MODULE 2

ONE DIMENSIONAL STEADY STATE

HEAT CONDUCTION
2.1 Objectives of conduction analysis:

The primary objective is to determine the temperature field, T(x,y,z,t), in a body (i.e. how
temperature varies with position within the body)
T(x,y,z,t) depends on:
- Boundary conditions
- Initial condition
- Material properties (k, cp, ρ)
- Geometry of the body (shape, size)

Why we need T (x, y, z, t)?

- To compute heat flux at any location (using Fourier’s eqn.)
- Compute thermal stresses, expansion, deflection due to temp. Etc.
- Design insulation thickness
- Chip temperature calculation
- Heat treatment of metals

2.2 General Conduction Equation

Recognize that heat transfer involves an energy transfer across a system boundary. A
logical place to begin studying such process is from Conservation of Energy (1st Law of
Thermodynamics) for a closed system:
dE
= Q& in − W&out
dt system

The sign convention on work is such that negative work out is positive work in.
dE
= Q& in + W&in
dt system

The work in term could describe an electric current flow across the system boundary and
through a resistance inside the system. Alternatively it could describe a shaft turning across
the system boundary and overcoming friction within the system. The net effect in either case
would cause the internal energy of the system to rise. In heat transfer we generalize all such
terms as “heat sources”.
dE
= Q& in + Q& gen
dt system

The energy of the system will in general include internal energy, U, potential energy, ½ mgz,
or kinetic energy, ½ mE2. In case of heat transfer problems, the latter two terms could often
be neglected. In this case,
( ) (
E = U = m ⋅ u = m ⋅ c p ⋅ T − Tref = ρ ⋅ V ⋅ c p ⋅ T − Tref )
where Tref is the reference temperature at which the energy of the system is defined as zero.
When we differentiate the above expression with respect to time, the reference temperature,
being constant, disappears:
dT
ρ ⋅ cp ⋅ V ⋅ = Q& in + Q& gen
dt system

Consider the differential control element shown below. Heat is assumed to flow through the
element in the positive directions as shown by the 6 heat vectors.

qz+Δz
qx

qy
qy+Δy

qx+Δx
z qz
y

In the equation above we substitute the 6 heat inflows/outflows using the appropriate sign:

ρ ⋅ cp ⋅ (Δ x ⋅ Δ y ⋅ Δ z) ⋅
dT
= q x − q x + Δx + q y − q y + Δy + qz − qz + Δz + Q& gen
dt system

Substitute for each of the conduction terms using the Fourier Law:
∂T ⎧ ∂T ⎡ ∂T ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ⎤⎫
ρ ⋅ c p ⋅ (Δx ⋅ Δy ⋅ Δz ) ⋅ = ⎨− k ⋅ (Δy ⋅ Δz ) ⋅ − ⎢− k ⋅ (Δy ⋅ Δz ) ⋅ + ⎜ − k ⋅ (Δy ⋅ Δz ) ⋅ ⎟ ⋅ Δx ⎥ ⎬
∂t system ⎩ ∂x ⎣ ∂x ∂x ⎝ ∂x ⎠ ⎦⎭
⎧⎪ ∂T ⎡ ∂T ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ⎤ ⎫⎪
+ ⎨ − k ⋅ ( Δ x ⋅ Δ z) ⋅ − ⎢ − k ⋅ ( Δ x ⋅ Δ z) ⋅ + ⎜ − k ⋅ ( Δ x ⋅ Δ z) ⋅ ⎟ ⋅ Δ y ⎥ ⎬
⎪⎩ ∂y ⎣ ∂y ∂y ⎝ ∂y ⎠ ⎦ ⎪⎭
⎧ ∂T ⎡ ∂T ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ⎤⎫
+ ⎨ − k ⋅ (Δ x ⋅ Δ y) ⋅ + ⎢ − k ⋅ (Δ x ⋅ Δ y) ⋅ + ⎜ − k ⋅ (Δ x ⋅ Δ y) ⋅ ⎟ ⋅ Δ z⎥ ⎬
⎩ ∂z ⎣ ∂z ∂z ⎝ ∂z ⎠ ⎦⎭
q ⋅ (Δ x ⋅ Δ y ⋅ Δ z)
+ &&&

q is defined as the internal heat generation per unit volume.

