference
4. Low proportion of seed
5. Soft flesh
6. Lower Olanine content
7. Upright study plant free from lodging.
8. Resistance to diseases like bacterial wilt, blights.
9. Resistance to insects like shoot and fruit borer, jassids etc.
Breeding methods
1. Introduction: This method may be useful in other countries but not to India.
2. Pure line selection: e.g., Pusa Purple long, Co.1
3. Pedigree selection: Many varieties have been developed through hybridization and
subsequent pedigree selection. e.g., Pusa Kranti
4. Heterosis breeding: Many F1 hybrids have been developed and released for commercial
cultivation. e.g., Arka Navneet
5. Hybridization for resistance breeding: Resistance is not available in the cultivated
varieties. Wild varieties like S. incanum, S. anthocarpum are reported to be resistant and
used in hybridization programme. However the inferior quality of the fruits of wild
species associated with resistance are often expressed in the hybrid progenies.

81
6. Backcrossing: is normally follow to transfer genes conferring resistance to disease like
bacterial wilt resistance which has been shown to be under a single dominant gene.
8. Biotechnological Methods: e.g.. Bt. Brinjal
Varieties: Pusa purple long
Pusa kranti
Arka navneet

Lecture No: 16
OKRA Ladys finger (Abelmoschus esculentus) (2n=130)
Okra is a common vegetable crop grown in warmer climate,
Origin: India
Distribution: Asia, Europe, Africa and United States and Brazil. In India it is grown in Gujarat,
Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Haryana and Punjab.
Species of Abelmeschus
Abelmoschus angulosus
A. crinitus
A. ficulneus
1. High pod yield
2. Dark green, tender, thin, medium long smooth with 4-5 ridged pods
3. Pods free from conspicuous hairs
4. Early and prolonged harvest
5. Short plant with more number of nodes, short internodes
6. Optimum seed setting ability
7. Pods suitable for processing industry and export market.
8. Resistance to diseases (yellow vein mosaic virus, (YVMV) Fusarium wilt)
9. Resistance to insects (fruit and shoot borer, jassids and white fly)
10. Tolerance to Abiotic stresses.
82
Breeding methods
1. Introduction: A cultivar from Africa (Ghana) known as A. manihot sp. manihot
introduced into India has been successfully used as a source of resistance to YVMV.
3. Pedigree Method
4. Mutation Breeding
Varieties: Pusa makhmali, Pusa swani, Co-1 etc.

Cucumber (Cucumis sativus) (2n=14)
Cucumber is one of the Asiatic species and member of the cucurbitaceae which has 90
genera and 750 species.
Origin: India It is considered as home of cucumber
Distribution: China, USA, Africa, Europe. In India it is grown in north and south and lower as
well as higher hills
Breeding Objectives
1. Early fruiting
2. High female to male sex ratio
3. Attractive green or dark green fruits with smooth surface and without prominent spines or
prickles.
4. Uniform long cylindrical shape without crook neck
5. Fruits free from carpel separation without hollow spots
6. Fruits free from bitterness
7. Less seeds at edible maturity
8. Resistance to diseases (powdery mildew, downy mildew, anthranose, cucumber mosaic
virus)
9. Resistance to insect pests
10. Resistance to abiotic stresses.
Genetics of sex
Different sex types in cucumber
a) Monoecious plants - Staminate and pistillate flowers
b) Androecious plants - Only staminate flowers
c) Gynoecious plants - Only pistillate flowers
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d) Hermaphrodite plants - Only hermaphrodite flowers
e) Andromonocious plants - Staminate and hermaphrodite flowers.
Chemical regulation of sex expression
Increasing female tendency
(i) Auxin
(ii) Ethylene
(iii) Acetylene
(iv) 2-chloroethylphosphonic acid
Increasing male flower promotion
(i) GA
3

(ii) GA4
(iii) GA
7

(iv) Silver nitrate
(v) Silver thiosulfate
Breeding Methods:
1. Pedigree method: This includes selection of single plant segregates in segregating
generations F
2
, F
3
etc. derived from crosses between desirable parents
2. Backcross method: This is useful for transferring characters governed by single genes,
e.g., disease resistance or quality traits from donor lines to more stable recurrent parents.
3. Use of sex inheritance and chemicals in breeding methods : In this system gynoecious
lines are treated with AgNO
3
to stimulate production of staminate flowers and such lines
are allowed inter pollination to build up a source population with wide genetic variation.
The gynoecious lines treated with AgNO
3
pollinate a mixture of same lines which have
been sown about 2-3 weeks later and rouged from any staminate flowers segregates. A
gynoecious population emerges from the harvested seed and serves as a gene pool for
carrying out further selection of desired genotypes and lines.
4. Population improvement and extraction of inbred lines: This method is based on
recurrent selection and aims at long term gain for the characters having low to moderate
heritability.
5. Hybridization: Hybrid varieties of cucumber are becoming predominant day by day.
Their number is continuously increasing in India also
6. Biotechnology methods:
a) Introduction of somaclonal variation and its application in breeding
b) In-vitro mutagenesis on haploids and diploids.
84
c) In-vitro selections for disease resistance and cold resistance etc.
d) In-vitro fertilization
e) Production of transgenic plants
f) Embryo rescue technique
Varieties:
Japanese long green
Poinsette
Pusa Sanyog

Lecture No: 17
CHRYSANTHEMUM (Chrysanthemum moniliformin) (2n=36)
Florists chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum morifolium, Ramat) ranks second among
commercial flowers in the world. In India it occupies third position, with jasmine and rose
standing first and second. It is grown in wide range of environment, suitable for various pur poses
e.g. pot culture, field culture, for garland making or cut flowers or simply bedding purpose, long
post harvest life, predicable response to environment and amenability to different attractive
training methods or styles. However, the most important of all factors is the immense number
and diversity of shape, size and colour displayed by its cultivars. Breeding has played a pivotal
role in augmenting this diversity during the long history of its evolution.
Origin: China
Distribution: China, Japan, France, USA, Australia, Europe, and Asia. In India all the states.
Species of chrysanthemum
Genus Chrysanthemum belongs to the family Compositeae which is second largest family
among flowering plants comprising about 20, 000 species, largest being Orchidaceae.
1. Chrysanthemum morifolium
2. C. sinense
3. C. indicum
4. C. japonicum
5. C. arnatum
6. C. satsumense
7. C. boreale
Indigenous species
C. indicum Native to India, Florist chrysanthemum
Wild species
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1. C. stilliszkai, C. rkhtsria, C. atkinsoni and C. leucanthemum as wild species in the Indo-
Tibetan border.
Introduced species / Exotic species
1. C. caronanium (Garland chrysanthemum)
2. C. carinatum (Tricolour chrysanthemum)
3. C. rubellum (for hardiness)
4. C. sagetum (Corn marigold (or) pot plant)
5. C. boreale (Evolution of florif, chrysanthemum)
6. C. cinerarifolium (Used as insecticide)
7. C. coccineum (Perennial, seed propagated)
8. C. manifolium (Florist chrysanthemum)

Breeding objectives
1. Cultivars with low temperature requirement
2. Rapid growth habit with small to medium size of leaves to enable close planting.
3. Pollen free cultivars have been reported to be desirable as pollen spoils the appearance
and also induces allergy reactions during handling.
4. Uniform response to environment,
5. Long storage life
6. Compact and dwarf
7. Easy to root cutting
8. Cultivars with no vernalisation requirement are preferred for year around production.

Breeding Methods:
1. Introduction: Scrutiny of names of cultivars grown in this part of the country show their
Australian, English, French, Japanese or American origin in addition to those originating within
the country. In South India on the other hand only a few yellow or white small coloured cultivars
are grown for use as loose flowers which are probably of Indian origin. Introduction of
exhibition types seems to have started in East India, particularly in Calcutta and Sikkim during
British period. Most introductions till two decades back were done by resourceful individuals or
nurserymen in these two places or through some embassies in New Delhi.
Names of some well known cultivars grown in India have been given below along with
the name of country wherefrom they were introduced into this country or where it originated:
86

Country from which
introduced / or originated
Name of cultivar
Australia J.S. Lioyd. Louisa Pockette, Willium Turner and T.W.
Pockette
France Gloria Deo, S.L. Andre Raffaud, and Sancho
Japan Ajina Purple, Kenroku Kangiku, Kiku Biori, Taiho
Tozan, Tokyo, Shin Mei Getsu, Senkyo Emaki and
Otome Zakura.
New Zealand Gusman Red, Lcicles, Jane Sharpe, Orange Fair Lady,
and Nancy Ferneaux.
United Kingdom Alfred Wilson, Alfred Simpson, Balcombe Perfection,
Beatrice May, May Shoesmith, Maurice White,
Leviathan, Pink Cloud, Princess Anne and Woolman
Centruy.
United States Cassa Grande, Mountaineer, Nob Hill, Snow Ball,
Potomac and Peacock.

The realization of this fact led to introduction of 80 cultivars from Japan in 1972 at
National Botanic Gardens, Lucknow (Kher, 1977). These introduced cultivars formed the basis
for filling the gaps mentioned above by hybridization or mutation breeding at the institute.
2. Selection:
Most of the outstanding spray and loose flower type cultivars evolved in India, namely
Birbal Sahni, Apsara, Kundou, Jaya, Shard Singer, Co1, Co2. The drawback of this method
include unknown parentage, need for raising a very large number of seedling population. Failure
of the improved double long and tabular ray florets to set seeds etc. Single plant selection
method is followed.
3. Hybridization
The aim of hybridization is improvement which assumes different meanings depending-
upon the purpose for which a new cultivar is intended. A cultivar suitable for pot -culture may not
be fit for growing as cut-flower. Similarly, a cultivar may be suitable for cut-flower purpose but
not for garland making. The desirable characters in cultivars intended for pot-culture, cut-flower
and garland purpose have been enumerated for the benefit of breeders at the 5
th
workshop of the
All India Coordinated Floriculture improvement project held in New Delhi in 1983 (Report of
AICFIP, 1982-83), as given below.
87
Parameters for good pot variety: Profuse branching, uniform spread of plant, dwarfness,
compactness, simultaneous blooming to give carpet like appearance, attractive colour retention,
storage framework to withstand bloom weight and healthy leaves.
Parameters for good cut flower variety: Attractive colour, normal spray with high central
bloom, long erect stem, quick growth from late stem cuttings, easy to root cuttings, uniform
bloom opening with 5-6 blooms per 32.ray, tough florets, long vase life and healthy leaves.
Parameters for good garland variety: Yellow or white colour of bloom, diameter of bloom
about 5cms, fluffy blooms, disc absent or not visible, good quality of recovery from pressure,
high yield (15 m. tons/h or 150 gms. per plant), good colour retention in the field, storage life
more than 3 days, long blooming season, smooth bloom-perifery, profuse branching and sweet
scented blooms are preferred.
4. Mutation breeding:
Pioneering work on induction of somatic mutation in chrysanthemum by using a Co 60
radioactive gamma irradiation source has been done at N.B.R.I., Lucknow, resulting in the
development of about 40 mutant cultivars strikingly different from their parents. The main
advantage of this method lies in changing one or few characters of an otherwise outstanding
cultivar without altering the remaining, and often unique, part of the genotype.
Examples:
Basanti, Pusa centenary, pusa anmol, usha kiran
Sports
A good number of outstanding chrysanthemum cultivars in the world have aisen a natural
mutants commonly called sports. examples:

S. No. Original cultivar Sport
1. Mahatma Gandhi Kasturba Gandhi
2. Snow Ball Sonar Banla Bangla
3. Sharad Shobha sharada

88
MARI GOLD (Tagetes erecta L). (2n = 24)
Introduction
Marigold (Tagetes erecta L., Asteraceae) is grown as an ornamental crop for loose
flowers and as a landscape plant, as well as source of pigment for poultry feed. Flowers are sold
in the market as loose or after making into garlands. Other than loose flowers, it can also be used
as cut flowers. Marigold especially is used for beautification and also in landscape plans due to
its variable height and colour of flowers. It is highly suitable as a bedding plant, in a herbaceous
border and is also ideal for newly pla nted shrubbery to provide colour and fill spaces. French
marigold is ideal for rockeries, edging, hanging baskets and window boxes.
Origin: Mexico
Distribution: USA, Europe India etc. In India Maharashtra, West Bengal, Karnataka, Tamil
Nadu and Andhra Pradesh.
Species, Types and Cultivars
Species: There are about 33 species of the genus Tagetes. The characters of important species
(Bailey, 1963) are given below:
Tagetes erecta (African marigold): The plant is hardy, annual about 90 cm tall, erect and
branched. Leaves are pinnately divided and leaflets are lanceolate and serrated. Flowers are
single to fully double and large sized with globular heads. The florets are either 2-lipped or
quilled. Flower colour varies from lemon yellow to yellow, golden yellow or orange.
Targets patulo (French marigold): A hardy annual, about 30 cm tall, forming a bushy plant.
Foliage is dark green with reddish stem. Leaves are pinnately divided and leaflets are linear
lanceolate and serrated. Flowers are small, either single or double, borne on proportionately long
peduncles. The flower colour varies from yellow to mahogany-red.
Tagetes tenuifolia (Syn. Tagetes signata): It is an annual with a branching habit. Leaves are
pinnately divided into 12 oblong, linear, sharply serrated segments. Flowers have 5 rays, yellow,
roundish and obovate. Tagetes signata cv. Pumila is a dwarf, brushy and grows less than 30 cm.
Flowers are bright yellow and small but numerous.
Tagetes lucida (Sweet scented marigold): The plants of this species are tender, perennial.
Leaves are sessile, small and lanceolate. Flowers usually are 2-3 rayed, produced in dense,
terminal corymbs. The flowers have much more agreeable odour than other species.
Tagetes lacra: It was discovered in California. The plant grows upto 120-150 cm in height and
flowers profusely. Flowers are yellow in colour.
Tagetes lemmonii: It is a shrubby plant, grows up to 60-70 cm. Leaves are slender, opposite;
leaflets about 2-3 cm long. Flowers are showy and 2-3 cm in diameter.
89
The other species grown in gardens are Tagetes minuta, Tagetes pusilla and Tagetes
corymbosa. In India, however, the cultivation of Tagetes erecta and Tagetes patula dominates.
Breeding objective:
1. Compact and dwarf growth habit
2. Uniform response to environment
3. More flower yield.
4. Free from diseases and pests
Breeding Methods:
1. Introduction :
A wide array of germplasm was collected At N.B.R.I., Lucknow and Punjab Agricultural
University, Ludhiana from exotic sources. In African marigold,. 5 varieties, namely Alaska,
Doubloon, Fire Glow, Golden Jubilee and Yellow Fluffy were recommended for loose flower
production, whereas eight varieties viz., Geraidine, Golden Climax Giant, Orange Fluffy, Orange
Mums, Sovereign, Sun Giants, Super Chief Double and Yellow Climax were found suitable for
cut flower purpose at N.B.R.I. Lucknow, PAU, Ludhiana recommended 2 varieties like Giant
Double Afrian Orange and Climax of Afrian marigold and 3 varieties Rusty Red, Butter Scotch
and Red Brocade of French marigold for loose flower production and 3 varieties, namely,
Valencia, Sussana and Tetraploid for bedding purpose.
2. Selection: A large number of varieties of African marigold were collected at IARI, New
Delhi. Since, most of the varieties were in heterozygous condition, single plant selections were
made in the basis of desirable attributes. As a result of these efforts, few promising selections
have been developed, which are in pre-release stage.
3. Hybridization: Hybridization between distantly related types is the most effective and
commonly employed tool to induce variation so as to improve the existing cultivars and evolve
new, high yielding and better quality of genotypes. Different principles of breeding have
successfully been used in marigold, which resulted in new cultivars and present day F
1
hybrids.
Inter-Varietal Hybridization: In well-planned breeding studies, Singh and Swamp (1972)
observed appreciable heterosis. Attempts were made to develop F
1
hybrids in marigold because
F
1
hybrids are considerably; uniform and capable of producing large blooms with high yield
potential. In addition, they are characterized by their semi-tall nature with excellent large full
double flowers. For the last 20 years, F
1
, hybrid seeds of Tagetes erecta are available. Climax
was the first F
1
, hybrid to be released. A number of other F
2
hybrids are also available in the
market.
90
Inter-Specific Hybridization: The inter -specific hybridization between Tagetes erecta x
Tagetes tenuifolia and Tagetes erecta x Tagetes jaliscensis has been done by Towner (1961,
1962). Recently, inter-specific hybridization between Tagetes erecta x Tagetes patual has been
carried out which finally led to evolution of Red and Gold hybrids. These hybrids are dwarf-like
French marigolds but produce bigger flowers like that of African marigolds in large number.
4. Pedigree Breeding: A large number of single crosses were made involving genetically
diverse inbred lines / open pollinated varieties. Selections started from F
2
generation onwards till
they attained homozygosity. As a result of these studies, a few very promising improved lines
have been developed, which are in pre-release stage.
5. Polyploidy: Studies on the nature and the limit of polyploidy in marigolds were carried out at
N.B.R.I., Lucknow. Interspecific crosses between T. erecta (2n=24) and T. patula (2n=48) were
attempted and interspecific triploid hybrids (2n=36) were produced. It was inferred that
hexaploidy may not be successful in marigold as the highest ploidy level in about 50% of the
species of t he genus Tagetes is tetraploidy.
6. Male sterility: Male sterility in marigold is of two kinds: (1) apetalous, and (2) double-
flowered. Apetalous sterility is preferred to full double flowers because the latter type is prone to
break down and it gives rise to a few disc florets at later stages which may be due to either age of
plants or environmental factors. However, apetalous flowers are less attractive to pollinating
insects. Male sterility is governed by a recessive gene and is incorporated into the seed parent. It
is maintained by crossing the heterozygous plants with the sterile ones.
African marigold (hybrid seed production)
In African marigold, genic male sterility system is being used for F1 hybrid seed
production. There are two types of male sterility in marigold, that is, apetalous from (with no
stamens) and true double form (produces no anthers in the disc florets). Apetalous type of male
sterility has greater liability and is being used for the production of F
1
hybrid seeds on a
commercial scale in the U.S.A., U.K., Holland, France, etc. The apetalous type of male sterility
is controlled by recessive alleles. Thus, a male sterile plant has a genetic constitution of ms
(homozygous recessive), while male fertile plants may be of Ms Ms or Ms ms genotypes. The
heterozygote ms ms will segregate to give 1 Ms Ms:2 Ms Ms Ms ms:1 ms ms, the usual ratio for
a single gene, but both homozygous Ms Ms and ms ms) will, of course, breed true (except that
the latter will produce no pollen to allow to breed furt her).
Therefore, for use as a parent in F
1
hybrid production, the male sterile line is perpetuated
by back-crosses of double recessive (ms ms) male sterile by heterozygous male fertile (Ms ms)
maintainer. In the subsequent generations, 50 per cent of the progeny will be male fertile Ms ms,
91
while the other 50 per cent will be male sterile ms ms. Male sterility phenomenon can be
incorporated into standard varieties though five or six generations of back-crossing.
For the actual production of F
1
hybrid seedin the field, the back cross generation us inter-
planted with the other parental lines (which is a nomal male fertile inbred) and heterozygous
male fertiles occurring in back-cross generation should be removed as soon as identification is
possible, thus leaving male sterile plants only. the male sterile plants can be identified in the
early stage by the shape of sunflower buds as these plants have pitcher type of flower buds,
whereas the male fertile plants have normal flower buds.
To summarise, the mechanisms of using genetic male sterility for F
1
hybrid seed
production under open field conditions require (1) a normal fully fertile inbred line and (2) and
inbred line which is maintained by crossing together known heterozygous (Ms ms) and male
sterile (ms ms) plants. Seeds should always be harvested from ms ms plants. The cross of ms ms
x Ms ms should be repeated in every generation, as it will segregate in 1 fertile 1 Sterile ratio. A
ratio of male sterile to pollinating fertile line is dependent on the size of hybrid block, but ratio of
3 male sterileline 1 male fertile has proved to be the optimum.

