Writing Across the Curriculum

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Introduction: Writing Across the Curriculum
What is it?
Teachers across the
disciplines use
writing-to-learn and
writing-to-
demonstrate-
knowledge
Basic Principles of Writing Across the Curriculum (WAC)
In response to the need of students to learn content using a variety of strategies and their
need to practice writing in a variety of contexts, many teachers have adopted the strategies
associated with WAC. The following principles underlie WAC:

Writing promotes learning,
Integration of writing and the writing process promotes student participation, a
diversity of student voices, and engage students as critical thinkers while promoting
their texts as important resources and thinking tools,
Effective writing instruction integrates disciplines,
Opportunities to write in every class develops good writers,
Using writing as part of instruction can be used in every classroom,
Only by practicing the thinking and writing conventions of an academic discipline will
students begin to communicate effectively within that discipline.
to enhance the
learning of students
in all disciplines.
What's In It For Teachers and Students?
Including writing in instruction has short and long-term benefits. In the short term, students
and their teachers are better able to appraise how well they grasp information and where
deeper elaboration of key concepts is needed. Students are able to take small pieces of
content and analyze it for patterns and connections. In the long run, students who use writing
as a technique to learn content have their skills as thinkers developed. Organization,
summary, and analysis of content become easier for students, producing richer
understandings. Students become more practiced at using writing to communicate their
learning and thinking.
Writing is used to initiate discussion, reinforce content, and model the method of inquiry
common to the field. Writing can help students discover new knowledgeto sort through
previous understandings, draw connections, and uncover new ideas as they write.


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Writing-to-Learn activities encourage the kind of reflection on learning that improves
students metacognitive skills. The key to effectively using writing activities in every subject
lies in matching the right activity to the learning situation. As you select writing strategies,
ask yourself, How well suited is this task for the objective the students are learning? Does
this strategy fit my students abilities and needs? Will this strategy complement the way my
students will be assessed on the content later?
Assigned writing in all classes and courses helps students keep their writing skills sharp.
Students become better readers, thinkers, and learners in a discipline by processing their
ideas through writing. Writing assigned across the curriculum also helps students prepare for
the day-in and day-out communicative tasks they'll face on the job, no matter what the job
is. Equally important, students need to learn how writing is used within a discipline. Utilizing
many different kinds of writing assignments gives students practice with a variety of
disciplinary forms and conventions.
So why assign writing in your classes? Students will learn more content and will leave your
classroom better prepared to face thinking and communication challenges:

To communicate information,
To clarify thinking,
To learn new concepts and information,

To engage in types of writing practice that will enhance students future academic and work
opportunities.


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Definition: Writing-to-Learn
A writing-to-learn
strategy is one that
teachers employ
throughout and/or
at the end of a
lesson to engage
students and
develop big ideas
and concepts.

Writing-to-learn fosters critical thinking and learning. It is writing that uses impromptu,
short/informal writing tasks designed by the teacher and included throughout the lesson to
help students think through key concepts and ideas. Attention is focused on ideas rather than
correctness of style, grammar or spelling. It is less structured than disciplinary writing.

This approach frequently uses journals, logs, micro themes, responses to written or oral
questions, summaries, free writing, notes, and other writing assignments that align to
learning ideas and concepts.


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Definition: Writing-to-Demonstrate-Knowledge
A writing-to-
demonstrate-
knowledge
assignment is one
that teachers employ
when they assign
reports, essays,
persuasive writing
letters and papers,
and research papers.

When writing to demonstrate knowledge, students show what they have learned by
synthesizing information and explaining their understanding of concepts and ideas. Students
write for an audience with a specific purpose. Products may apply knowledge in new ways or
use academic structures for research and/or formal writing.

Examples include essays that deal with specific questions or problems, letters, projects, and
more formal assignments or papers prepared over weeks or over a course. Students adhere
to format and style guidelines or standards typical of professional papers, such as reports,
article reviews, and research papers. These should be checked before being submitted by
the student for correctness of spelling, grammar, and transition word usage.