where &&&
The above equation reduces to:
⎧ ⎡∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ⎤ ⎫
ρ ⋅ cp ⋅ (Δ x ⋅ Δ y ⋅ Δ z) ⋅ = ⎨ − ⎢ ⎜ − k ⋅ (Δ y ⋅ Δ z) ⋅ ⎟ ⎥ ⋅ Δ x ⎬
dT
dt system ⎩ ⎣ ∂x ⎝ ∂x ⎠ ⎦ ⎭
 ⎧⎪ ⎡ ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ⎤ ⎫⎪
+ ⎨ − ⎢ ⎜ − k ⋅ ( Δ x ⋅ Δ z) ⋅ ⎟ ⋅ Δ y ⎥ ⎬
⎪⎩ ⎣ ∂ y ⎝ ∂y ⎠ ⎦ ⎪⎭
⎧⎡ ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ⎤⎫
+ ⎨ ⎢ ⎜ − k ⋅ ( Δ x ⋅ Δ y ) ⋅ ⎟ ⋅ Δ z ⎥ ⎬ + &&&
q ⋅ (Δ x ⋅ Δ y ⋅ Δ z)
⎩ ⎣ ∂z ⎝ ∂z ⎠ ⎦⎭
Dividing by the volume (Δx⋅Δy⋅Δz),
dT ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞
ρ ⋅ cp ⋅ =− ⎜−k⋅ ⎟ − ⎜ − k ⋅ ⎟ − ⎜ − k ⋅ ⎟ + &&&
q
dt system
∂x ⎝ ∂x ⎠ ∂y ⎝ ∂y ⎠ ∂z ⎝ ∂z ⎠
which is the general conduction equation in three dimensions.

In the case where k is independent of x, y and z then

ρ ⋅ c p dT ∂ 2 T ∂ 2 T ∂ 2 T &&& q
⋅ = 2 + 2 + 2 +
k dt system
∂x ∂y ∂z k
Define the thermodynamic property, α, the thermal diffusivity:
k
α ≡
ρ ⋅ cp
Then
1 dT ∂ 2 T ∂ 2 T ∂ 2 T &&& q
⋅ = 2 + 2 + 2 +
α dt system
∂x ∂y ∂z k
or, :
1 dT &&&
q
⋅ = ∇ 2T +
α dt system
k
The vector form of this equation is quite compact and is the most general form. However, we
often find it convenient to expand the del-squared term in specific coordinate systems:

Cartesian Coordinates
L
1 ∂T ∂ 2T ∂ 2T ∂ 2T q
⋅ = + + +
a ∂τ ∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 k

Circular Coordinates

Z
R

Θ
x
 L
1 ∂T 1 ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ 1 ∂ 2T ∂ 2T q
⋅ = ⎜r ⋅ ⎟+ ⋅ + +
a ∂τ r ∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠ r 2 ∂θ 2 ∂z 2 k

Spherical Coordinates

φ
r
y

ϕ
x

L
1 ∂T 1 ∂ ⎛ 2 ∂T ⎞ 1 ∂ 2T 1 ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ q
⋅ = ⎜ r ⋅ ⎟ + ⋅ + ⋅ ⎜ sin θ ⋅ ⎟+
a ∂τ r ∂r ⎝
2
∂r ⎠ r ⋅ sin θ ∂φ
2 2 2
r sin θ ∂θ ⎝
2
∂z ⎠ k

In each equation the dependent variable, T, is a function of 4 independent variables, (x,y,z,τ);

(r, θ ,z,τ); (r,φ,θ,τ) and is a 2nd order, partial differential equation. The solution of such
equations will normally require a numerical solution. For the present, we shall simply look at
the simplifications that can be made to the equations to describe specific problems.

• Steady State: Steady state solutions imply that the system conditions are not changing
with time. Thus ∂T / ∂τ = 0 .
• One dimensional: If heat is flowing in only one coordinate direction, then it follows
that there is no temperature gradient in the other two directions. Thus the two partials
associated with these directions are equal to zero.
• Two dimensional: If heat is flowing in only two coordinate directions, then it follows
that there is no temperature gradient in the third direction. Thus the partial derivative
associated with this third direction is equal to zero.
L
• No Sources: If there are no heat sources within the system then the term, q = 0 .

Note that the equation is 2nd order in each coordinate direction so that integration will result
in 2 constants of integration. To evaluate these constants two additional equations must be
written for each coordinate direction based on the physical conditions of the problem. Such
equations are termed “boundary conditions’.

2.3 Boundary and Initial Conditions

• The objective of deriving the heat diffusion equation is to determine the temperature
distribution within the conducting body.
 • We have set up a differential equation, with T as the dependent variable. The solution
will give us T(x,y,z). Solution depends on boundary conditions (BC) and initial
conditions (IC).
• How many BC’s and IC’s ?
- Heat equation is second order in spatial coordinate. Hence, 2 BC’s needed
for each coordinate.
* 1D problem: 2 BC in x-direction
* 2D problem: 2 BC in x-direction, 2 in y-direction
* 3D problem: 2 in x-dir., 2 in y-dir., and 2 in z-dir.
- Heat equation is first order in time. Hence one IC needed.