Lecture No: 18
ROSE (Rosa indica) 2n = 14
The rose is the worlds most favourite and popular romantic flower. History and
symbolism, colour and fragrance, and sheer elegance of from-all combine to give the rose its pre-
eminent position. Even the thorns have romantic associations. The rose is one of the important
crops grown for its cut flowers. It belongs to the family Rosaceae and all species of this flower,
with minor exceptions, belong to the genus Rosa. The genus Rosa comprises 120 species and
there are more than 30,000 cultivars which are extensively distributed in the temperate and
subtropical parts of both the hemispheres.
All the present day remarkable changes in growth habit, flowering and flower shape,
from, colour, size and fragrance of modem roses have been due to chance crossing, selective
crossing, bud sports, induced mutations, molecular breeding and selections.
Origin: Europe
Distribution: Extensively grown in colder parts, Canada, America, Russia and Japan. In India
extensively grown in all northern states. To a little extent in southern states.
Species / Cultivars
R. eglanteria syn. R. rubiginosa: Sweet Brier
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R. foetida syn. R. lutea, R. eglanteria: Austrian Briar rose
R. gallica syn. R. rubra: French rose
R. gigantean syn. R. odorata var. gigantean: Manipur Tea rose
R. hugonis: Father Hugo rose, Golden rose of China
R. kordesii (R. rugosa x R. Wichuraiana)
R. laevigate: Cherokee rose
R. moschata : Muse rose
R. multiflora
1. Continuous blooming free flowering or recurrent blooming
2. Brilliant and fragrant flower
3. Uniform flower shape, form and size
4. Growth should be vigorous Improved appearance of plant
5. Floriferous nature
6. Winter hardiness
7. Evergreen plant type and foliage attractiveness
8. Long shelf life with less `petal shedding.
9. Resistance to pests and diseases (powdery mildew, black spot, scale insect)
10. Thronless nature
11. Developing blue and purple coloured varieties as they are in great demand.
12. Head tolerance i.e. breeding varieties for tropical conditions.
Breeding methods:
1. Natural crossing and selection
Roses in nature and usually cross-pollinated by insects, especially the bees. During the
course of development, a huge amount of heterozygosity and different ploidy levels have been
accumulated in roses. Seeds from naturally formed rose fruits may give a variable progeny,
especially in the modern varieties, possessing a complex pedigree. Even without artificial
crossing or hybridization, many new forms may be obtained from segregating populations. A
large number of modern rose varieties have been developed through selection.
2. Hybridization
Cross-breeding is one of the most powerful classical methods for developing new
varieties. Artificial crossing is necessary to develop varieties with desirable selection of parents.
93
Although a good amount of present day cultivars have arisen through hybridization, no
systematic work has been done by geneticists to explore the scientific basis of rose breeding. The
abnormalities, poor seed set, low seed germination, etc. These are the major constraints in rose
breeding in obtaining the desired results. Our modern hybrids carry the genes of many ancestors
and it is practically impossible to predict the result of any specific cross. The tip to hybridizing is
to find good seed and pollen parents that will donate their characteristics. Most hybridizers have
a special goal and are looking for a specific type of rose or character istics. The principal method
of creating new rose varieties is growing progenies from seeds of planned crosses and making
selections from them. The larger the population of seedlings, the greater is the chance of finding
the desirable combinations of characters one seeks. It is very easy to produce a new rose from
seedlings but very difficult to produce a really good new rose. It is very important to identify
parent varieties that appear to have the best potential for contributing the characters which one
seeks to combine in the hybrid offspring. Another consideration is to select the parents for
crossing or the basis of their fertility status, which varies with the cultivars.
With the advancement of knowledge, rose breeding is becoming more and more
scientific. However, the experience gained through numerous studies conducted worldwide
suggested the possibility of directed breeding for desired objectives.
Ex: Anurag, Chandrama and Chandrika
Breeding for disease resistance
Black spot is a major foliar disease of roses that causes severe losses to commercial and
home gardens. The breeding lines Spotless gold (Floribunda, F
3
selection: Goldlocks x Rosa
rugosa ), Spotless Yellow (Floribunda, F3 selection; Goldlocks x Rosa rugosa) and Spotless
Pink (Flor ibudna, F
3
selection: Chic x Rosa rugosa) have been release for use a resistant parents
in breeding programmes. Some resistant varieties have been developed through complex
hybridization, like A Mackenzie, Charles Albart, Champlan, William Baffin, etc.
resistance to blacks pot and Mildew.
Breeding for Better Red Rose
Cyanidin imparts red colour to flower petals. But two more pigments have been
identified, Chrysanthemin and Paeonin which produce a red much more brilliant and much
less prone to fade than cyanidin. The breeder may select varieties containing large quantities of
these pigments in a breeding programme to produce the perfect red rose. Climbing rose varieties
Francois juraiville, Dorothy Perkins and sports have been an important source of variation
because of the ease with which they can be isolated and vegetatively propagated. The rate of
94
spontaneous mutation in nature is very slow, but it has played an important role in the evolution
of many new cultivars of roses.
One most important bud sport is the climbing habit in Hybrid Teas. Some more important
climbing bud sports are available in Crimson Glory and Mrs. Sam McGredy, Climbing Blue
Moon, Climbing Cinderella.
3. Induced mutation:
Mutation breeding has now become one of the most powerful complementary
methods for developing new varieties. The mutation breeding technique has been successfully
utilized for the development of many new ornamental varieties. This technique has also been
successfully used in roses for the development of new varieties. More than 30 induced mutant
rose varieties have been commercialized. Physical mutagens (radiations) like x-ray, gamma ray,
different chemicals (chemical mutagen) like ethyl methane sulphonate (EMS), methyl methane
sulphonate (MMS), N-notroso-Nmethyl Urethane, sodium azide and colchicines have been
widely used for evolving new cultivars.
4. Polyploidy Breeding:
Among the horticultural classes, early miniatures were diploid but some later ones are
tetraploids. Hybrid Teas and Floribundas are generally tetraploids but occasionally triploids. An
example for evolvement of tetraploid variety is Eva. The cultivar Eva had been subsequently
utilized to develop the modern roses Fashion, Bonn, Berlin, etc., Artificially, polyploidy has
been induced through colchicines treatments of buds.
Molecular Breeding
Traditional breeding continues to be the principal source of new cultivars and varieties
for the ornamental market. Its success is evident in the huge array of products available to the
consumer. In spite of its success, traditional breeding has several limitations, the most obvious
being the limited gene pool contained within a species. For example, it is not possible to breed
for a blue rose or chrysanthemum or marigold because the gene(s) required for this colour is/are
not present in the gene pools of these plants.
Molecular biology is expected to overcome the above mentioned breeding problems
Genes conferring desirable traits, such as blue pigmentation, potentially can be
transferred to species where these genes previously did not exist. Recent advances in
recombinant DNA and allied techniques may permit additional opportunities for plant
improvement. In recent years, several centres have started work on genetic engineering, us ing
recombinant DNA technology, which offers unique possibilities of direct manipulation of
specific plant gene(s).
95
One of the most exciting developments of molecular biology is the synthesis of the blue
gene with special reference to synthesis of the blue rose. Rose cannot synthesis the blue pigment
delphinidin due to a deficiency of the enzyme dihydrokaempferal 3 and 5 hydrolyze. Calgens
pacific company at Melbourne. Suntory limited Japan and Petunia genetics group at the national
del 1 Recherche Agronomique France have jointly successfully isolated the blue gene using
petunia.
They have standardized the technique to transfer the blue gene to rose.
Genetic engineering in used to enhance fragrance to a variety of plants.
Post harvest longevity by genetic engineering strategies to control senescence
(phytoharmone ethylene).

GERBERA (Gerbera jamesonii )
Gerbera commonly known as Transvaal Daisy, Barbeton Daisy or African daisy. It is
highly suitable for beds, borders pots and rock gardens. The wide range of colours and the
attractive shape of flowers suit very well in flower arrangements. The cur blooms have long vase
life.
The breeding of gerbera started in 1887 when R.I. Lynch crossed Gerbera jamesonii and
Gerbera viridifolia. The hybrid was named Gerbera contabrigensis known today also as
Gerbera hybida. Majority of the present commercial cultivated varieties originated from crossing
the progenies of these two species.
Breeding Objectives:
Taking into account the importance of Gerbera as a cut flower and for garden purposes
the following objectives are suggested in breeding of Gerbera.
1. Uniformity and compactness of growth of plants
2. Earliness in flowering
3. More number of flowers / plant
4. Development of double coloured flowers
5. Uniform long and sturdy stalks
6. Yield, period of flowering
7. Vase life and
8. Resistance to pests and diseases.
Breeding Methods:
Since Gerbera can be propagated both sexually (seeds) and asexually (Suckers). The
breeding methods suitable for both types can be followed they are
96
1. Clo nal Selection
2. Synthetic vartiety
3. Polyploidy
4. Hybridization:
Numerous cultivars of Gerbera that are known today have been developed through
hybridization. For breeding purposes the flowers can be divided into two groups based on ray
floret width namely florets narrower that 5 to 55 mm and those wider than 55 mm. Breeding for
flowers with fine rays is done within the first group. For wide rays crossing is done within the
second group (or) hybridization between the second group and the less narrow types of the first
group.
97
X-ray irradiation (20 GY) was tried on plants propagated in-vitro. Flower shape and size
and foliage characters were affected but changes in flower colour were rare. Ethyl methyl
sulphonate (EMS) was better than sodium hydrazide in inducing gene mutation.

Lecture No: 19
Mango (Mangifera indica) (2n=40)
Origin: Tropical Himalayas
Mango is described as king of all fruits according to Decandole Mango is in cultivation
for the last 4000 years supposed to be originated from Himalayas in the areas of Burma, China
and Malayan Peninsula. The number of varieties grown in India are about one thousand. Every
variety has its own distinct taste, flavour, pulp consistency and yield potential.
Distribution:
It is extensively cultivated in India, Indo-China warm parts of Australia, Philippines,
Pacific Islands, Himalayas. In India Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka,
Maharashtra, West Bengal and Gujarat.
Breeding objectives

All the commercial varieties have some demerits, which need improvement by breeding.
Qualities of an ideal mango variety have been out lined as follows:
1. Dwarf tree growth habit,
2. Precocity and regularity in bearing,
3. Attractive and good quality fruits
4. High productivity and resistance to major diseases and pests
5. Good transport and processing qualities
6. Varieties suitable for export market
Allied species in Mango:

M. sylvatica - India, Burma
M. caloneura Burma
M. pentandra Burma
M. odorata - Malaya
M. zeylanica Ceylon
M. cochinchinensis Cochinchina
M. monandra Philippines
98
M. andamanica - Andaman Islands
M. macrocarpa Malaya
M. foetida - Malaya

Breeding methods
1. Introduction
2. Selection
3. Hybridization
1. Introduction:

Name of the variety Country from where introduced
Sweet Thailand
Sensation USA
Tomy Atkins Brazil
Early Gold USA

2. Selection:
a. Chance seedlings:
Mango was previously propagated through seeds and hence the old orchards in India
were mostly of seedling origin. Some seedling progenies gave rise to varieties such as
'Chinnaswarnarekha' and 'Mundappa'. The popular, salt tolerant rootstock (13-1) was identified
in Israel by this technique.
b. Clonal selection:
Extensive survey of Dashehari orchards around Maliabad in Uttar Pradesh has resulted in
the isolation of best clone viz Dashehari -51 with higher yield and regular bearer.
3. Hybridization:
Since a large number of male and perfect flowers are borne on a mango panicle, it
requires a special crossing technique.
The panicle should be bagged with a muslin bag (60 cm x 30cm) fully stretched and fi}
ed with two rings and a rod made of spliced bamboo. A piece of thick ir( n wire can also be made
into a good frame for stretching the muslin bag
Staminate flowers of the selected panicle to be used as female parent should be removed
daily before dehiscence. Panicles of the variety selected as male parent should also be bagged
before their flowers begin to open.freshly dehisced male flowers should be carried in a small
99
petridish lined trth a filter paper and covered with another petridish to protect the flower to avoid
contamination with foreign pollen carried by insects.
The conventional method of pollination is time consuming, cost intensive and inefficient
because of tallness and difficult to handle trees poor fruit set. 'Caging technique' for crossing,
developed at IARI following the discovery of self incompatibility in Dashehari, Langra, Chausa
and Bombay Green, involves planting of grafted plants of the self incompatible varieties along
with those of male parents enclosed in an insect ,proof cage and allowing pollination by freshly
reared house flies and thus ting away with the tedious hand pollination.
In hybridization on mango, work taken up in post independence period laid emphasis on
regular and precocious bearing, dwarfness, high percentage of pulp, fibreless flesh, large fruits
with red blush, good keeping quality and freedom from spongy tissue. Few of these such as
Mallika and Ratna have received commercial recognition. The cultivar 'Sindhu' evolved through
intensive back crossing between Ratna and Alphonso develops fruits parthenocarpically under
natural temperature conditions. The average size Sindhu fruits has been reported to be 215 g.
It may be observed that the parents used in hybridization programme were of the best
commercial varieties, superior in most of the traits but lacking in few qualities, which may be
available in the other parents. Though in some cases (e.g. the hybrids at Sangareddy), the parents
were the same the hybrids were differently named, due to the heterozygous nature of parents
resulting in heterogeneous hybrid population.
The constraints encountered in mango hybridization are:
1. High fruit drop: In early stages, many young fruits drop after pollination and fertilization.
2. Only one seedling can be obtained from one fruit (since the varieties are
monoembryonic).
3. The heterozygous nature and cross fertilization makes it difficult to predict the qualities
of the hybrids.
4. Complex nature of panicle and flower and excessive fruit drop.
5. Large area of land is required for hybrid seedlings.
6. Polyembryony - Difficulty in accurately identifying the zygotic seedling: polyembryonic
varieties in Israel show that weight of zygotic seedling is higher than the nucellar
seedling. Use of polymorphic enzyme systems (isozyme) has been used to identify
zygotic seedling since the nucellar seedlings have the same isozyme alleles as in the
maternal parent.
100
7. Longjuvenile phase - Mango hybrids usually take 4-5 years to come to bearing and
stability in yield could be assessed only after 10-15 years.
No variety has been developed so far by mutation breeding. Some attempts at IAR!, New
Delhi using physical mutagens showed that the LD so for Neelum, Dashehari and Amrapali was
between 2 and 4 Kr of gamma rays. LD so values has been found to be around 2 to 3 Kr for
Neelum and Alphonso at Coimbatore.
New Mango cultivars / hybrids
Institute Cultivars Parentage Major characters
Mallika Neelum x Dashehari Semivigorous, regular bearer, fruit
attractive, large with good keeping
quality

IARI, New
Delhi
Amrapali Desehahari x Neelum Dwarf, precocious, highly regular and
good cropper
CISH,
Lucknow
M1 Ammpali x Janardhan
Pasand
Attractive skin colour, firm flesh and
high TSS
Au Rumani Rumani x Neelum Regular and prolific bearer FRS,
Sangareddy Manjira Rumani x Neelum Dwarf, regular and prolific bearer
PKM.1 Chinnaswamarekha x
Neelum
Regular bearer; fruit large , sweet and
bearing in clusters TNAU,
Periyakulam PKM.2 Neelum x Mulgoa Large frits (650 -700g) good quality of
fruits.
Arka Aruna Banganapalli x
Alphonso
Dwarf, regular -bearing; large
Alphonso and attractive fruits free
from spongy tissue
Arka Puneet Alphonso x
Banganapalli
Attractive colour, good keeping
quality, free from sopongy tissue and
regular bearer.
Arka Anmol Alphonso x
Janardhan Pasand
Regular bearer, free ti -om spongy
tissue, good keeping quality.