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Preface: Writing Across the Curriculum Social Studies


Writing: An Important Element in Learning Social Studies
Teachers of social studies are faced with the task of assisting students in the acquisition of
important knowledge, concepts, and skills. The knowledge, concepts, and skills learned in social
studies and other classes will ultimately enable students to become responsible and active
citizens.

Effective instructional strategies are always sought after and writing strategies can be useful for
the teacher of social studies from Kindergarten to Grade 12. Well designed strategies such as
the ones demonstrated in this online document, can engage students as critical thinkers who
have the ability to integrate knowledge from a variety of topics and disciplines.

This online document was created as a sample of writing across the curriculum strategies which
can be applied to the social studies classroom. They include strategies to assist students in
mastering the skills of summarizing, analysis, reflection, and evaluation among others. While
these strategies will assist students in becoming better writers, the main focus of these
strategies is to assist students in a deeper understanding of social studies. The importance of
these strategies is that they promote deep understanding of the knowledge, content, and skills
of the social studies discipline being taught.

Each strategy includes a quick definition of the strategy and what it does. In addition, each
page has instructions on how to implement the strategy and an example of how it could be
used in the social studies classroom. This online guide is not exhaustive. Each of the strategies
included can be investigated further by interested teachers. All of the Strategies have been
researched and found effective.

It is our hope that teachers of social studies in grades 3 to 12 will give careful consideration to
each of these proven strategies, and add them to their repertoire of effective instructional
strategies.


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Table of Contents: WAC in Social Studies


Preface:
WAC in Social Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Definitions:
Writing-to-Learn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Writing-to-Demonstrate-Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Writing-to-Learn Strategies:
Strategy: GIST Generating Interactions between
Schemata and Texts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Strategy: Introducing a Famous Person . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Strategy: Learning Logs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Strategy: List-Group-Label . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Strategy: Micro-themes Writing Summaries . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Strategy: Cornell System - Note taking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Strategy: QAR - Question-Answer Relationship . . . . . . . . . . .
Strategy: Quick Writes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Strategy: RAFT Role, Audience, Format, and Topic . . . . . . .
Strategy: Reading Response Journal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Strategy: Skimming and Scanning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Strategy: Strip Stories - Story Board Graphics . . . . . . . . . . .
Strategy: Summarizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Strategy: Thinking Maps to Outlines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Strategy: Word Bank Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Writing to Demonstrate Knowledge:
Strategy: Process Writing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Form/Format: Essay Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Form/Format: Persuasive Civic Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Form/Format: Reports. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Form/Format: Research Reports and Papers. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Form/Format: Using Narrative Writing to Demonstrate
Knowledge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
pg. 33
pg. 34
pg. 36

pg. 37

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Writing-to-Learn: Social Studies
What is it?
A writing-to-learn
strategy is one that
teachers employ
throughout and/or
at the end of a
lesson to engage
students and
develop big ideas
and concepts.
Strategy: GIST- Generating Interactions between Schemata and Texts
GIST (Cunningham 1982) is a strategy designed to help students learn to write
organized and concise summaries. Summaries restate only the authors main ideas,
omitting all examples and evidence used in supporting and illustrating points. For
students who are at a loss as how to put a reading into their own words, GIST can be
used as a step by step method.
What does it do?
When students summarize paragraphs of text in their own words they are a step closer
to making the information their own. Bloom identified summarizing as a method to
increase comprehension.
How to implement:
The teacher should begin with modeling the technique by coaching the class through a
paragraph. After modeling assign a reading for students to do independently.

1) Read the first sentence and summarize
its contents in fifteen words or less.
2) Read the second sentence and
summarize the two sentences in fifteen
words or less.
3) Read the third sentence and
summarize the three sentences in
fifteen words or less.
4) Continue until the paragraph is read.
5) Then summarize the entire paragraph
in fifteen words or less.



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Writing-to-Learn: Social Studies
What is it?
Writing-to-learn
fosters critical
thinking and
learning.
It is writing that
uses impromptu,
short, or informal
writing tasks,
designed by the
teacher, which are
included throughout
the lesson to help
students think
through key
concepts and ideas.
Strategy: Introduction to a Famous Person
Writing an introduction utilizes the RAFT writing strategy. Students (the ones making
the introduction) must identify the role they are taking, and then prepare the
introduction (format) of the person based on the audience, and when and where they
are making the introduction (topic).