2.4 Heat Diffusion Equation for a One Dimensional System

q&

T1 q T2
Ax

y
L

Consider the system shown above. The top, bottom, front and back of the cube are insulated,
so that heat can be conducted through the cube only in the x direction. The internal heat
generation per unit volume is q& (W/m3).

Consider the heat flow through an arbitrary differential element of the cube.

qx qx+Δx
From the 1st Law we write for the element:

( E& in − E& out ) + E& gen = E& st (2.1)

∂E
q x − q x + Δx + Ax (Δx )q& = (2.2)
∂t
∂T
q x = − kA x
∂x
(2.3)

∂q x
q x + Δx = q x + Δx (2.4)
∂x
∂T ∂T ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ∂T
− kA + kA + A ⎜ k ⎟ Δ x + A Δ x q& = ρ Ac Δ x
∂x ∂x ∂x ⎝ ∂x ⎠ ∂t
(2.5)
∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ∂T
⎜ k ⎟ + q& = ρ c Δ x
∂x ⎝ ∂x ⎠ ∂t

Longitudinal Internal heat

conduction generation Thermal inertia
(2.6)

∂ 2T q& ρ c ∂ T 1 ∂T
If k is a constant, then + = =
∂x 2
k k ∂t α ∂t (2.7)

• For T to rise, LHS must be positive (heat input is positive)

• For a fixed heat input, T rises faster for higher α
• In this special case, heat flow is 1D. If sides were not insulated, heat flow could be
2D, 3D.

2.5 One Dimensional Steady State Heat Conduction

The plane wall:

 d ⎛ dT ⎞
The differential equation governing heat diffusion is: ⎜k ⎟=0
dx ⎝ dx ⎠

With constant k, the above equation may be integrated twice to obtain the general solution:
T ( x ) = C1 x + C 2
where C1 and C2 are constants of integration. To obtain the constants of integration, we apply
the boundary conditions at x = 0 and x = L, in which case
T (0) = Ts ,1 and T ( L) = Ts , 2
Once the constants of integration are substituted into the general equation, the temperature
distribution is obtained:
x
T ( x ) = (Ts , 2 − Ts ,1 ) + Ts ,1
L
The heat flow rate across the wall is given by:

qx = − kA
dT kA
= (Ts ,1 − Ts ,2 ) = Ts ,1 − Ts ,2
dx L L / kA

Thermal resistance (electrical analogy):

Physical systems are said to be analogous if that obey the same mathematical equation. The
above relations can be put into the form of Ohm’s law:
V=IRelec

Using this terminology it is common to speak of a thermal resistance:

ΔT = qRtherm

A thermal resistance may also be associated with heat transfer by convection at a surface.
From Newton’s law of cooling,
q = hA(Ts − T∞ )
the thermal resistance for convection is then
T − T∞ 1
Rt ,conv = s =
q hA
Applying thermal resistance concept to the plane wall, the equivalent thermal circuit for the
plane wall with convection boundary conditions is shown in the figure below
The heat transfer rate may be determined from separate consideration of each element in the
network. Since qx is constant throughout the network, it follows that
T − Ts ,1 Ts ,1 − Ts , 2 Ts , 2 − T∞ , 2
q x = ∞ ,1 = =
1 / h1 A L / kA 1 / h2 A
In terms of the overall temperature difference T∞ ,1 − T∞ , 2 , and the total thermal resistance Rtot,
the heat transfer rate may also be expressed as
T − T∞ , 2
q x = ∞ ,1
Rtot
Since the resistance are in series, it follows that
1 L 1
Rtot = ∑ Rt = + +
h1 A kA h2 A

Composite walls:
Thermal Resistances in Series:
Consider three blocks, A, B and C, as shown. They are insulated on top, bottom, front and
back. Since the energy will flow first through block A and then through blocks B and C, we
say that these blocks are thermally in a series arrangement.

The steady state heat flow rate through the walls is given by:
 T∞ ,1 − T∞ , 2 T∞ ,1 − T∞ , 2
qx = = = UAΔT
∑ Rt 1 L A LB LC 1
+ + + +
h1 A k A k B k C h2 A

1
where U = is the overall heat transfer coefficient. In the above case, U is expressed as
Rtot A
1
U=
1 L A LB LC 1
+ + + +
h1 k A k B k C h2

Series-parallel arrangement:

The following assumptions are made with regard to the above thermal resistance model:
1) Face between B and C is insulated.
2) Uniform temperature at any face normal to X.