IIHR,
Bangalore
Arka
Neelkiran
Neelum x Alphonso fruits attractive with red flesh, pulp
deep yellow, regular bearer, late
season
West India
FRS, Paria,
Gujarat
Neelphonso
Neeleshan
Neeleshwari
Neelum x Aplhonso
Neelum x Baneshan
Neelum x Dashehari
Dwarf with superior quality TSS and
vitamin C content.

FRS,
Vengurla,
Maharashtra
Ratna
Sindhu
Neelum x Aplhonso
Raina x Aplhonso
Early. Free from spongy tissue
Virtually seed less and free ti-om
spongy tissue

101
GUAVA (Psidium guajava) (2n=22)

In guava, most ofthe commercial varieties are reported to be diploids, the chromosome
number being 2n=22, while the seedless varieties are triploids.
Origin: Tropical America / West Indies
Distribution: America, Canada, Australia, India, Burma, Indonesia, Bangladesh etc. In India
Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka etc.
Breeding objectives
1. Development of seedless variety
2. Less pectin content for edible purpose
3. More pectin content for processing
4. Uniform ripening
5. High keeping quality
6. Resistance to tea mosquito bug and wilt.
Breeding methods
1. Clonal selection
Propagation by seeds "during early days gave rise to considerable variation in the form
and size of fruit, the nature and flavour of pulp, seediness and other morphological character
such as spreading or erect growth habit of the tree. Improvement work for the first time was
initiated during 1907 at Ganeshkhind Fruit Experimental Station, Pune primarily with the
collection of seeds of varieties, grown in different places to isolate superior strains. About 600
seedlings were raised and evaluated for fruit and yield characters. One strain from open
pollinated seedlings of Allahabad Safeda collected from Lucknow was selected and released as
Lucknow49, which is a popular variety throughout India.
At Horticultural Research Station, Saharanpur, evaluation of seedling types resulted in a
superior selection, S-I, having good fruit shape, few seeds, sweet taste and high yield. 11w w -
At IIHR, Bangalore, from 200 open pollinated seedlings of variety Allahabad Safeda
collected from Uttar Pradesh, one seedling selection, Selection-8, was found to be promising.

2. Hybridization
At IIHR, Bangalore, by hybridization among Allahabad Safeda, Red Flesh Chittidar,
Apple Colour, Lucknow-49 and Banaras, 600 FI hybrids were raised. One hybrid viz Arka
Amulya has been released recently. It is a progeny from the cross Allahabad Safeda Triploid.
Plants are medium vigour and spreading type. Fruits are round in shape. Skin is smooth and
102
yellow in colour. Fruits on an average weigh about 180-200g, Flesh is white in colour and firm.
TSS is around 12 Brix, soft seeded, weight of 100 seeds is 1.8g. Keeping quality is good.
At Fruit Research Station, Sangareddy (Andhra Pradesh), inter-varietal hybridization
resulted in the isolation of two superior hybrids. .
a) Safed Jam: This is a hybrid between Allahabad Safeda and Kohir (a local collection from
Hyderabad-Karnataka region). It is similar to Allahabad Safeda in growth habit and fruit quality.
The fruits are bigger in size with good quality and few soft seeds.
b) Kohir Safeda: It is a hybrid between of Kohir x Allahabad Safeda. Tree is vigorous, the fruits
are larger with few soft seeds and white flesh.
Haryana Agri. University, Hisar has released two hybrid varieties.
Hisar Safeda: It is a cross between "Allahabad Safeda" x 'Seedless,' which has upright growth
with a compact crown. Its fruits are round, weighing about 92g each, pulp is creamy - white with
less seeds, which are soft, TSS is 13.4% and ascorbic acid 185 mg / 100g.
Hisar Surkha: It is a cross between' Apple Colour' x 'Banarasi Surkha'. Of the pink fleshed
hybrids, it is ideal. Tree is medium in height with broad to compact crown, fruit is round
weighing 86g each, pulp' is pink having 13.6% TSS, 0.48% acidity and 169 mg/l00g of ascorbic
acid. Yield is 94 kg/tree/year.
3. Polyploidy Breeding
Producing triploids will be futile since the fruit shape in triploid is highly irregular and
misshapen because of differential seed size. However in order to evolve varieties with less seeds
and increased productivity, crosses were made at the IAR!, New Delhi, between seedless triploid
and seeded diploid variety Allahabad Safeda. Of the 73 F. hybrids raised, 26 were diploids, 9
trisomies, 5 double trisomies and 13 tetrasomics. Distinct variation in tree growth habit and leaf
and fruit characters were observed.

Lecture No: 20
Banana (Musa paradisica) Fruit variety
(Musa sapientum) Vegetable variety
(2n=22, 33, 44)

Origin: Tropical Asia
Distribution: USA, Canada, Europe, Brazil, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Burma and
China. In India Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Orrisa and West Bengal.

103
The edible cultivated parthenocarpic bananas belong to the section 'Eumusa' which are
derived from Musa acuminata and M bulbisiana. They have 22, 33 or 44 chromosomes; the
basic number being n= 11 so that these cultivars are respectively diploids, triploids and
tetraploids. Triploid cultivars are generally the most numerous, diploid somewhat less and
tetraploids are very rare. Simmonds and Shepherd (1955) devised a method of indicating the
relative contributions of these two wild species to the constitution of a cultivar. This involves a
scoring technique using 15 morphological characters and applying the derived information to
distinguish the
M acuminata types from those of M balbisinana.

Depending upon the contribution of these parents to the constitution of the progeny and
their chromosomal status, the naturally occurring edible bananas fall into seven groups; two
diploids (AA, BB), three triploids (AAA, AAB, ABB) and two tetraploid (AAAA, AAAB).

(i) Principal clones: There is a wide range of diversity in the clonal cultivars ranging from
edible diploid M acuminata (AA) types, nurtured only in sheltered and humid environments, to
the hardy hybrid triploids (ABB) which can tolerate seasonal monsoon as well as dry conditions
prevailing in most part of the country. There are many synonyms and the classification of the
Indian AAB and ABB groups is exceedingly complex. With possible exception of Dwarf
Cavendish, all the important clones are of Indian origin. The important clones are given below.

AB Group : Ney Poovan, Thaen Kunnan, Kunnan, Adakka Kunnan, Nattu Poovan

AA Group : Anaikomban, Matti, Sanna Chenkadali, Kadali, Surya Kadali, Namarai, Pisang
Lilin, Tongat
AAAA Group : BodIes Altafort
ABBB Group : Klue Teparod, Sawai (synthetic hybrid)
AAA Group : Amritsagar, Gros Michel, Cavendish, Giant Cavendish, Robusta, Lacatan,
Wather, Red Banana, Chakkarakeli, . Manoranjitham
AAB Group : Poovan, Rasthali (Silk), Sugandhi, Pachanadan, Rajapuri, Virupakshi,
Nendrapadthai, Nendran
ABB Group : Nalla Bontha, Monthan, Karibontha (S), Ney Vannan (S), Peyan (S),
Karpuravalli, Bhimkol, Enn Beman (S), Kallu Monthan (S)
Breeding objectives
104
1. Dessert varieties for export
At present, the entire dessert banana export industry is dependent on Cavendish
cultivars, all of which are genetically similar with respect to response.
The characteristics sought by the banana breeder for export varieties are:
Yield equal to Cavendish varieties.
Quality, especially finger length, finger curvature and finger pedicel strength as in
Cavendish varieties.
Flavour, ripening and carrying qualities similar to present varieties.
Pseudostem height similar to 'Grand Nain' or at least less than in the Cavendish
varieties such as 'Valery', 'Poyo', 'Robusta' or 'Giant Cavendish' .
Foliage characteristics and production efficiency not inferior to 'Grand Nain'.
Resistance to all known races of Fusarium wilt.
Resistance to black Sigatoka and similar leaf spot diseases.
Tolerance to nematodes.
It is most unlikely that all these characteristics could be incorporated into one variety.
2. Dessert varieties for local use
In many parts of the tropics, dessert bananas of the 'Silk' and 'Pome' clones (AAB) are
preferred to the Cavendish clones (AAA). Unfortunately, 'Silk' is highly susceptible to Panama
disease and the 'Pome' variety is attacked by Panama disease in some situations and is somewhat
susceptible to the common Sigatoka. In addition to disease susceptibility, the AAB varieties are
very low yielders (6-12 tons/ha) in comparison to the Cavendish varieties (40 -50 tons/ha per
year). Therefore, the main objective of a breeding programme for AAB dessert varieties is to
produce disease resistant, high yielding varieties having the flavour and texture of the 'Silk' and
'Pome' cultivars.
3. Cooking varieties: Cooking varieties of the AAB plantain group and AAB and ABB cooking
bananas have several major defects. All plantain cultivars are susceptible to black Sigatoka.
Some of the ABB cooking bananas are susceptible to Race 2 of Panama disease and to Moko
diseases. All, however, are relatively low yielders in comparison to the Cavendish varieties.
Most of them are tall with consequent high losses from wind. In addition to disease resistance,
good culinary traits and modest increase in yield should be the main objectives of breeding new
cooking varieties.
Breeding methods
1. Hybridization
105
Technique of hybridization in banana is different from other crops. Pollination is best
carried out in the morning. The bunches of female parent are bagged at shooting and each
successive hand is pollinated as it is exposed. At maturity and ripening the bunch is cut and seeds
are extracted. Seeds are sown at once in the green house.
Seed germination in banana is found to be very poor, the percentage ranging from 0.003
to 0.60. The seeds are soaked in water for a week before sowing in seed pan kept in mist
chamber. The time taken for seeds to germinate ranges from 24-101 days, sometimes even 6
months. The seeds of wild bananas germinate in 24 days. Under better conditions (hot days and
cool winter), the germination improves (25-70%).
Evaluation of hybrid progenies from seedling to harvest may not be the correct phase
instead, evaluation of the same under next vegetative phase i.e. sucker to harvest stage will be
ideal as full expression of yield potential could be observed only in the second crop of the F I
progeny. The first crop (seedling to harvest) takes more than 15-19 months, where most ofthe
energy of the plants is needed for corm formation.
Three main approaches in breeding dessert bananas ofthe Cavendish.
types are:
3N x 2N superior diploids; there is no chromosome reduction in the egg cells thus
yielding tetraploids;
4N bred tetraploid hybrids x 2N superior diploids producing 'Natural triploids' .
2N meiotic restituting clones x 2N superior diploids producing 'Natural triploids'.
Method (I) has been used extensively and method (2) has been tested relatively to a lesser
extent. Method (3) has shown no promise thus far.One other method not evaluated is production
of unreduced triploid egg cells from selected seeded triploids from 4N x 2N crosses. When
crossed with diploids, the tetraploids produced would have three introductions of diploid parents
in the pedigree.
2. Developing new diploid male parent
In many banana growing countries, initially wild diploid bananas (AA) were utili sed as
male parents and as a result, the resultant tetraploids had inherited many undesirable traits.
Hence, it has been felt by banana breeders that the primary objective is to synthesise a good male
parent. An ideal male parent must be highly resistant to Panama and Sigatoka diseases, must
have vertical and compact bunch and fruits as large as the diploidy can allow and must be
parthenocarpic having sufficient pollen to permit its use as a male parent. Musa acuminata subsp.
burmannica and its hybrids offer a good source of resistance to black Sigatoka. One such diploid
developed in Honduras is SH 2989. Other male diploids meriting mention are SH 3142 for
106
nematode resistance and SH 3176 evolved through multiple crosses for resistance to black
Sigatoka with desired horticultural traits.
In India, the banana breeding goal has been set to develop malefertile, parthenocarpic
diploids with resistance to Sigatoka disease, burrowing nematode and Fusarium wilt, along with
high yield, longer fruits and better bunch hang. Dwarf stature is desirable for developing
resistance against wind damage. The basic approach has been oriented primarily towards
improving the diploid male parents.
3. Mutation breeding: Bud mutation in Indian banana is very common perhaps due to
spontaneous rearrangement of chromosomes in somatic meristem and structural reassortment. A
great majority of edible bananas are triploids, a condition that interferes with normal equilibrium
of plants and may provide the requisite stimulus to structural rearrangement of chromosomes,
leading ultimately to the evolution of a new gene complex. Clonal propagation and selection
have helped in perpetuation of these mutants continually adding to these changes.
Large number of mutants is reported from the cultivated clones of banana in South India.
In Nendran variety alone, more than six mutants have been recognized. One of these, Moongil,
has undergone such a radical change that there is no male phase and a bunch has only one or two
hands with biggest size fruits. Attu Nendran, Nana Nendran, Myndoli, Velathan and Nenu
Nendran are a few mutants which have been selected for one or the other desirable character.
Dwarf Cavendish itself is a mutant of an important clone and is known to have given rise
to many clones. A semi -tall mutant known as Pedda Pacha Arati in Kumool district of Andhara
Pradesh and Harichal or Bombay Green of Maharashtra have assumed commercial status. More
than six clones have been isolated from Basrai based on robust growth of pseudostem and large
bunch size. Ambalakadali and Erachi Vazhai are mutants of Red Banana. The superior table
variety, Rasthali in which the male bud is aborted giving rise to many number of fruits in a
bunch. This variety is popularly called' Ayirankai Rasthali', meaning tOOO-fruited Rasthali. The
Kunnan variety of Malabar has provided a few mutants known as Thattilla Kunnan (male phase
absent), Vennettu Kunnan, Adakka Kunnan and Thaen Kunnan.
A number of sports have been recognized in cv. Monthan, viz., Sambal Monthan, Nalla
Bontha Bathees, Sambrani Monthan, pidi Montha and Thellatti Bontha. In Puri district of Orissa,
Monthan banana is largely cultivated and more than 5 bud sports have been identified which are
under commercial cultivation. The sports differ with respect to plant size, colour and shape of
finger. From Poovan cultivar, Motta Poovan (absence of prominent nipple at distal end of the
fruit) has been developed as a bud sport. These are some of the outstanding mutants recognized
mainly in south India.
107
Induced mutations have now been used in banana breeding.
b. Iso/ation of somaclona/ variants: In vitro production of crop plants has resulted in substantial
variability called "somaclonal variation". A wide range of stable variants involving dwarfism,
leaf shape, pigmentation of foliage and pseudostem and bunch characteristics was also observed.
Few somaclonal variants isolated in cv. Robusta at TNAU, Coimbatore is reported to be dwarf in
stature.
FATOM- I, an early flowering mutant derived from in vitro gamma irradiated meristem culture
of cv. Grand Nain has been released in Malaysia.
It is a selection from M
1
V
4
generation, which flowers within 9 months, as against 15 months in
the parent material. It yields a bunch weight of 26 kg!
plant as against 23 kg/plant in cv. Grand Nain.
Papaya (Carica papaya) (2n = 18)