What does it do?
Requires students to apply, analyze, and synthesize information.

How to implement:
The teacher assigns student pairs the Role, Audience, Format (in this case an
Introduction), and Topic. Teachers should model the strategy by creating an
appropriate introduction by coaching the class through the elements. Working in pairs,
students should then write an appropriate introduction to the person they were
assigned. Here is an example from United States history: A Populist leader (r) speaking
to a Populist/Democratic audience (a) making the introduction for the guest speaker-
candidate William Jennings Bryan (f) at a political rally during the campaign for
President of 1896 (t).
My friends I have the honor of presenting to you one of Nebraskas finest citizens,
a man who knows the heart of the farmers and working men and women across this
great land. A man not afraid to take on the conspiracy of the gold bugs whose one
aim is to keep themselves wealthy and preventing honest families from making a living.
A man who has already distinguished himself at his young age in the Congress of the
United States by fighting against the repeal of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act. My
good friends I present to you our next President of the United States of America William
Jennings Bryan.




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Writing-to-Learn: Social Studies
What is it?
A writing-to-learn
strategy is one that
teachers employ
throughout and/or at
the end of a lesson to
engage students and
develop big ideas and
concepts.
Strategy: Learning Logs
Students use a spiral notebook, three-ring notebook or other convenient booklet that
is specified for impromptu writing assignments to assist students in their learning of
content information. Students write whenever the teacher thinks that writing will be
beneficial. Students might write at the beginning of class to access their prior
knowledge about the topic to be studied or to generate ideas related to the objectives
of the lesson. They write during the lesson to reinforce ideas or organize their
thinking. End of class writing often helps students consolidate their thoughts,
(express concerns, or raise issues and problems that need to be clarified or explored
further).

The teacher monitors student writing by walking the aisles conducting spot checks.
These informal walks provide the teacher with information about what needs to be
reviewed or needs more emphasis during instruction on that day or in upcoming
lessons. Effective routines such as beginning the day or class period with a learning
log prompt or using timed writings in which students are given specified limits assist
students with their writing. The teacher should choose 2-3 exemplary entries to
project as models for the class. These may be considered exemplary because they
use the emphasized content vocabulary or because they demonstrate praiseworthy
evidence of understanding.

What does it do?
Learning logs require students to paraphrase, summarize, and apply knowledge. The
learning log also can provide a jumping-off point for projects and other writing
assignments to demonstrate knowledge in essays, reports, and PowerPoint
presentations.

How to implement:
Consider using the following instructions when learning logs are used before a lesson.
Summarize the previous days learning.

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Identify what is known about todays topic. Predict what will be taught and
learned today based on what you know.
Write questions that you would like to have answered about todays topic.
Explain why.
Explain why your homework task gave you difficulty or was easy.
Describe uses for what you learned yesterday in real life settings.

Consider using the following ideas when learning logs are used during a lesson to
document learning as it is taking place.
At logical points during the lesson, pause to have students write a paraphrase
of the concepts being presented.
Stop to check comprehension. Have students write down one thing that is
puzzling about the discussion or reading.

Consider using the following instructions after the lesson when using learning logs to
consolidate thinking, reflect, apply, and review what has been learned.
Ask students to compare the concept with a previous concept learned.
Ask students to summarize the lesson using the key vocabulary.
Ask students to provide an explanation of the most difficult part of the lesson.

Ask students to write questions and answers at two specified levels and then label the
types of questions: 1) literal questions (fact based), or 2) inferential questions (why
questions).


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Writing-to-Learn: Social Studies
What is it?
Writing-to-learn
fosters critical
thinking and
learning. It is
writing that uses
impromptu, short,
or informal writing
tasks, designed by
the teacher, which
are included
throughout the
lesson to help
students think
through key
concepts and ideas.
Strategy: List-Group-Label
Using their texts or a selected reading, students list words important to a topic, then
students group and label words.