1-D radial conduction through a cylinder:

One frequently encountered problem is that of heat flow through the walls of a pipe or
through the insulation placed around a pipe. Consider the cylinder shown. The pipe is either
insulated on the ends or is of sufficient length, L, that heat losses through the ends is
negligible. Assume no heat sources within the wall of the tube. If T1>T2, heat will flow
outward, radially, from the inside radius, R1, to the outside radius, R2. The process will be
described by the Fourier Law.
T2
T1
R1

R2

L
 1 d ⎛ dT ⎞
The differential equation governing heat diffusion is: ⎜r ⎟=0
r dr ⎝ dr ⎠

With constant k, the solution is

The heat flow rate across the wall is given by:

qx = − kA
dT kA
= (Ts,1 − Ts,2 ) = Ts ,1 − Ts ,2
dx L L / kA
ln rr12
Hence, the thermal resistance in this case can be expressed as:
2πkL

Composite cylindrical walls:

Critical Insulation Thickness :

ln( rr0i ) 1
Rtot = +
2πkL ( 2πr0 L)h

Insulation thickness : ro-ri

Objective : decrease q , increase Rtot
Vary ro ; as ro increases, first term increases, second term decreases.
This is a maximum – minimum problem. The point of extrema can be found by setting

dRtot
=0
dr0
or, 1 1
− =0
2πkr0 L 2πhLro2

or, k
r0 =
h
In order to determine if it is a maxima or a minima, we make the second derivative zero:

d 2 Rtot r0 =
k
= 0 at
dro2 h

d 2 Rtot −1 1 h2
= + 2 = 0
dro 2
2πkro L πro hL r = k
2
2πLk 3
0
h

Minimum q at ro =(k/h) = rcr (critical radius)

1-D radial conduction in a sphere:

 1 d ⎛ 2 dT ⎞
⎜ kr ⎟=0
r 2 dr ⎝ dr ⎠
→ T ( r ) = Ts ,1 − {Ts ,1 − Ts , 2}⎢⎢ 11−−((rr1 //rr )) ⎥⎥
⎡ ⎤

⎣ 1 2 ⎦

dT 4π k (Ts ,1 − Ts , 2 )
→ qr = − kA =
dr (1 / r1 − 1 / r2 )
1 / r1 − 1 / r2
→ Rt ,cond =
4π k

2.6 Summary of Electrical Analogy

System Current Resistance Potential Difference

Electrical I R ΔV
Cartesian L
Conduction q ΔT
kA
Cylindrical
ln r2
Conduction q r1 ΔT
2πkL
Conduction 1 / r1 − 1 / r2
through sphere q ΔT
4π k
Convection 1
q ΔT
h ⋅ As

2.7 One-Dimensional Steady State Conduction with Internal Heat

Generation

Applications: current carrying conductor, chemically reacting systems, nuclear reactors.

E&
Energy generated per unit volume is given by q& =
V
Plane wall with heat source: Assumptions: 1D, steady state, constant k, uniform q&
d 2T q&
+ =0
dx 2 k
Boundary cond. : x = − L, T = Ts ,1
x = + L, T = Ts ,2
q& 2
Solution : T = − x + C1 x + C2
2k
Use boundary conditions to find C1 and C2
q&L2 ⎛ x 2 ⎞ Ts , 2 − Ts ,1 x Ts , 2 + Ts ,1
Final solution : T = ⎜⎜1 − 2 ⎟⎟ + +
2k ⎝ L ⎠ 2 L 2

dT
Heat flux : q′x′ = −k
dx

Note: From the above expressions, it may be observed that the solution for temperature is no
longer linear. As an exercise, show that the expression for heat flux is no longer independent
of x. Hence thermal resistance concept is not correct to use when there is internal heat
generation.

Cylinder with heat source: Assumptions: 1D, steady state, constant k, uniform q&

Start with 1D heat equation in cylindrical co-ordinates

1 d ⎛ dT ⎞ q&
⎜r ⎟+ =0
r dr ⎝ dr ⎠ k
Boundary cond. : r = r0 , T = Ts
dT
r = 0, =0
dr
q& 2 ⎛ r2 ⎞
Solution : T ( r ) = r0 ⎜⎜1 − 2 ⎟⎟ + Ts
4k ⎝ r0 ⎠

Exercise: Ts may not be known. Instead, T∞ and h may be specified. Eliminate Ts, using T∞
and h.