Papaya (Carica papaya ) belongs to the family Caricaceae and genus Carica have about
40 species. Only Carica papaya produces edible fruits. Among the other species, only six have
been utilized in breeding programme to induce resistance to virus diseases and frost. C.cauliflora
is resistant to viruses while C.candamarcensis and C.pentagona are resistant to frost. Papaya is a
polygamous plant and has many sex forms. There are 3 basic sex types - staminate or male,
hermaphrodite and pistillate or female. Of these, only female is stable whereas flowers of
hermaphrodite and male vary in sex expression under different environmental conditions.
Inheritance of sex has been studied extensively and the following Mendelian symbols have been
proposed:
Genes
M
1
= dominant factor for maleness
M2 = dominant factor for hermaphroditism, and
m = recessive factor for femaleness
Genetic constitution
M
1
m = Staminate plant.
M
2
m = Hermaphrodite plant, and
mm = Pistillate plant
Sex in papaya cannot be identified unless they flower but the ratio can be predicted
provided it is control pollinated. The sex inheritance in different cross combinations is as
follows:
Cross of self Female plant Hermaphrodite
plant
Male plant Non-viable
108
mm x M
1
m 1 mm - 1 M
1
m -
mm x M
2
m 1mm 1 M
2
m - -
M
2
m x M
2
m 1 mm 2 M
2
m - 1 M
2
M
2

M
1
m x M
1
m 1mm - 2 M
1
m 1 M
1
M
1
M
2
m x M
1
m 1 mm 1 M
1
m 1 M
1
m 1 M
2
M
1

1. More fruit yield
2. To develop dwarf stature trees.
3. Uniform ripening
4. High keeping quality
5. Resistance to prost and other abiotic stresses
6. Resistance to pests and diseases
Breeding methods
1. Inbreeding and selection
In dioecious lines, suitable male plants are selected from the same progeny which have
resemblance to female plants in vegetative characters, such as stem and leaf colour, stem
thickness and height at flowering, etc. Progenies raised from S
1
inbreds are screened and desired
male and female plants are selected for further sibmating i.e. crossing between the female plant
and male plant of the same cultivar. The process is to be continued for 7-8 generations to
achieve uniformity of a group of characters. In this method, the progeny will have male and
female in equal proportion. Many dioecious cultivars have been bred by this method.
1. CO. 1 : A selection made at Coimbatore from cultivar Ranchi, plant dwarf, fruit round to oval
with orange-coloured flesh.
2. CO.2: Selected from local strain, plants medium tall, fruits large, ovate in shape, a high papain
yielder.
3. CO.5: Inbred selection from Washington type, high papain yielder.
4. CO.6: Inbred selection from a giant papaya, dual purpose variety.
5. Pusa Giant: Vigorous and sturdy plant, good fruit size, tolerant to strong wind.
6. Pusa Dwarf: Dwarf plant, fruit oval, and medium size preferred by consumers.
Breeding for gynodioecious lines may be followed by selfing regular and prolific bearing
hermaphrodite and/or crossing (sibmating) the female with hermaphrodite. The main advantage
of this method is that all the plants are productive. Suitable hermaphrodite plants which do not
vary with climatic changes are selected for breeding. Selfing is to be continued in selected
109
hermaphrodite plants for at least 3 generations for unifonnity of characters. As regards
sibmating, desired types of female plants are selected and sibmated with hermaphrodite plant.
Seedlings raised from S
1
inbred are screened and desired female and hermaphrodite plants are
selected for further sibmating. This process is to be continued for 7-8 generations till the
homozygosity is achieved. In this method, the progenies will be female and hermaphrodite. As a
result of inbreeding and selection for 8 generations during 1966-1982, following varieties were
developed.
1. Pusa Delicious: Gynodioecious line, heavy yield, fruit very sweet with good flavour, medium
tall plant
2. Pusa Majesty: Gynodioecious line, high papain yielder, better keeping quality fruit, tolerant to
virus and nematode.
2 Hybridization:
a) Using Dioecious lines
It has been established that female plants are more productive than hermaphrodite ones.
Due to the crossing, most of the cultivars are highly variable. Hence it is considered appropriate
to sibmate the selected female and male plants so as to bring homozygosity. Hence, suitable male
plants are selected from the same progeny, which have resemblance to female plants in
vegetative characters, such as stem and leaf colour, stem thickness and height at flowering etc.
Progenies raised from S
1
inbreds are screened and desired male and female plants are selected
for further sibmating. This process is to be continued for 7-8 generations to achieve uniformity of
a group of characters.
b) Using gynodioecious lines
It involves selfing regular and prolific bearing hermaphrodite and or crossing (sibmating)
the female with hermaphrodite. Suitable hermaphrodite plants, which do not vary with climatic
changes, are selected. Of the various types of the flower produced by a hermaphrodite plants
'elongata' and 'pentandra' types are selected for selfing. Selfing is to be continued in selected
hermaphrodite plants for atleast three generations for uniformity of characters. In the case of
female and hermophrodite plants, sibmating between desired types of female plants are selected
and sibmated with hennaphrodite plant. Seedling raised from SI inbred is screened and desired
female and hermaphrodite plants are selected for further sibmating: This process is to be
continued for 7-8 generations till homozygosity is achieved.
Crossing between two or more parents and selecting the derived progenies with good
attributes in the advanced generations has been employed as a method to develop new cultivar.
CO.3 is a hybrid derivative between CO.2 x Sunrise Solo. Similarly, CO.7 is a gynodioecious
110
cultivar developed from the crosses of CP.75 (Pusa Delicious x CO.2) x Coorg Honey Dew.
Fruits are with red flesh and very sweet in

c) Heterosis breeding
At IIHR, Bangalore, an F
1
hybrid namely Surya (Sunrise Solo x Pink Flesh Sweet) was
released recently. It is gynodioecious in nature and produces about 75-80 fruits of medium size
weighing about 600-800 g. The flesh is red in colour, firm, sweet to taste with a TSS of 14 brix.
d) Mutation breeding
A Dwarf mutant was isolated in ~ generation by treating the seeds with gamma rays.
Repeated sibmating among the dwarf plants had resulted in the establishment of homozygous
dwarf line, named as Pusa Nanha. The first bearing height is about 106 cm from the ground
level.

Lecture No: 21, 22 & 23
Plant Genetic Resources

The sum total of genes in a crop species is referred to as genetic resources.
or
Gene pool refers to a whole library of different alleles of a species
or
Germplasm may be defined as the sum total of hereditary material i.e., all the alleles of
various genes present in a crop species and its wild relatives.
Also known as gene pool or genetic stock or germplasm or genetic resources.
Germplasm or gene pool is the basic material with which a plant breeder has to initiate
his breeding programme.
Important features of plant genetic resources are
1. Gene pool represents the entire genetic variability or diversity available in a crop species.
2. Germplasm consists of land races, modern cultivars, obsolete cultivars, breeding stocks,
wild forms and wild species of cultivated crops.
3. Germplasm includes both cultivated and wild species or relatives of crop plants.
4. Germplasm is collected from the centres of diversity, gene banks, gene sanctuaries,
farmers fields, markets and seed companies.
5. Germplasm is the basic material for launching a crop improvement programme.
6. Germplasm may be indigenous (collected with in country) or exotic (collected from
foreign countries)
Kinds of Germplasm
111
The germplasm consists of various plant materials of a crop such as
(1) land races (4) advanced (homozygous), breeding materials,
(2) obsolete cultivars (5) wild forms of cultivated species
(3) modern cultivars (6) wild relatives
(7) mutants
These are briefly discussed below :
1. Land races
These are nothing but primitive cultivars which were selected and cultivated by the
farmers for many generations without systematic plant breeding efforts.
- Land races were not deliberately bred like modern cultivars. They evolved under
subsistence agriculture.
- Land races have high level of genetic diversity which provides them high degree
of resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses.
- Land races have broad genetic base which again provides them wider
adoptability.
- The main drawbacks of land races are that they are less uniform and low yielders.
- Land races were first collected and studied by N.I. Vavilor in rice.
2. Obsolete Cultivars
These are the varieties developed by systematic breeding effort which were popular
earlier and now have been replaced by new varieties. Improved varieties of recent past are
known as obsolete cultivars.
- Obsolete varieties have several desirable characters they constitute an important
part of gene pool. Example : Wheat varieties K65, K68, pb 591 were most
popular traditional tall varieties before introduction of high yielding dwarf
Mexican wheat varieties. Now these varieties are no more cultivated. They are
good genetic resources and have been widely used in wheat breeding programmes
for improvement of grain quality. Now such old varieties are found in the
genepool only.
3. Modern cultivars
The currently cultivated high yielding varieties are referred to as modern cultivars. They
are also known as improved cultivars or advanced cultivars.
- These varieties have high yield potential and uniformity as compared to obsolete
varieties land races.
- They constitute a major part of working collections and are extensively used as
parents in the breeding programmes.
112
- As these are good sources of genes for yield and quality, can be introduced in a
new area and directly released.
- However, these have narrow genetic base and low adoptability as compared to
land races
4. Advanced breeding lines
These are pre-released plants which have been developed by plant breeders in modern
scientific breeding programmes. These are known as advanced lines, cultures and stocks.
This group includes, nearly homozygous lines, lines derived from biotechnology programmes
i.e. transgenic plants and mutant lines etc. These lines which are not yet ready for release to
farmers. They often contain valuable gene combinations.
5. Wild forms of cultivated species
Wild forms of cultivated species are available in many crop plants. Such plants have
generally high degree of resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses and are utilized in breeding
programmes. They can easily cross with cultivated species. Wild forms of many crop species
are extinct.
6. Wild Relatives
Those naturally occurring plant species which have common ancestry with crops and can
cross with crop species are referred to as wild relatives or wild species. Wild relatives include
all other species, which are related to the crop species by descent during their evolution. Both
these groups are sources of valuable genes for biotic and abiotic stress and for quality traits
and yield.
7. Mutants
Mutation breeding is used when the desired character is not found in the genetic stocks of
cultivated species and their wild relatives. Mutations do occur in nature as well as can be
induced through the use of physical and chemical mutagens. The extra variability which is
created through induced mutations constitutes important components of genepool. Mutant for
various characters sometimes may not be released as a variety, but they are added in the
genepool. The germplasm includes those carrying gene mutations, chromosomal aberrations
and markers genes etc. are considered special genetic stocks. They are useful in breeding
programmes.
The gene pool system of classification
The pool of a crop includes all cultivars, wild species and wild relatives containing all the
genes available for breeding use.
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Based on degree of relationship, the gene pool of crops can be divided into three groups
(Harland and Dewet, 1971) , viz.,
1. Primary gene pool
2. Secondary Gene pool
3. Tertiary gene pool
1. Primary gene pool (GP1) : This is also known as gene pool one (GP1). The gene pool in
which intermating is easy and leads to production of fertile hybrids is known as primary
gene pool. It includes plants of the same species or of closely related species which
produce completely fertile offspring on intermating. In such gene pool, genes can be
exchanged between lines simply by making normal crosses. This is the material of prime
breeding importance.
2. Secondary gene pool (GP2) : This type of gene pool is also known as gene pool two
(GP2). The genetic material that leads to partial fertility on crossing with GP1 is referred
to as secondary gene pool. It includes plants that belong to related species. Such material
can be crossed with primary gene pool, but usually the hybrids are sterile and some of the
progeny to some extent are fertile. Transfer of gene from such material to primary gene
pool is possible but difficult.
Tertiary gene pool (GP3) : The genetic material which leads to production of sterile
hybrids on crossing with primary gene pool is termed as tertiary gene pool or gene pool
three (GP3). It includes material which can be crossed with GP1, but the hybrids are
sterile. Transfer of genes from such material to primary gene pool is possible with the
help of special techniques.
Types of seed collections
Based on the use and duration of conservation, seed collections are of three types
1. Base collections
2. Active collections
3. Working collections
1. Base collections: It is also known as principal collection. These consist of all the
accessions present in the germplasm of a crop. They are stored at about
-18
0
C or -20
0
C with 5 + 1% moisture content; they are disturbed only for regeneration.
When the germination of an accession falls below, usually, 95% of its germination at the
start of storage, the accession is regenerated. For reasons of safety, duplicates of base
collections should be conserved in other germplasm banks as well. High quality orthodox
seeds can maintain good viability upto 100 years.
114
2. Active collections : The accessions in an active collection are stored at temperatures
below 15
0
C (often near 0
0
C), and the seed moisture is kept at 5%. The storage is for
medium duration, i.e., 10-15 years. These collections are actively utilized in breeding
programme. These collections are used for evaluation, multiplication and distribution of
the accessions. They are usually maintained by multiplying the seeds of their own
accessions. But from time to time, base collection material should be used for
regeneration of these collections. Germination test is carried out after every 5-10 years
to assess the reduction in seed viability.
3. Working collections : The accessions being actively used in crop improvement
programmes constitute working collection. Their seeds are stored for 3-5 years at less
than 15
0
C and they usually contain about 10% moisture. These collections are maintained
by the breeders using them.
Core collection
The concept of core collection was proposed by Franked it refers to a subset of base
collection which represents the large collection. Or a limited set of accessions derived from an
existing germplasm collections.
Germplasm activities
There are six important activities related to plant genetic resources.
1. Exploration and collection 4. Documentation
2. Conservation 5. Multiplication and Distribution
3. Evaluation 6. Utilization
Exploration
Exploration refers to collection trips and collection refer to tapping of genetic diversity
from various sources and assembling the same at one place.
The exploration and collection is a highly scientific process. This process takes into
account six important items, viz, (1) sources of collection, (2) priority of collection, (3) agencies
of collection, (4) methods of collection, (5) methods of sampling and (6) sample size.
Merits and Demerits
There are several merits and demerits of exploration and collection of germplasm, some
of which are as discussed below:
Merits
1. Collection helps in tapping crop genetic diversity and assembling the same at one place.
2. It reduces the loss of genetic diversity due to genetic erosion.
3. Sometimes, we get material of special interest during exploration trips.
4. Collection also helps in saving certain genotypes from extinction.
Demerits
115
1. Collection of germplasm especially from other countries, sometimes leads to entry of
new diseases, new insects and new weeds.
2. Collection is a tedious job.
3. Collector, sometimes has encounter with wild animals like elephants, tigers etc.
4. Transportation of huge collections also poses difficulties in the exploration and
collection.
2. Germplasm conservation
Conservation refers to protection of genetic diversity of crop plants from genetic erosion.
There are two important methods of germplasm conservation or preservation.
or
Germplasm conservation refers to maintain the collected germplasm in such a state that
there is minimum risk for its loss and that either it can be planted directly in the field or it can be
prepare for planting with relative ease when ever necessary.
There are two important methods of germplasm conservation or preservation viz.,
1. In situ conservation 2. Ex situ conservation
1. I n situ conservation
Conservation of germplasm under natural habitat is referred to as in situ conservation.
This is achieved by protecting this area from human interference : such an area is often called
as natural park, biosphere reserve or gene sanctuary. A gene sanctuary is best located within
the centre of origin of crop species concerned, preferably covering the microcenter with in
the centre of origin. NBPGR, New Delhi is making attempts to establish gene sanctuaries in
Meghalaya for Citrus and in the North-Eastern region for Musa, Citrus, Oryza, Saccharum
and Megifera.
This method of preservation has following main disadvantages
1) Each protected area will cover only very small portion of total diversity of a crop
species, hence several areas will have to be conserved for a single species.
2) The management of such areas also poses several problems.
3) This is a costly method of germplasm conservation
Merits : Gene sanctuaries offer the following two advantages.
1. A gene sanctuary not only conserves the existing genetic diversity present in
the population, it also allows evolution to continue. As a result, new alleles and
new gene combinations would appear with time.
2. The risks as sociated with ex situ conservation are not operative.
2. Ex situ conservation
116
Conservation of germplasm away from its natural habitat is called ex situ germplasm
conservation. This method has following three advantages.
1) It is possible to preserve entire genetic diversity of a crop species at one place.
2) Handling of germplasm is also easy
3) This is a cheap method of germplasm conservation
Preservation in the form of seed is the most common and easy method, relatively safe,
requires minimum space and easy to maintain. Glass, tin or plastic containers are used for
preservation and storage of seeds. The seed can be conserved under long term, medium term and
short term storage conditions.
Roberts in 1973 classified seeds on the basis of their storability, into twomajor groups.
viz.,
1. Orthodox seeds 2. Recalcitrant seeds
1. Orthodox Seeds : Seeds of this type can be dried to low moisture content of 5% and
stored at a low temperature without losing their viability are known as orthodox seeds.
Most crop seeds belong to this category. Such seeds can be easily stored for long periods;
their longevity increases in response to lower humidity and storage temperature. Eg.
Wheat, Rice, Corn, Chickpea, Cotton, Sunflower
2. Recalcitrant seeds : The viability of this group of seeds drops drastically if their
moisture content is reduced below 12-30%. Seeds of many forest and fruit trees, and of
several tropically crops like Citrus, cocoa, coffee, rubber, oil palm, mango, jackfruit, etc.
belong to this group. Such seeds present considerable difficulties in storage. They
require in situ conservation.
3. Evaluation
Evaluation refers to screening of germplasm in respect of morphological, genetical,
economic, biochemical, physiological, pathological and entomological attributes.
Evaluation requires a team of specialists from the disciplines of plant breeding,
physiology, biochemistry, pathology and entomology. First of all a list of descriptors (characters)
for which evaluation has to be done is prepared. This task is completed by a team of experts from
IPGRI, Rome, Italy. The descriptors are ready for various crops. The evaluation of germplasm is
down in three different places, viz., (1) in the field, (2) in green house, and (3) in the laboratory.