What does it do?
Assists students with moving from specifics to concepts or big ideas by looking for
similarities in words on the word list and deciding where to place words.
How to implement:

peace Britain delegates govern Samuel Adams
Thomas Jefferson British Colonies King George Colonial leaders
Declaration of Independence Parliament Continental Congress


Students use their textbooks or vocabulary encountered from a learning experience
(viewing a DVD, reading or viewing a primary source document, completing online
research, etc.) to generate a list of words important to the topic. This should be done
as a class or in small cooperative teams. Using their lists, students work in cooperative
teams to group words together that have similar characteristics (e.g., revolutionary
leaders). Each cooperative team then shares their groupings with the class by
explaining their decisions. Finally, the teacher takes a group and label generated by
one of the cooperative teams and asks students to add more examples to the group,
challenging the class to come up with non-examples as well.



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Writing-to-Learn: Social Studies
What is it?
Writing-to-learn
fosters critical
thinking and
learning.
It is writing that
uses impromptu,
short, or informal
writing tasks,
designed by the
teacher, which are
included
throughout the
lesson to help
students think
through key
concepts and ideas.
Strategy: Microthemes-Summary
Microthemes are short writings on 5x8 note cards or a piece of paper that size. The
student responds to a teacher-assigned topic. Microtheme writing requires students to
plan their writing carefully because their space is limited. An alternative point of view
must be objectively explained in microtheme writing.

What does it do?
Typically microtheme writing is described as a little bit of writing preceded by a great
deal of thinking. Students are challenged to summarize a topic, argument, or theme,
and objectively state an alternative point of view.
How to implement:
Assign a topic to the entire class with a rubric for scoring. Students may not change the
amount of space - 5x8 on which they have to write, or if you choose, word process
their answer. Teachers should debrief the assignment by using note cards that reflect an
understanding of the assignment and that identify the needed or important elements.
This is particularly important for the first time this type of writing-to-learn strategy is
used.

Here is an example of a topic assignment and answer - What is meant by the concept of
a (free) market system? What would opponents to this economic system say is wrong
with a country using the market system?

A market system is the free exchange of goods and services between buyers and sellers
with little or no government control. In a market system, individuals make the decisions
that guide the direction of the economy. The forces of supply and demand are the key
factors involved. Critics would say that many services such as roads, libraries, and
centers for disease control are necessary in a modern country, but could not efficiently
be provided by a free market system. In addition, without government controls the
production of food and drugs could not be regulated. Critics would say matters of
national security and safety should not be left to supply and demand.

Writing-to-Learn: Social Studies
What is it?
Writing-to-learn
fosters critical
thinking and
learning.
It is writing that
uses impromptu,
short, or informal
writing tasks,
designed by the
teacher, which are
included
throughout the
lesson to help
students think
through key
concepts and ideas.
Strategy: Note taking-Cornell System
A format for taking notes that uses boxes. It requires students to process material as
they are learning it by formulating questions, summarizing, and analyzing. Students can
draw lines or simply fold notebook paper to form the blocks.

Questions Answered by
Notes


Questions block is
approximately 5.5


Notes



Notes block is approximately 5.5
Summary of Notes (1-2 sentences)



What does it do?
Assists students in understanding and remembering what they read or view. Helps
students make connections, develop questions, and analyze what they have read,
viewed, or learned.

How to implement:
Students use the right side of the organizer to take notes while viewing, reading, or
listening. After the note taking session is completed, students read through the notes
and develop questions that the notes would answer. Finally, students summarize the
main idea(s) in one or two sentences. After their notes are complete, students share and
discuss their notes with other students.



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Writing-to-Learn: Social Studies
What is it?
Writing-to-learn
fosters critical
thinking and
learning.
It is writing that uses
impromptu, short, or
informal writing
tasks, designed by
the teacher, which
are included
throughout the
lesson to help
students think
through key concepts
and ideas.
Strategy: Question-Answer Relationship (QAR)
QAR is a way of describing for students that there are four types of questions and possible
places for finding answers to those questions. Pearson and Johnson (1978) described the
four types of questions as textually explicit (literally stated in the text); textually implicit
(suggested or implied by the text); and script implicit (in the readers background
knowledge or script inside the readers head). These are known as Right There, Think
and Search, and On Your Own type questions.