4. Documentation
It refers to compilation, analysis, classification storage and dissemination of information.
In plant genetic resources, documentation means dissemination of information about various
activities such as collection, evaluation, conservation, storage and retrieval of data. Now the term
117
documentation is more appropriately known as information system. Documentation is one of the
important activities of genetic resources. Large number of accessions are available in maize, rice,
wheat, sorghum, potato and other major crops. About 7.3 million germplasm accessions are
available in 200 crops species. Handling of such huge germplasm information is only possible
through electronic computers.
5. Distribution
The specific germplasm lines are supplied to the users on demand for utilization in the
crop improvement programmes.
1. Distribution of germplasm is the responsibility of the gene bank centres
2. The germplasm is usually supplied to the workers who are engaged in research work of a
particular crop species.
3. Supplied free of cost to avoid cumbersome work of book keeping.
4. The quantity of seed samples depends on the availability of seed material and demands
5. Proper records are maintained about the distribution of material.
6. It helps in acclimatization and purification of the material.
6. Utilization
It refers to use of germplasm in crop improvement programmes. The germplasm can be
utilized in various ways. The uses of cultivated and wild species of germplasm are briefly
discussed below:
a) Cultivated Germplasm
It can be used in three main ways: (1) as a variety, (2) as a parent in the hybridization,
and (3) as a variant in the gene pool.
b) Wild Germplasm
it is used to transfer resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses, wider adaptability and
sometimes quality such as fibre strength in cotton.
Organizations associated with germplasm
IPGRI International Plant Genetic Resources Institute
NBPGR National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources

Lecture No: 24
CENTRES OF DIVERSITY AND GENE BANKS
Gene Sanctuaries
The genetic diversity is sometimes conserved under natural habitat. The areas of great
genetic diversity are protected from human interference. These protected areas in natural habitat
118
are referred to as gene sanctuaries. Gene sanctuary is also known as natural park or biosphere
reserve. Gene sanctuary is generally established in the centre of diversity or microcenter. India
has setup its first gene sanctuary in the Garo Hills of Assam for wild relatives of citrus. Efforts
are also being made to setup gene sanctuaries for Banana, Sugarcane, Rice and Mango. In
Ethiopia gene sanctuary for conservation of wild relatives of coffee was setup in 1984.
Gene sanctuaries have two main advantages.
1. It protects the loss of genetic diversity caused by human intervention.
2. It allows natural selection and evolution to operate.
3. The risks associated with ex situ conservation are not operative
There are two main drawbacks of gene sanctuary.
1. Entire variability of a crop species can not be conserved.
2. Its maintenance and establishment is a difficult task.
3. It is a very good method of in situ conservation.
Genetic Erosion
Genetic erosion refers to loss of genetic diversity between and within populations of the
same species over a period of time.
or
Gradual reduction in genetic diversity in the populations of a species, due to elimination
of various genotypes, is called genetic erosion.
Thus genetic erosion leads to reduction of the genetic base of a species due to human
intervension and environmental changes.
There are five main reasons of genetic erosion
1. Replacement of land races with improved cultivars : The main features of modern
cultivars are high yield, uniformity, narrow genetic base and narrow adaptability. On the
other hand land races and primitive cultivars have more genetic diversity, broad genetic
base, wider adaptability and low yield potential. Thus replacement of land races with
modern cultivars has resulted in reduction in genetic diversity because land races are
disappearing.
2. Modernization of agriculture : Clean and modern agriculture, Improved crop
management practices has resulted in the elimination of wild and weedy forms of many
crops. These weedy forms enhance the genetic diversity through introgression of genes
from crop to weedy forms and weedy forms to crop plants.
3. Extension of farming into wild habitats : It has resulted in destruction of wild relatives
of various crops resulting in reduction of their genetic diversity.
119
4. Grazing into wild habitats : Grazing of animals in the wild habitat also reduces genetic
diversity by destroying the wild and weedy forms of crop plants.
5. Developmental activities like Hydroelectric projects, growth of towns, cities, roads, air
ports and industrial areas also lead to genetic erosion of crop plants, because vast areas
are cleaned for such activities.
Extinction
Extinction refers to permanent loss of a crop species due to various reasons.
Introgression
Transfer of few genes from one species into the full diploid chromosome complement of
another species.
Gene banks
Gene bank refers to a place or organization where germplasm can be conserved in living
state. Gene banks are also known as germplasm banks. The germplasm is stored in the form of
seeds, pollen or in vitro cultures, or in the case of a field gene banks, as plants growing in the
field. Gene banks are mainly of two types, viz.,
1. Seed gene banks
2. Plant or field gene banks
3. Meristem gene banks
4. Cell and organ gene banks and
5. DNA gene banks
1. Seed gene banks :
A place where germplasm is conserved in the form of seeds is called seed gene banks.
Seeds are very convenient for storage because they occupy smaller space than whole plants.
However, seeds of all crops can not be stored at low temperature in the seed banks. The
germplasm of only orthodox species (whose seed can be dried to low moisture content
without losing variability) can be conserved in the seed banks. In the seed banks, there are
three types of conservation, viz., (1) short term, (2) medium term, and (3) long term. Base
collections are conserved for long term (50 years or more) at 18 or 20
0
C. Active
collections are stores for medium term
(10-15 years) at zero degree Celsius and working collection are stored for short term (3-5
years) at 5-10
0
C. The main advantages of gene banks are as follows.
1) Large number of germplasm samples or entire variability can be conserved in a very
small space.
120
2) In seed banks, handling of germplasm is easy
3) Germplasm is conserved under pathogen and insect free environment
There are some disadvantages of germplasm conservation in the seed banks.
1) Seed of recalcitrant species can not be stored in seed banks
2) Failure of power supply may lead to loss of viability and there by loss of germplasm
3) It requires periodical evaluation of seed viability. After some time multiplication is
essential to get new or fresh seeds for storage.
2. Field Gene banks
Field gene banks also called plant gene banks are areas of land in which germplasm
collections of growing plants are assembled. This is also ex situ conservation of germplasm.
Those plant species that have recalcitrant seeds or do not produce seeds readily are conserved in
Field gene banks. In field gene banks, germplasm is maintained in the form of plants as a
permanent living collection. Field gene banks are often established to maintain working
collections of living plants for experimental purposes. Field gene banks have been established in
many countries for different crops.
Field gene banks in some countries
Name of country Crop species for which field gene bank is established
Malaysia Oil palm has been conserved on 500 hectares
Indonesia Earmarked 1000 hectare area for coconut and other perennial crops
Philippines South East Asia germplasm of banana has been conserved
India Global collection of coconut has been conserved in Andman & Nicobar

Field gene banks have some advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages
1. It provides opportunities for continuous evaluation for various economic characters.
2. It can be directly utilized in the breeding programme
Disadvantages
1. Field gene banks can not cover the entire genetic diversity of a species. It can cover only
a fraction of the full range of diversity of a species.
2. The germplasm in field gene banks is exposed to pathogens and insects and sometimes is
damaged by natural disasters such as bushfires, cyclones, floods, etc.
121
3. Maintenance of germplasm in the field gene banks is costly affair
Meristem gene banks
Germplasm of asexually propagated species can be conserved in the form of meristems.
This method is widely used for conservation and propagation of horticultural species. In vitro
method can be used in two ways. First for storage of tissues under slow growth conditions.
Second, for long term conservation of germplasm by cryopreservation. In cryopreservation, the
tissues are stored at a very low temperature i.e. at -196
0
C in liquid nitrogen. At this temperature,
all biological processes virtually come to a stop.
Shoot Tip Gene Banks
In such gene banks, germplasm is conserved as slow growth cultures of shoot-tips and
nodal segments. Their regeneration consists of sub-culturing the cultures, which may be done
every 6 months to 3 years. The chief merits for the conservation of germplasm of vegetatively
propagated crops and tree species.
1. Genotypes of the accessions can be conserved indefinitely free from diseases and pests.
2. They can be used for such crops, which either do into produce seeds or produce
recalcitrant seeds.
3. Subculture becomes necessary only after relatively long periods (every 6-36 months).
4. Regeneration i.e., subculturing, requires a comparatively very short time.
In addition, cuttings, bulbs and tubers can be maintained under controlled humidity and
temperature conditions; however, this approach is practical for the short and medium term
storage, and it should be used in conjunction with a field gene bank.
Cell and Organ Gene Banks
A germplasm collection based on cryopreserved (at -196
0
C in liquid nitrogen)
embryogenic cell cultures, shoot-tips and or somatic/zygotic embryos may be called cell and
organ bank. The techniques for cryopreservation of plant cells and tissues are being rapidly
refined, and some such banks have been established, e.g., for potato in Germany.
DNA Gene Banks
In these banks, DNA segments from the genomes of germplasm accessions are
maintained as cosmid clones, phage lysates or pure DNA (the last one being for relatively short
periods). These DNA segments can be evaluated and the desired ones may be used to produce
transgenic plants. This approach is applicable to the conservation of genetic materials of already
extinct species since DNA extracted from well preserved herbarium specimens can often be
cloned. However, it is very expensive and highly sophisticated. A world-wide network of DNA
banks for threatened / endangered species has been established.
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Lecture No: 25 & 26
IDEOTYPE BREEDING

Crop ideotype refers to model plants or ideal plant type for a specific environment. In
broad sense an ideotype is a biological model which is expected to perform or behave in a
predictable manner within a defined environment. More specifically, crop ideotype is a plant
model which is expected to yield greater quantity of grains, fibre, oil or otheruseful product
when developed as a cultivar. The term ideotype was first proposed by Donald in 1968 working
on wheat.
Ideotype Breeding
Ideotype breeding can be defined as a method of crop improvement which is use to
enhance genetic yield potential through genetic manipulation of individual plant character.
Main features of ideotype breeding are
1. Emphasis on individual trait
In ideotype breeding, emphasis is given on individual morphological and physiological
trait which enhances the yield. The value of each character is specified before initiating the
breeding work.
2. Includes yield enhancing traits
Various plant characters to be included in the ideotype are identified through correlations
analysis. Only those characters which exhibit positive association with yield are included in the
model.
3. Exploits physiological variation
Genetic differences exist for various physiological characters such as photosynthetic
efficiency, photo respiration, nutrient uptake, etc. Ideotype breeding makes use of genetically
controlled physiological variation in increasing crop yields, besides various agronomic traits.
4. Slow progress
Ideotype breeding is a slow method of cultivar development, because incorporation of
various desirable characters from different sources into a single genotype takes long time.
Moreover, sometimes undesirable linkage affects the progress adversely.

5. Selection
In ideotype breeding selection is focused on individual plant character which enhance the
yield

6. Designing of model
123
In ideotype breeding, the phenotype of new variety to be developed is specified in terms
of morphological and physiological traits in advance.
7. Interdisciplinary approach
Ideotype breeding is in true sense an interdisciplinary approach, it involves scientist from
the disciplines of genetics, breeding, physiology, pathology, entomology etc.
8. A continuous process
Ideotype breeding is a continuous process, because new ideotypes have to be developed
to meet changing and increasing demands.
Differences between traditional and ideotype breeding
S.
No.
Traditional Breeding Ideotype Breeding
1. The main objective is defined before
initiating the breeding work.
The conceptual theoretical model is prepared
before initiation of breeding work
2. Selection is focused on yield and some
other characters.
Selection is focused on individual plant
characters.
3. It usually includes various morphological
and economic characters.
It includes various morphological, physiological
and biochemical plant characters
4. Value of each character is not fixed in
advance
Value of each trait is defined in advance.
5. This is a simple and rapid method of
cultivar development
This is a difficult and slow method of cultivar
development.
6. The phenotypic of a new variety is not
specified in advance
Phenotype of new variety to be developed is
specified in advance.

Features of crop ideotypes
The crop ideotype consists of several morphological and physiological traits which
contribute for enhanced yield or higher yield than currently prevalent crop cultivars. The
morphological and physiological features of crop ideotype differ from crop to crop and
sometimes within the crop also depending upon whether the ideotype is required for irrigated
cultivation or rainfed cultivation. Ideal plant types or model plants have been discussed in
several crops like wheat, rice, maize, barley, cotton and beans. The important features of
ideotype from some crops are

Wheat
124
The term ideotype was coined by Donald in 1968 working on wheat. He proposed
ideotype of wheat with following main features:
1. A short strong stem. It imparts lodging resistance and reduces the losses due to lodging.
2. Erect leaves. Such leaves provide better arrangement for proper light distribution
resulting in high photosynthesis or CO
2
fixation.
3. Few small leaves. Leaves are the important sites of photosynthesis, respiration and
transpiration. Few and small leaves reduce water loss due to transpiration.
4. Larger ear. It will produce more grains per ear.
5. An erect ear. It will get light from all sides resulting in proper grain development.
6. Presence of awns. Awns contribute towards photosynthesis.
7. A single culm.
RICE
The concept of plant type was introduced in rice breeding by Jennings in 1964, through
the term ideotype was coined by Donald in 1968. He suggested that in rice an ideal or model
plant type consists of
1. Semi dwarf stature
2. High tillering capacity and
3. Short, erect, thick and highly angled leaves
4. More panicles /m
2
,
5. High (55% ore more) harvest index.
Now emphasis is also given on physiological traits in the development of rice ideotype.
MAIZE
IN 1975, Mock and Pearce proposed ideal plant type of maize.
1. Stiff-vertically-oriented leaves above the ear.
2. Maximum photosynthetic efficiency.
3. Efficient translocation of photysynthate into grain.
4. Short interval between pollen shed and silk emergence.
5. Small tassel size.
6. Photoperiod insensitivity
7. Cold tolerance
8. Long Grain-filling period
BARLEY
Rasmusson (1987) reviewed the work on ideotype breeding and also suggested ideal
plant type of six rowed barley.
125
1. Short stature
2. Long awns
3. High harvest index
4. High biomass.
Kernel weight and kernel number were found rewarding in increasing yield.
COTTON
Ideotype for irrigated cultivation
1. Short stature (90-120 cm)
2. Compact and sympodial plant habit making pyramidal shape
3. Determinate in fruiting habit with unimodal distribution of bolling
4. Short duration (150-165 days)
5. Responsive to high fertilizer dose
6. High degree of inter plant competitive ability
7. High degree of resistance to insect pests and diseases, and
8. High physiological efficiency.
Rainfed conditions (Singh and Narayanan 1993)
1. Earliness (150-165 days)
2. Fewer small and thick leaves
3. Compact and short stature, indeterminate habit
4. Sparse hairiness,
5. Medium to big boll size
6. Synchronous bolling
7. High response to nutrients
8. Resistance to insects and diseases.
FACTORS AFFECTING IDEOTYPES
There are several factors which affect development of ideal plant type. These are briefly
discussed below:
1. Crop Species
Ideotype differs from crop to crop. The ideotype of monocots significantly differs from
those of dicots. In monocots, tillering is more important whereas in dicots branching is one of the
important features of ideotype.

2. Cultivation
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The ideotype also differs with regard to crop cultivation. The features of irrigated crops
differ from that of rainfed crop. The rainfed crop needs drought resistance, fewer and smaller
leaves to reduce water loss through transpiration. In dicots, indeterminate types are required for
rainfed conditions, because indeterminate type can produce another flush of flowers if the first
flush in affected by drought conditions.
3. Socio-economic Condition of Farmers
Socio-economic condition of farmers also determines crop ideotype. For example, dwarf
Sorghum is ideal for mechanical harvesting in USA, but it is not suitable for the farmers of
Africa where the stalks are used for fuel or hut constructions.
4. Economic Use
The ideotype also differ according to the economic use of the crop, for example, dwarf
types are useful in Sorghum and pearl millet when the crop is grown for grain purpose. But when
these crops are grown for fodder purpose, tall stature is desirable one. Moreover, less leafy types
are desirable for grain purpose and more leafy genotypes for fodder purpose. The larger leaves
are also desirable in case of fodder crop.
STEPS IN IDEOTYPE BREEDING
Ideotype breeding consists of four important steps,
1. Development of Conceptual Model
The values of various morphological and physiological traits are specified to develop a
conceptual theoretical model. For example, values for plant height, maturity duration, leaf size,
leaf number, angle of leaf, photosynthetic rate etc., are specified. Then efforts are made to
achieve this model.
2. Selection of Base Material
Selection of base material is an important step after development of conceptual model of
ideotype. Genotypes to be used in devising a model plant type should have broad genetic base
and wider adaptability. Genotypes for plant stature, maturity duration, leaf size and angle and
resistance are selected from the global gene pool of the concerned crop species. Genotypes
resistant or tolerant to drought, soil salinity, alkalinity, diseases and insects are selected from the
gene pool with the cooperation of physiologist, soil scientist, pathologist and entomologist.

3. Incorporation of Desirable Traits
The next important step in combining of various morphological and physiological traits
from different selected genotypes into single genotype . Various breeding procedures, viz single
cross, three way cross, multiple cross, backcross, composite crossing, intermating, mutation
127
breeding, heterosis breeding etc., are used for the development of ideal plant types in majority of
field crops.
4. Selection of Ideal Plant Type
Plants combining desirable morphological and physiological traits are selected in
segregating populations and intermated to achieve the desired plant type. Morphological features
are judged through visual observations and physiological parameters are recorded with the help
of sophisticated instruments. Screening for resistance to drought, soil salinity, alkalinity, disease
and insects is done under controlled conditions.
PRACTICAL ACHIEVEMENTS
Ideotype breeding has significantly contributed to enhanced yields in cereals (wheat and
rice) and millets (Sorghum and pearl millet) through the use of dwarfing genes, resulting in green
revolution. Semidwarf varieties of wheat and rice are highly responsive to water use and nitrogen
application and have wide adaptation. The Norin 10 in wheat and Dee-geo-Woo-gen in rice are
the sources of dwarfing genes. The genic cytoplasmic male sterile systems in Sorghum and pearl
millet laid the foundation of green revolution in Asia (Swaminathan, 1972). Thus ideotype
breeding has been more successful for yield improvement in cereals and millets than in other
crops.

Lecture No: 27, 28 & 29

BREEDING FOR BIOTIC STRESS RESISTANCE
DISEASE RESISTANCE
Stress: Constraining influence, force, pressure or adverse conditions for crop growth caused by
biological or environmental factors.
Biotic (living) : Adverse effects due to pests and diseases abiotic stresses
Abiotic (non living) : Adverse effects on host due to environmental factors
eg: Drought, water logging, heat, cold, salinity, alkalinity and air pollution etc.

Host : Plant effected by a disease or which can accommodate pathogen.
Pathogen : An organism that produces the disease
Disease : an abnormal conditions in the plant caused by an organism (pathogen)
Pathogenicity : The ability of a pathogen to infect a host strain
Virulence : Capacity of a pathogen to incite a disease
Avirulence : The inability of a pathogen to cause or incite a disease
Physiological race : Strains of a single pathogen species with identical or similar morphology
but differ in pathogenic capabilities.
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Pathotype : Strains of a pathogen classified on the basis of their virulence to known resistance
genes present in the host.
Epidemic : Severe and sudden out break of disease beginning from a low level of infection.
Variability in fungal pathogens:
a) Hybridization: Recombination of genes of the two parental nuclei takes place in the
zygote, and the haploid nuclei or gametes resulting after meiosis are different both from
gametes that produced the zygote and from each other.
Thus every diploid pathogen individual is genetically different from any other pathogen
even within the same species and variability of the new individual pathogens is continued
indefinitely.
e.g., Phytophthora infestans.
b) Heterokaryosis: Condition in which fungal hyphae that are genetically different come
together in the same cell to form heterokaryons.
c) Parasexualism : Parasexuality re-assortment of genetic material both in haploid and
diploid condition, ready for natural and artificial selection.
Mixtures of races grown together on a susceptible host combine genetically to produce
new races e.g. phytophthora infestans
d) Mutation: The rate at which new variants of a pathogen are produced will depend on the
mutation rate of the genes at a particular locus. The mutation rate varies from gene to
gene and from pathogen to pathogen.
e.g. Melampsora lini new race produced with UV rays (Flor 1956)
e) Cytoplasmic adaptation: There are several examples of cytoplasmic inheritance of
important characteristics such as growth rate and virulence (Jinks 1966).
Virulence of P.graminis f. sp. Avenae, carrying gene E, is maternally inherited and may
be controlled by single plasma gene (Johnson et al 1967)
MECHANISMS OF DISEASE RESISTANCE:
There are different ways of disease resistance viz., disease escape, disease endurance or
tolerance disease resistance and immunity
1. Disease escape : The ability of susceptible host plants to avoid attack of disease due to
environmental conditions factors, early varieties, charge in the date of plating, change in
the site of planting; balanced application of NPK etc.
Eg. Early varietie s of groundnut and potato may escape Tikka and Late blight diseases
respectively since they mature before the disease epidemic occurs.
Changing planting season in sugarcane from June to October has successfully escaped
leaf-rust.
129
Virus free seed potato is produced by sowing the crop in October in Jullundher and other
places instead of November, the normal planting time.
2. Disease endurance or tolerance : The ability of the plants to tolerate the invasion of the
pathogen without showing much damage. This endurance is brought about by the
influence of external characters. Generally, tolerance is difficult to measure since it is
confounded with partial resistance and disease escape. To estimate tolerance the loss in
yield and some other trait of several host varieties having the same amount of disease eg.,
leaf area covered by disease etc., is compared.
Eg. In Barley the variety Proctor shows 13% yield loss as compared to 20% loss in the
varieties Zephy and Sultan.
Wheat varieties when fertilized with potash and phosphorus are more tolerant to
the rust and mildew infection.
The Rice crop fertilized with silicate is resistant to blast infection in Japan.
3. Disease Resistance : The ability of plants to withstand, oppose or overcome the attack of
pathogens. Resistance is a relative term and it generally refers to any retardation in the
development of the attacking pathogen. In case of resistance, disease symptoms to
develop and the rate of reproduction is never zero i.e., r? o but it is sufficiently lower than
1 (the rate of reproduction on the susceptible variety) to be useful. The inhibition of
growth of the pathogen is believed to be nutrional in nature and in some cases chemical
growth inhibitors may be involved.
Resistance is largely controlled by inherited characters i) may be controlled by single
dominant gene in Ottawa 770 B, Newland flax variety, wheat all rusts NP 809
4. Immunity: When the host does not show the symptoms of disease it is known as immune
reaction. Immunity may result from prevention of the pathogen to reach the appropriate
parts of the host e.g. exclusion of spores of ovary infecting fungi by closed flowering
habit of wheat and barley. It is more generally produced by hypersensitive reaction of the
host usually immediately after the infection was occurred. In immune reaction the rate of
reproduction in zero i.e. r = 0
5. Hypersensitivity: Immediately after the infection several host cells surrounding the
point of infection are so sensitive that they will die. This leads to the death of the
pathogen because the rust mycelium cannot grow through the dead cells. This super
sensitivity (hypersensitivity) behaves as a resistant response for all practical purposes.
Phytoalexins are specific polyphenolic or terpenoid chemicals and are produced by the
host in response to the infection by a pathogen. More than 30 different phytoalexins have
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been identified. Phytoalexins are either fungicidal or fungistatic. Eg. Rust fungi and virus
attack.
Factors for disease resistance (Causes of Disease resistance)
The disease resistance may be caused due to
1. Morphological, structural and functional characteristics which prevents the entrance of
the pathogen i.e. prevents the first stage of infection.
2. Biochemical or anatomical properties of tissue which prevent the establishment of
parasitic relationship.
a. Morphological characters
Certain morphological features of the host may prevent infection.
Eg. Resistance to Jassid attack in cotton has been shown to be correlated with the hariness of
varieties : hairy type resists the attack more, than glabrous types.
Failure to germinate rust spores on the leaves of the barley due to waxy coating.
Young sugarbeet leaves practically immune to attack of the circos pora because the
stomata size is very small.
b. Physiological characters
Protoplasmic factors or chemical interactions :
By virtues of its chemical composition the protoplasm may exert an inhibitory influence
on the pathogen bringing about the desired resistance in the plant.
Eg. : Resistance of grape to powdery mildew is highly correlated with the acidity of cell sap.
Presence of toxic substance in the red pigment in the coloured onions. The outer scales resist
the smudge fungus attack when the scales are removed they become susceptible.
c. Anatomical: More secondary thickening of the cell walls of resistant potato
varieties which resists the mechanical puncture of the invading Pythium pathogen.
d. Nutritional factors : Reduction in growth and in spore production is generally
supposed to be due to unfavourable physiological conditions within the host. Most
likely a resistant host does not fulfill the nutritional requirements of the pathogen and
thereby limits its growth and reproduction.
e. Environmental factors : In addition to the above the environmental factors
have marked effect on the pathogen attack. Temperature, moisture, humidity and soil
P
H
and fertility status of the soil effects the pathogen reaction greatly.
Genetic basis of disease resistance
131
The first study on genetics of disease resistance was done by Biffen in 1905. He reported
the inheritance of resistance to leaf rust of wheat variety Rivet in crosses with some susceptible
varieties. In F
2
there were 3 susceptible : 1 resistant plants indicating that resistance was
controlled by a single recessive gene. Most of the earlier studies were conducted without taking
into consideration the physiological specialization (pathotype differentiation) of the pathogen
which can materially influence the conclusions drawn. It is now recognized that disease
resistance may be inherited in three different ways :
Oligogenic
Polygenic and
Cytoplasmic inheritance
Oligogenic inheritance:
The disease resistance is governed by one or few major genes and resistance is generally
dominant to the susceptible reaction. The action of major resistance genes may be altered by
modifying genes in many cases. Eg. bunt resistance in Wheat. Oligogenes generally produce
immune reaction. The chief characteristic of the oligogenic disease resistance is pathotype-
specificity, i.e. resistant gene is effective against some pathogens, while it is ineffective against
the others. In most cases, there are a number of major genes that determines resistance to a
particular disease Eg. more than 20 different resistance genes are known for leaf rust of wheat,
while those for stem rust resistance exceed 30. The genetics of oligoganic resistance has
advanced by two events viz.,
1. Discovery of a resistance gene to the prevalent pathotype and
2. Evolution of a pathotype virulent to the new resistance gene.
Oligogenic resistance is synonymous to vertical resistance.

Gene for gene hypothesis:
The concept of gene for hypothesis was first developed by Flor in 1956 based on his studies of
host pathogen interaction in flax rust caused by Malampsora lini. The gene for gene hypothesis
states that for each gene controlling resistance in the host, there is a corresponding gene
controlling pathogenicity in the pathogen. The resistance of host is governed by dominant genes
and virulence of pathogen by recessive genes. The genotype of host and pathogen determine the
disease reaction. When genes in host and pathogen match for all the loci, then only the host will
show susceptible reaction. If some gene loci remain unmatched, the host will show resistant
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reaction. Now gene-for -gene relationship has been reported in several other crops like potato,
Sorghum, wheat etc. The gene for gene hypothesis is known as Flor Hypothesis.
A simple scheme to explain gene for gene relationship hypothesis (Fehr, 1987)
Varieties Host genotype Pathogen genotypes Disease Reaction
1. One gene pair AA aa Susceptible
Aa
BB bb Susceptible
Bb
2. Two gene pair AA CC aa Resistant
Aa CC cc Resistant
Aa Cc aacc Susceptible
3. Three gene pair AA BB CC aa bb Resistant
AA BB CC aa cc Resistant
Aa Bb Cc aabbcc susceptible

Note: Dominant genes in the host are responsible for resistance and recessive genes in the
pathogen for virulence.
Vertifolia Effect : Vander plank introduced the term vertifolia effect and refers to epidemic
development in a variety carrying vertical resistance genes (oligogenes) leading to heavy
economic losses. Total failure of vertical resistance leading to a disease epidemic is known as
vertioalia effect. This failure occurs because of two reasons :
1. The level of horizontal resistance in varieties carrying oligogenes is usually low and
2. The pathogen is able to evolve new virulent pathotypes.
Polygenic inheritance
In this type the disease resistance is governed by many genes with small effects and a
continuous variation for disease reaction is produced. The genes show additive and non additive
effects and the environmental effect is also observed. The polygenic resistance does not show
pathotype-specificity as against the oligogenic resistance. It is almost same as horizontal
resistance. In some cases the polygenic inheritance may have a oligogenic component, the
oligogenes acting in an additive manner eg. bacterial blight resistance in cotton
Cytoplasmic inheritance :
Resistance in some cases is determined by cytoplasmic genes or plasma gene(s).
Eg. The T-male sterilizy cytoplasm (cms-T) in maize is extreamly susceptible
to Helminthosporium leafblight, while the non-T cytoblasms are resistant to this
disease.
Vertical and Horizontal Resistance (Vander plank)
Feature Vertical resistance Horizontal resistance
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1. Pathotype specificity Specific Non specific
2. Nature of gene action Oligogenic Polygenic; rarely oligogenic
3. Response to pathogen Usually, hypersensitive Resistant response
4. Phenotypic expression Qualitative Quantitative
5. Stage of expression Seedling to maturity Expression increases as plant matures
6. Selection and evaluation Relatively easy Difficult
7. Host pathogen interaction Present Absent
8. Commonly used, synonyms Major: gene, race-specific
seedling, monogenic,
pathotype specific resistance
Polygenic, race nonspecific,
pathotype-nonspecific, mature plant,
adult plant, field uniform resistance
9. Efficiency Highly efficient against
specific races
Variable, but operates against all
races

Sources of Disease Resistance
Resistance to diseases may be obtained from four different sources :
1. A known variety
2. Germplasm collection
3. Related species
4. Through mutations
1. A known variety: Disease reactions of most of the cultivated varieties are documented
and a breeder may find the resistance he needs in a cultivated variety. Resistant plants
were also lated from commercial varieties as in the case of cabbage yellows in cabbage
curlytop resistance etc. These provide the basis for new resistance varieties.
2. Germplasm collection : When resistance to a new disease or a new pathotype of a
disease is not known in a cultivated variety germplasm collection should be screened.
Several instances disease resistance were found from the germplasm collections.
Eg. resistance to neckblotch in barley resistance to wilt in watermelon
3. Related species : Often the resistance to a disease may be found in related species and
transferred through interspecific hybridization.
Eg. Resistance to stem, leaf & stripe rusts of wheat
4. Mutation : Resistance to diseases may be obtained through mutation arising
spontaneously or induced through mutagenic treatments.
Eg.
1. Resistance to Victoria blight in oats was induced by irradiation with x-rays or
thermal neutrons / also produced spontaneously
2. Resistance to stripe rust in wheat
3. Resistance to brown rust in oats
4. Resistance to mildew in barley
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5. Resistance to rust in linseed
6. Resistance to tikka leaf spot and stem root in groundnut

Vertical and Horizontal Resistance (Van der plank)
Vertical Resistance is generally d etermined by major genes and is characterized by
pathotype specificity. Clearly immune or susceptible response in the case of vertical resistance
depends on the presence of virulent pathotype. When virulent pathotype becomes frequent,
epidemics are common in the cases of vertical resistance. Thus an avirulent pathotype will
produce an immune response i.e. r=0 or close to 0 but the virulent pathotype will lead to
susceptible reaction i.e. r=1. It is also known as race specific, pathotype specific or simply
specific resistance.

Horizontal Resistance
Race non-specific, pathotype-nonspecific and partial, general or field resistance.
Horizontal resistance is generally controlled by polygenes i.e. many genes with small effects and
it is pathotype nonspecific. In this case, the reproduction rate is not zero but it is less than one.
Poly genes, govern horizontal resistance.

Methods of Breeding for Disease Resistance
The methods of breeding for disease resistance are essentially same as those used for
other agronomic traits. They are :
1. Introduction
2. Selection
3. Hybridization
4. Budding & Grafting
5. Mutation Breeding
6. Biotechnological methods.

1. Introduction : Resistant varieties may be introduced for cultivation in a new area.
Eg.
Early varieties of groundnut introduced from USA have been resistant to leaf spot
(Tikka)
135
Kalyanasona and Sonalika wheat varieties originated from segregating material
introduced from CIMMYT, Mexico, were rust resistant.
African bajra introductions have been used in developing downy mildew resistant
cms lines.
2. Selection : Selection of resistant plants from commercial varieties is easiest method.
Eg.
Kufri Red potato is selection from Darjeeling Red round
Pusa Sawani behind (yellow mosaic) selection from a collection obtained from
Bihar
MCU I was selection from CO4 for black arm resistance in cotton
3. Hybridization : Transfering disease resistance from one variety or species to the other.
a. Pedigree method is quite suitable for horizontal resistance. Artificial disease
epiphytolics are produced to help in selection for disease resistance.
Eg. In wheat Kalyana Sona, Sonalaka, Malvika 12
Malvika 37, Malavika 206, Malavika 234
Laxmi in Cotton (Gadag 1 x CO2) for leaf blight resistance
b. Backcross method is used to transfer resistance genes from an undersirable
agronomic variety to a susceptible, widely adoptable and is agronomically highly
desirable variety.
If the resistant parent is a wholly unadapted variety, backcross method is a logical
choice.
If resistant variety also possess some good qualities then chose pedigree method of
handling segregating material.
4. Budding & Grafting : The disease resistance in vegetatively propogated material is
transferred by adopting either by budding or grafting. By grafting or budding the resistant
material, the resistance can be transferred.
5. Mutation Breeding : When adequate resistance is not available in the germplasm ;
Mutation breeding is resorted to induce resistance. This is also us ed to break the linkages
between desirable resistant genes and other desirable genes.
Precautions
1. The donor parent must possess the required amount of resistance
2. It must be simply inherited without any linkage
3. The recovery in the recipient parent should be more
4. Proper condition for full expression of the resistant genes has to be provided
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Advantages with breeding for disease resistance
1. Helps in reducing the losses caused by patogens
2. Reduces the high cost of disease control by chemical treatment
3. Helps to avoid the use of poisonous fungicides
4. Only method available to some specific diseases like viruses, wilt etc.
Limitations
1. Linkage of resistant genes with genes of inferior quality
2. Occurrence of physiological races of varying capacities
3. Self sterility in host plants
Utilization and achievements
1. Rice ADT 10 x Co4 (resistant to blast)
2. Potato Solanum tuberosum x Solanum demissum
(susceptible to late blight) (wild resistant to late blight)
F
1
backcrossed with Sol. tuberosum
Resistant variety
Varieties resistant to different diseases
Rice : Blast Co25, Co26,
Wheat : all three rusts : NP 809
Yellow rust : NP 785, NM86
Black rust : NP 789
Brown rust : NP 783, NP 784
Sugarcane : Red rot Co 419, Co 421, Co 527
Cotton : Wilt Vijay, Kalyan, Suyog
Groundnut : Tikka leafspot Ah 45
Chilli : Mosaic resistant Pusa red, Pusa orange
INSECT RESISTANCE

Global average loss due to insect pests is 14%. Estimated losses in individual crops vary
from 5% in wheat to 26.7% in rice and still more in crops like cotton & sugarcane.
Insect Resistance :
1. The ability of a plant to withstand, oppose or overcome the attack of an insect in known
as insect resistance.
2. It is the property of a variety or a host crop due to which it is attacked by an insect pest to
a significantly lower degree than are other varieties of the same host.
Contd/- 27,28&29
137
Biotypes : Strains of a species of an insect pest, differing in their ability to attack different
varieties of the same host species (syn: Physiological races)
Host Habitation :
1. Polyphagy 3. Seasonal Oligophagy
2. Oligophagy 4. Monophagy
1. Polyphagy : Insects feed on a vide range of hosts avoiding few plant species. Eg. Scales
& moths.
2. Oligophagy : Live on one taxonomic unit only. Eg. Hessianfly on wheat
3. Seasonal oligophagy : Insects may live on many species in one part of the year and on
few in another part of the year. Eg : Aphids.
4. Monophagy : Avoid all hosts except one particular species or variety Eg. Boll weevil on
cotton.
Mechanism of Insect Resistance :
Insect resistance is grouped into four categories :
1. Non preference 2. Antibiosis
3. Tolerance 4. Avoidance
1. Non preference : Host Varieties exhibiting this type of resistance are unattractive or
unsuitable for colonization, oviposition or both by an insect pest. This type of resistance
in also termed as non-acceptance and
anti-xenosis. Non preference involves various morphological and biochemical features of
host plants such as color, hairness, leaf angle, taste etc.
2. Antibiosis : Ant ibiosis refers to an adverse effect of feeding on a resistant host plant on
the development and/or reproduction of the insect pest. In severe cases, it may even lead
to the death of the insect pest. Antibiosis may involve morphological, physiological or
biochemical features of the host plant; some cases of insect resistance invol ve a
combination of features. Eg. Resistance to BPT is due to antibiosis & non preference
3. Tolerance : An insect tolerant variety is attacked by the insect pest to the same degree as
a susceptible variety. But at the same level of infestation, a tolerant variety produces a
higher yield than a susceptible variety. Ability of the host plant to withstand the insect
population to a certain extent which might have damaged a more susceptible host.
Tolerance is mainly a host character and it may be because of greater recovery from pest
damage. Eg. Rice varieties tolerant to stem borer/gall midge produce additional tillers to
compensate yield losses (as in stem borer in sorghum) or due to the ability of host to
suffer less damage by the pest eg. aphid tolerance in Sugarbeet & Brassica sps. And
138
green bugs tolerance in cereals. Inheritance of tolerance is complex in many cases and is
supposed to be governed by polygenes.
4. Avoidance : Pest avoidance is the same as disease escape , and as such it is not a case of
true resistance Mostly insect avoidance result from the host plants being at a much less
susceptible developmental stage when the pest population is at its peak.
Eg. 1. Early maturing cotton varieties escape pinkboll worm infestation, which
occurs late in the season.
Nature of Insect Resistance / Factors for insect -resistance
Insect resistance may involve :
1. Morphological
2. Physiological (or)
3. Biochemical features of the host plant
1. Morphological features : Morphological factors like, hairiness, colour, thickness and
toughness of tissues etc. are known to confer insect resistance.
a) Hairiness of leaves is associated with resistance to many insect pests leaf beetle in
cereals, in cotton to Jassids , in turnip to turnip aphid.

b) Colour of plant : Color may contribute to non preference in some cases.
For example : Red cabbage, Red leaved brussels sprouts are less favored than green
varieties by butterflies and certain Lepidoptera for oviposit ion. Boll worms prefer green
cotton plants to red ones.
c) Thickness and Toughness of plant Tissues prevent mechanical obstruction to feeding
and oviposition and thereby lead to non-preference as well as antibiosis.
Eg.
1. Thick leaf lamina in cotton contributes to Jassid resistance
2. Solid stem in wheat confers resistance to wheat stem sawfly
3. Thick and tough rind of cotton bolls makes it difficult for the boll worm
larve to bore holes and enter the bolls.
Other characters : also contribute to insect resistance.
Eg. 1. Gossypium arboretum varieties with narrow lobed and leathery leaves are more
resistant to Jassids than are those with broad lobed and succulent leaves.
2. Cotton varieties with longer pedicels are more resistant to boll worms.
139
2. Physiological Factors : Osmotic concentration of cell sap, various exudates etc; may be
associated with insect resistance.
Eg.
1) Leaf hairs of some solanum sps. secrete gummy exudates. Aphids and
coloradobeetles get trapped in these exudates.
2) Exudates from secondary trichomes of Medicago disciformis leaves have antibiotic
effects on alfalfa weevil.
3) Cotton- High osmotic concentration of cell sap is associated with Jassid resistance.
3. Biochemical Factors : Several biochemical factors are associated with insect resistance in
many crops. It is believed that biochemical factors are more important than
morphological and physiological factors in conferring non-preference and antibiosis.
Eg.
1) High concentrations of gossypol is associated with resistance in several insect pests
in cotton.
2) In rice high silica content in shoots gives resistance to shoot borer
Genetics of Insect Resistance
Insect resistance is governed by -
1. Oligogenes 2. Polygenes 3. Cytoplasmic genes
1. Oligogenic Resistance : Insect resistance is governed by one or few major genes or
oligogenes, each gene having a large and identifiable individual effect on resistance.
Oligogenic resistance may be conditioned by the dominant or the recessive allele of the
concerned gene. The differences between resistant and susceptible plants are generally
large and clear-cut. In several cases, resistance is governed by a single gene (monogenic
resistance)
Eg. In wheat to green bugs In cotton to Jassids
In apple to woolly aphis In rice to plant & leaf hopper
2. Polygenic Resistance : It is governed by several genes, each gene producing a small and
usually cumulative effect. Such cases of resistance.
1) Involve more than one feature of the host plant
2) Are much more durable than the cases of oligogenic resistance.
3) Difference between resistance & susceptible plants are not clear cut
4) Transfer of resistance is much more difficult
Examples for polygenic resistance
1) In wheat to cereal leaf beetle
140
2) In alfalfa to spotted aphid
3) In rice to stem borer
4) In maize to ear worm and leaf aphid
Evolution of resistance breaking biotypes is almost rare.
3. Cytoplasmic Resistance : governed by plasmagenes
Eg. 1. Resistance to European corn borer in maize
2. Resistance to root aphid in lettuce
Sources of Insect Resistance
1. A cultivated variety 3. A related wild species
2. Germplasm collections. 4. An unrelated organisms
1. Cultivated variety : Resistance to many insect pests may be found among the cultivated
varieties of the concerned crop.
Varieties SRT 1, Khand waz ; DNJ 286 and B 1007 of G. hirsuturn are good sources of
resistance to Jassids.

2. Germplasm collection :
Eg.
1) In apples for rosy apple aphid, green apple, apple maker and apple saw-fly.
2) In cotton, several strains resistant to Jassids.
3. Related wild species :
Eg.
1) Resistance to both the species of potato nematodes has been transferred fro
Solanum vernei to potato
2) Jassid resistances is known in wild relatives of cotton G. tomentosum;
G.anomalum and G.armourianum
4. An unrelated organism : It is done through recombinant DNA technology
a) The Cry gene of Bacillus thuringiensis is the most successful example.
Other genes of importance are the
b) Protease inhibitor encoding genes found in many plants eg. the cowpea pea, trypsin
inhibitor (cp TI) gene.

Breeding Methods for Insect Resistance
1. Introduction 2. Selection
3. Hybridization 4. Genetic Engineering
1. Introduction :
Eg. Phylloxera vertifoliae resistance grape root-stocks from U.S.A. into france.
2. Selection :
Eg.
1) Resistance to potato leaf hopper
2) Resistance to spotted alfalfa aphid
141
3. Hybridization : Pedigree oligogenic characters
Back cross Polygenic characters
4. Genetic Engineering : B.theningiensis (cry gene) resistance in maize, soybean, cotton etc.
Screening Techniques for determining resistance
The most crucial and, perhaps , the most difficult task in breeding for insect resistance is the
identification of insect resistant plant during segregation generations. There are two types of
screeings
1. Field Screening 2. Glass house screening
Field Screening :
The techniques designed to promote uniform infestation by an insect pest in the field are
1. Inter planting a row of known susceptible variety between two rows of testing material.
2. Screening in highly prone areas
3. in case Soil insect pests to be tested in sick plots only
4. Testing in a particular season when the infestation is very high.
Eg. Rice stem borer in off season.
5. Transferring manually equal number of eggs or larvae to each test plant.
Glass house screening
Result from glass house tests are much more reliable than those from field tests since
both the environment and the initial level of infestations are more or less uniform for all the
plants being tested.
Problems in Breeding for Insect Resistance :
1. Breeding for resistance to are insect pest may leads to the susceptibility to another pest.
Eg. Glabrous strains of cotton are resistant to bollworms but susceptible to Jassids.
2. Reduction is quality or make unfit for consumption.
3. Linkage between desirable & undesirable genes. Inter specific varieties are generally low
yielding and their produce is often of inferior quality.
4. Screening for resistance is the most critical and difficult step is a breeding programme it
necessitates a close co-ordination among scientists belonging to different disciplines.
5. It is a long term programme
Achievements
INDIA
1. India cotton varieties G 27, MCU 7, LRK 516 resistant to boll worms.
2. Rice variety vijaya resistant to leaf hopper
Rice TKM 6, Ratna Stemborer
142
Rice Vajram, chaitanya, Pratibha BPH
Lec No: 30 & 31
BREEDING FOR ABIOTIC STRESS RESISTANCE
DROUGHT RESISTANCE
Drought: Scarcity of moisture (soil moisture) which restricts the expression of full genetic yield
potential of a plant.
Drought resistance: The ability of crop plants to grow, develop and reproduce normally under
moisture stress.
Mechanisms of drought resistance
There are 4 mechanisms of drought resistance.
1. Drought Escapes : It is due to ability of a genotype to mature early, before occurrence of
drought. Drought escape is most common is plants grown is desert region.
Eg. Early maturing varieties of sorghum, maize, bajra, wheat, rice etc; give more yield
than late maturing under drought.
2. Drought Avoidance (Dehydration avoidance) : It is due to the ability of plants to
maintain favourable water balance even under stress. The plants which avoid drought
retain high moisture content is their tissues and lose less water. This is possible either
because of :
i) Increased water uptake (due to increase in root development) plants are called
water spenders.(or)
ii) Reduced water loss (due to reduction in growth of aerial parts are called water
savers (i.e. to avoid transpiration)
Dehydration avoidance is interpreted as the ability of genotypes to maintain high leaf
water potential when grown under soil moisture stress:
Several traits contribute to dehydration avoidance Such as :
Leaf rolling, folding and reflectance narrow leaves, increased pubescence on aerial
organs , presence of awns, osmatic adjustment of stomata, cuticular wax, increased water
uptake ;
Reduced Transpiration : Inc rease is concentration of Abscisic Acid (ABA), closure of
stomata, ABA plays role in reduction of leaf expansion, Promotion of root growth etc.
3. Drought Tolerance (Dehydration tolerance) : Ability of plants to produce higher yield
even under low water potential. In cereals drought tolerance generally occur during
reproductive phase. Tolerant cultivars exhibit better germination, seedling growth and
photosynthesis. Drought tolerance may be because of
143
i. high proline accumulation
ii. maintenance of membrane integrity
4. Drought Resistance : It is the sum total of avoidance and Tolerance. It refers to the
genetic ability of plants to give good yield under moisture stress conditions.
Various morphological, physiological and biochemical features / parameters associated
with drought resistance
a. Morphological
1. Earliness
2. Reduced tillering
3. Leaf characters : Leaf rolling , Leaf folding, Leaf shedding, Leaf reflectance
4. Reduced leaf area : Narrow leaf, Change in leaf angle
5. Hairiness (presence of hairs on leaf and other parts, lowers leaf temperature and
reduce transpiration)
6. Colour of leaves
7. Wax content
8. Awns (eg. wheat and barley)
9. Root system (rooting depth and intensity)
b. Physiological
1. Photosynthesis (efficient system like C4) under stress, photosynthetic efficiency is
reduced due to chloroplast damage.
2. Reduced Transpiration and reduced respiration losses
3. Stomatal behavior (closure of stomata, also change in size and number of
stomata)
4. Osmotic adjustment
5. Leaf enlargement (increase in thickness)
6. Leaf cuticle wax (increases)
c. Biochemical
1. Accumulation of proline and betaine
2. Increase in Abscisic acid (barley) and Ethylene (maize & wheat)
3. Protein synthesis (increases under stress)
4. Nitrate reductase activity
Sources of drought resistance
1. Cultivated varieties
2. Land (old or desi primitive varieties)
144
3. Wild relatives (reported in several crops)
145
For example :
S.No. Crop Wild sps Resistant to
i Wheat Aegilops. variabilis drought
Aegilops speltoides "
Aegilops umbellulata "
Aegilops squarrosa "
ii Sugarcane Sacharum. spontaneam Drought & salinity
4. Transgenes :
Eg. Rab (Responsive to abscisic acid) in rice
Screening / Evaluation
1. Field Env. Highly desirable
2. Green house Env. More precisely controlled than field
Breeding Methods and Approaches
It is important that drought resistance be incorporate in material with high genetic
potential for yield.
1. Yield and yield components are best evaluated under non stress / optimal environments,
while
2. Drought resistance must be evaluated under water stress.
Breeding methods : Methods are same as for yield and other economic characters. Breeding
for drought resistance refers to breeding for yield under moisture stress, i.e. developing varieties
which can give high yields under stress. The common methods are
1. Introduction
2. Selection
3. Hybridization
4. Mutation
5. Biotechnology
Limitations :
1. Generally resistant varieties have low yield
2. Do not have much wider adaptability (as abiotic resistant is location specific)
3. Drought resistant genes may have linkage with undesirable genes.
4. Transfer of resistant genes from wild types may post problem.
5. Drought resistance is a consequence of a combination of characters and single character
can be used for selection.

146
6. Measurement of many drought resistant traits is difficult and problematic, since virtually
all the useful drought resistant traits are under polygenic control. (So pedigree method
most common). But if resistant genes is from agronomically inferior race then 1-2
backcrossing with cultivated type in made. If resistance gene is from wild species-go for
backcrossing breeding.
Generally selection is performed on individual plant progenies instead of individual
plants (i.e. similar to line breeding)
7. Creation of controlled moisture stress Environments
8. Selection require considerable resources

WATER LOGGING
As per Levitt (1980 b) flooding (i.e. water logging) is the presence of water in soil excess
of field capacity. It leads to deficiency of O
2
and build up of Co
2
, Ethylene and other toxic gases
and this leads to reduction in aerobic respiration.
Effects of water logging:
1. Once soil becomes water logged, air space in soil is displaced with water, the O
2
in the
soil in dissolved in water. i.e. O
2
decreases; Co
2
ethylene and other toxic gases increases.
2. O
2
replacement in the soil is very inefficient. Diffusion of atmospheric O
2
into the water
logged soils is very inefficient (because of the slow diffusion of atmospheric O
2
to water
logged soil).
3. Root systems are suddenly plunged into an anaerobic condition. This switching from
aerobic to anaerobic respiration disrupts root metabolism.
4. Carbohydrates level get depletedit is due to
a. Dissipation of metabolism
b. High water temperature
c. Low light
Characteristics of plants in response to water logging stress :
1. Reduced growth / elongation.
2. Chlorosis, senescence and abscission of lower leaves
3. Wilting & leaf curling
4. Hypertrophy (increase in size of organ due to increase in cell size)
5. Epinasty (downward growth of petioles)

147

Mechanisms of tolerance:
1. Adventitious root formation on lower part of stem (close to surface so that O
2
tension is
quickly restored after transient water logging) eg. Tomato
2. Lenticel (i.e. raised pores in the stem of plants) formation
3. Aerenchyma formation (soft plant tissue continues air spaces found in acquatic plants) in
the cortex that provide canal paralled to the axis of the root through which gases can
diffuse longitudinally (eg. rice)
4. Elongation capacity (In rice best elongation response give 100% recovery from
submergence and poorest elongation gives upto 49% recovery)
Scoring for elongation can be done between booting and flowering stage after flooding
the crop to varying depths.
In sugarcane, S. spontaneum has more tolerance to flooding. Some canes gave upto 70%
of their production potential when in continuous flood for 5 months (in an east at canal
point Florida, USA)
Ideotype for flooded areas : The postulated ideotype for flooded areas should have the
following characterstics.
1. Capacity to carry out functional activity at low O
2
concentration (i.e. High cytochrome
activity)
2. Ability for photosynthesis under low light intensity
3. Capacity to synthesis food rapidly
4. Regeneration capacity of shoots when damaged by flood
5. Ability to withstand drought at later growth stage
6. Deep root system
7. Narrow, medium long and dark green leaves with high sugar and protein content.
Breeding methods : Same as in other stresses.
148
BREEDING FOR SALT TOLERANCE
Salt Tolerance: refers to the ability of plants to prevent, reduce or overcome injurious
effects of soluble salts present in their root zone.
It is a global problem as saline and alkali soils are fond in almost all the countries of the
world, more in Semi Arid Tropic (SAT) of world.
Problem of salinity can be overcome by two ways:
1. Soil reclaimation : costly, time consuming and short lived
2. Resistant varieties : less costly, more effective, long lasting require longer period to develop.
Behavior / characteristics of plants to salt :
1. Land races more tolerant than High yielding varieties. Tolerant plants varieties are found
is salt affected areas
2. Salt tolerance capacity differs from species to species. Also genetic differences exist
among cultivars for their salt tolerance capacity.
3. Different crop plants show differential response to salinity
Salinity Crops
a. Highly tolerant crops Sugarbeat, sunflower, barley (grain), cotton,
datepalm, asparagus
b. Moderately Tolerant crops Barley (Forage), rye, soghum, wheat, safflower,
soybean
c. moderately sensitive Rice, corn, foxtail millet, cow pea, peanut,
sugarcane, tomato, potato, sweet potato, radish,
alfalfa, cabbage
d. Extremely sensitive Citrus, straw berry, melon, peas, other legumes,
apple, rajmabean, carrot, okra, onion (orange)
4. Higher ploidy level crops are more tolerant than lower ploidy level crops.
Eg. Hexaploid wheat more tolerant than tetraploid
Tetraploid Brassica more tolerant than diploid Brassica
5. In rice tall, coarse grained, late maturing varieties- more tolerant
6. In sugarcane different strains have differential tolerance Barley more tolerant than wheat.
Symptoms of plants to salt stress :
1. Retardation / cessation of growth
2. Necrosis
3. Leaf abscession
4. Loss of turgor
5. Ultimate death of plant
149

Mechanisms of salt tolerance :
2 types of mechanisms
1. Salt Tolerance : Plants respond to salinity stress by accumulating salt, generally in their
cells or glands and roots etc.
2. Salt avoidance : plants avoid salt stress by maintaining their cell salt concentration
unchanged either by water absorption eg. Rice, chenopodiaceae family or by salt
exclusion eg. Tomato, soybean, citrus, wheat grass
Glycophytes (Non-halophytes) plants owe their resistance primarily to avoidance. Eg. Barley
Hallophytes (plants that grew in salty or alkaline soils) show tolerance by ion accumulation
mechanism
Breeding methods
Breeding methods are same but breeding strategies are
1. Breeding for yield potential should have greater emphasis than breeding for salt
resistance per se (As screening is done on the basis of yield reduction in stress
environment as compared to non-stress Environment.).
2. Selection should be done is stresses target environments (As abiotic stress resistance is an
important part of Environ. Fitness & is bound to be location specific i.e. it is related to
narrow adaptation.
Screening Techniques
Common methods are
1. Sand culture by using nuturient solution in sand & irrigation with saline water
2. Solution culture by using solution culture tanks (Hydroponic culture)
3. Microplot techniques by using small microplots
Microplot Techniques: By using small microplots of size 6 x 3 x 1 m (CSSRI, Karnal, Haryana)
at central soil salinity Research Institute.
Then Multilocation Trial (MLT) conducted over seasons to get more reliable results.
Genotypes which survive better under salinity are considered tolerant & tested further.
Selection criteria
1. Germination (%) is saline medium
2. Dry matter accumulation (seeding / plant dry wt.) / Early vigour
3. Leaf senescence or death Estimated by total dead leaf area or No. of dead leaves
4. Leaf necrosis
5. Leaf ion content
150
6. Osmoregulation (Determined as maintenance of turgor under stress) Measured as proline
or CHo accumulation or accumulation of glycine, betaine etc.
7. Yield Economic yield
Problems
1. Creation of reliable controlled salinity Env.
2. Scoring for salinity resistance
3. Genetic control it is complex & polygenic
4. Mechanisms of resistance poorly understood. Salinity may have interaction with other
stresses.
151
COLD TOLERANCE
When temperatures remain above-freezing i.e. >0
0
C to <10
0
-15
0
C it is called chilling
When temperature. remain below freezing i.e.<0
0
C it is called Freezing.
A. Chilling Resistance:
Chilling sensitive plants are typically tropical plants. Temperate plants are generally
tolerant to chilling injury.
Effects of chilling stress on plants :
1. Reduced germination
2. Poor seedling establishment
3. Stunted growth
4. Wilting
5. Chlorosis
6. Necrosis
7. Pollen sterility
8. Poor fruit set / seed formation
9. Reduced root growth
10. Locked open stomato
11. ABA accumulation
At subcellular level
12. Reduces membrane stability
13. Poor chlorophyll synthesis (affected)
14. Reduced photosynthesis & respiration
15. Toxicity due to H
2
O
2
formation
Chilling Tolerance
Ability of some genotypes to survive / perform better under chilling stress than other
genotypes is called chilling tolerance. It is because of chilling hardening, i.e. an earlier exposure
to a near chilling temperature for a specifie d period as a result of which chilling tolerance of the
concerned plants increases.
Mechanisms of chilling tolerance:
1. Membrane lipid un-saturation
2. Reduced sensitivity of photosynthesis
3. Increased chlorophyll accumulation
4. Improved germination
5. Improved fruit / seed set
152
6. Pollen fertility
Sources of chilling Tolerance :
1. Late adopted breeding populations eg. maize
2. Germplasm (eg. That collected from high altitude , low temperature geographic regions)
3. Induced mutants for cold tolerance
4. Cold tolerant somaclonal variants
5. Related wild species eg. Tomato
Selection criteria
Based on -
1. Germination test
2. Growth under stress (measured as plant dry matter accumulation)
3. Chlorophyll Loss under chilling stress eg. rice, cucumber, tomato (measured as seedling
colour)
4. Membrane stability : (Assayed in terms of solute leakage from tissues)
5. Photosynthesis : Chilling injury to photosynthesis is assayed as variable chlorophyll
fluorescence at 685 nm
6. Seedling mortality
7. Seed / Fruit set
8. Pollen fertility (apply during injury at PMC)
B. Freezing Resistance
Freezing injury / Frost injury / cryo injury
Freezing Stress : Dormant state is conducive to freezing resistance, while resistance in actively
growing tissue is rare : Thus Freezing resistance largely involves surviving freezing stress in
such a manner as to enable subsequent regrowth when the temperature rises.
As water in plants cools below 0
0
C, it may either
1. Freeze i.e. form ice or 2. Super cool without forming ice.
Effects of freezing stress
1. Ice formation : Two types Intercellular ice formation
Intracellular ice formation
Intercellular Ice formation: Initiation of ice formation on plant surface is sufficient to
induce freezing of the internal (intercellular & xylem vessels etc.) water is most plant
species.
153
Intracellular ice formation: It is more lethal may be due to physical disruption of
subcellular structure by ice crysta l. Intracellular ice formation is the major and terminal
freezing stress.
Extracellular ice formation in a cases the concentrations of extracellular solutes, there by
water is withdrawn from the cells during extracellular ice formation. This creates water-
stress in the frozen tissue / plant.
2. Membrane disruptions :
Freezing causes disruptions is and / or alter the semipermeable properties of
plasma membrane
Loss of solutes from the cells occur
Cells remain plasmolyzed even after thawaing which is often called as frost
plasmolysis
Cells may become highly turiel due to uptake of excess water.
3. Suspercooling :
Cooling of water below 0
0
C without ice crystal formation is called supercooling
In plants water may cooldown to -1 to-15
0
C is herbeceour sps and to -40 to -45
0
C
in hardy trees.
This becomes possible apparently because internal ice-nucleators are absence in
such cases.
This is regarded as an important. Mechanism of freezing avoidance
4. Stress due to external factors : Consequent to freezing
1) Ice sheet formation below and above the ground causes reserve depletion anoxia
etc. in plants.
2) Tissues killed during freeze-thaw are highly prone to pathogen attacks
3) Auto toxicity mary occur

Mechanism of Freezing Resistance :
The ability of a genotype to survive freezing stress and to recover and re grow after
thawing is known as freezing resistance. Freezing resistance is a complex trait involving
physiological, chemical & physical processes at the tissue and cell level.
Mechanism of Freezing resistance.
1. Freezing avoidance : The ability of plant tissues / or genes (but the whole plants) to
avoid ice formation at sub zero temperature is called freezing avoidance
154
Supercooling is a mechanism of freezing avoidance it is controlled by
1. Lack of ice-nucleators 2. Small cell size
3. Little or no intercellular space 4. Low moisture content
5. Barriers against external nucleators 6. Presence of antinucleators
2. Freezing Tolerance : Ability of plants to survive the stresses generated by extra cellular
ice formation and to recover and regrow after thawing is known as freezing tolerance.
The various components of freezing tolerance are as follows:
1) Osmotic adjustment
2) Amount of bound water
3) Plasma membrane stability
4) Cell wall components properties
5) Cold-responsive proteins Eg. ABA
Sources of freezing tolerance
1. Cultivated varieties
2. Germplasm lines
3. Induced Mutations
4. Related wild species Eg. Wheat Agropyron sps; rye
Barley H. jubatum, H.brachyantherum x H.bogdanii, H.jubatum x H.compressum
Oats Avena sterilis
5. Transgenes : Eg. chemical Synthe sized antifreeze protein gene, ala 3, in tobacco
Selection criteria:
Based on
1. Field survival
2. Freezing test in laboratory
3. Cryo freezing
4. Osmoregulation
Problems in breeding for freezing tolerance
1. Freezing Tolerance is a complex trait & involves several components. So, it is not ready
measurable under field conditions
2. Breeding work under field conditions is highly influenced by other environ factors and
biotic stresses
3. Due to large G X E for the trait field survival shows poor heritability
4. Freezing tolerance also shows a large GXE interaction which limits progress under
selection
155
5. Laboratorytests are yet to be developed to screen large breeding population

Lecture. No. 32

Genotype Environment Interaction and Adaptation

It is established that P = G + E,
Phenotype (p) is the function of the genotype (G) and environment (E). this is relevant to an
individual subjected to a particular environmental condition. When the same individual is
subjected to more than one kind of environment, its phenotypic expression for any trait may
often change. Then, the differences is phenotypic expression for any trait cannot be accounted
for by G and E alone, since P > G + E.
This lack of correspondence between heritable and non-heritable effects, or the remainder
of P that cannot be accounted for by G and E, is attributed to the interaction of G with E (i.e.
G X E).
Then
P = G + E + (G X E)
This holds true for all the individuals or populations which tend to behave differentially
in diverse environmental conditions due to genotype x environment interaction.
Genotypes, Environments and their Interaction
1. Genotypes (G) : Comprises all the crop varieties (cultivars), improved or unimproved,
homogeneous or heterogeneous, under domestication, and genetic stocks in the breeders
nursery.
2. Environments (E) : Plants surrounded and influenced by physical, chemical and
biological conditions of their habitat. All these conditions constitute an environment.
These conditions might vary over time (years or seasons) and space (locations or
altitudes).
According to Comstock and Moll, 1963 there are two types environments Micro
Environment & Macro Environment.
Micro -environment : The environment of a single plant or organism as opposed to that of
another growing at the same time in almost the same place is known as micro environment. Each
member of a population is subjected to a specific environment of its own. The individual itself
contributes to its environment by way of maintaining a certain level of temperature and humidity
around it. This micro environ differ from one individual to another in a pop. And includes solar
radiation, disease and pest incidence and soil factors and weather fluctuations.
156
Macro -environment : The environment associated with variables having large and easily
recognizable effect is termed as macro-environment and may include differences over years,
locations (latitude / altitude) fertilizer levers, planting dates, irrigation schedules etc.
A macro environment can be riewed as a collection of micro environments whose
individuals effects on organism are quite small.
Allard and Bradshaw (1964) : classified the environmental variation into two types:
1. Predictable and 2. Unpredictable variations.
Predictable component variations : include all the permanent attributes features of the
environment, such as climate, edapthic factors (soil types), day length (photo period), agronomic
practices such as planting dates, plant density, water management, fertilization etc.
Unpredictable variations / component : All the uncontrollable actors i.e. it include
fluctuations, mild or violent, in weather / season / year with respect to annual precipitation
(rainfall), temperature, relative humidity, etc. coupled with variant agronomic practices.
Genotypes x Environment Interaction It is the differential behaviour of the genotype under
varietal environmental conditions. This concept was put forth by Allard.
The performance of a crop variety in there resultant effect of its genotype and the
environment in which it grows. The variety may perform differently in different environments.
The interplay of genetic and non-genetic effects causing differential relative performances of
different genotypes (varieties) in different environments is called genotype environment (GE)
interaction.
Table: Yield of varieties in two locations (e.x)
Variety Location
Yield quintal per acre
Maruteru
Yield quintal per acre
Nizamabad
Surekha 18.00 23.00
Pothanna 16.00 27.00
Mean 17.00 25.00

Each genotype attends its maximum biological performance in a particular environment. Due to
negative G E interaction environmental element fall short to produce, of the required biological
optimum. Depending on the optimally considerations of different genotypes it is possible to
develop genotype suited to or tailored for a range of environments
157
ADAPTATION : It is the capacity of genotypes to adjust themselves in a specific or particular
environmental condition, so as to reach a certain level of phenotypic expression.
TYPES OF ADAPTATION
There are four types of adaptation, viz., (1) specific genotypic adaptation, (2) general
genotypic adaptation, (3) specific population adaptation and (4) general population adaptation.
These are briefly described below.
1. Specific Genotypic Adaptation: It is the close adaptation of a genotype to a limited
environment. For the production of rice in a deep water area; a varietys capacity for
rapid inter-node elongation is an essential feature of its specific adaptation.
2. General Genotypic Adaptation: It refers to the capacity of a genotype to produce a
wide range of phenotypes compatible with a range of environments. Semi-dwarf varieties
of wheat and rice which can be grown over a wide range of environmental conditions are
examples of this type of adaptation (i.e., adaptability).
3. Specific Population Adaptation: It refers to the capacity of a heterogeneous population
to adapt to specific environment. A composite or a varietal mixture giving stable
production is an example of this category. Here the competition is between the
components of variety or mixture rather than adaptation of components themselves.
4. General Population Adaptation: It is the capacity of heterogeneous populations to
adapt to a variety of environments. Synthetic varieties of forage crops are example of this
type of adaptation. This property of adaptation is specific to an individual genotype or a
group of genotypes and is termed as homeostasis.
1. Morphological adaptation : Growth habit, stalk strength, radial symmetry of rhizome etc.
2. Physiological adaptation : Resistance to parasites, greater ability to compete for nutrients
or to stand desiccation.
158
TYPES OF ADAPTATION
Adaptation

Genotypic adaptation Population Adaptation
It is associated with the individual It is related with the
genotype whether homozygous (inbred) heterozygous population in a
or heterozygous (hybrid) in an specific specified environment
environment

Specific genotypic General genotypic Specific Population General Population
Adaptation Adaptation Adaptation Adaptation

Adaptation of a Wide range of Heterogeneous popl Heterogeneous popl
Genotype to a Phenotypes compatible to adapt to specific to adapt to a variety
Limited envrnt. With the range of environment of environments like
e.g., Rice in deep environment e.g., composites e.g., synthetic varities
water area e.g., Semi-dwarf wheat popl in soil salinity
varieties

ADAPTABILITY : is the ability of a genotype to produce a relatively narrow range of
phenotypes in different environments. It is the result of genetic homeostatis, refers to the
buffering capacity of a genotype to environmental fluctuations.
STABILITY: It refers to its performance with respective changing environmental factors
overtime within a given location. This means that a stable variety is less sensitive to the temporal
environmental changes that may take place.
MODELS FOR STABILITY ANALYSIS :
1. Finlay and Wilkinson Model (1963)
2. Eberhart and Russell Model (1966)
3. Perkins and Jinks Model (1968)
4. Freeman and Perkins Model (1971)
Eberhart and Russel (1966) Model
This is the widely used model and it is relatively simple yet quite informative.
They defined a stable variety as one with regression co-efficient of unity (b=1) and a
minimum deviation from the regression line (S
2
d = 0, i.e. not significantly different from
zero) with high mean.

159

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DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS AND PLANT BREEDING

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