What does it do?
Assists students in identifying the type of question they are encountering, so they will
employ the correct skills to find an answer. This technique reinforces students ability to
comprehend and retain knowledge by using the strategic reading habit of applying their
background knowledge and experiences to infer answers and make connections to other
knowledge.

How to implement:
After reading, viewing, or listening, students work in small groups to write questions in the
three categories about the material just presented. Students should trade questions with
another group, answer them, and then give feed back on the categorization of the
questions they answered.



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Writing-to-Learn: Social Studies
What is it?
A writing-to-learn
strategy is one that
teachers employ
throughout and/or
at the end of a
lesson to engage
students and
develop big ideas
and concepts.
Strategy: Quick Writes
Quick Writing is a motivating, pre-reading activity that prepares students for reading
new material or reviewing material in preparation for understanding new information to
be read.

What does it do?
Provides the teacher with information about students prior knowledge about a subject.
Also helps students self-assess their own pool of information, as well as monitor their
own understanding.

How to implement:
Quick Writes can be used for any area being studied and adapted to the reading ability
of the students.
1. Begin by asking students to respond in writing to a question that relates to
material that has already been explored or a new curriculum topic to be taught.
2. After the students have written down their answers to the questions posed, ask
the students to share their ideas. These are written down on the blackboard or
overhead.
3. The teacher can then determine the prior knowledge of the class before
introducing a new unit or to determine their level of understanding of material
already taught.


Writing-to-Learn: Social Studies
What is it?
A writing-to-
learn strategy
is one that
teachers
employ
throughout
and/or at the
end of a lesson
to engage
students and
develop big
ideas and
concepts
Strategy: RAFT Role, Audience, Format, and Topic
RAFT is an acronym for a structured technique used to guide student writing. RAFT
assignments are used to demonstrate a students knowledge using a defined point of view.
This strategy requires students to write using an assigned format to an audience other than
the teacher.

What does it do?
Students must use analysis, synthesis, generalization, and evaluation of information and the
points of view of others to credibly write using the assigned format.

How to implement:
RAFT writing assignments are written from the viewpoint of a selected person. RAFT can be
used to begin or conclude a unit. At the beginning of a unit, a RAFT writing assignment can
assess the students background knowledge. At the end of a unit, it can be used to
summarize the main ideas and concepts. The strategy guides students to think from the
perspective of others, to consider how to tailor writing for different audiences, and to vary
formats according to the purpose for the writing.

Students use the acronym to think through and plan their writing:
R- stands for the Role of the writer. Who or what are you?
A- stands for the Audience. Who are you addressing?
F- stands for Format. What form will the writing take: letter, editorial, diary, memo, etc?
T- stands for Topic and strong verb. What will you write about? Why?

This is an example of a writing assignment in Michigan studies:

Write a speech for a Michigan senator speaking to the Michigan senate in 1956 that supports
the construction of the Mackinac Bridge. Below is a chart of some roles and audiences to
assist you with creating a RAFT writing assignment.



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RAFT Roles and Audiences

ad agencies
administrators
admirers
arbitrators
artists
athletes
businesses
cabinet members
cartoonists
caretakers
caricatures
case study subjects
castoffs
casualties of war
catastrophe
caucuses
CEOs
chairpersons
chambers of
commerce
champions
characters from
texts
charities
classical musicians
clergymen
client
colleges
commanders
community leaders
competitors
confidantes
critics
crooks
custodians
customers
(professional)
dancers
the deceased
delegations
dignitaries
diplomats
doctors
drama clubs
ecologists
economists
editors
grass roots
leadership
historians
historical figures
homesteaders
the homeless
hospital patients
journalists
lawyers
lobbyists
minority groups
monarchs
movie stars
museums
news anchor
newspaper editors
NATO
older students
Olympic Committee
organizations
other classes
parents
past and present
politicians
pen pals
philanthropists
policy makers
political parties
POWs
presidents
professors
publishers
radio stations
reformers
relatives
representatives
researchers
restaurants
rock stars
sales persons
scientists
senators
senior citizens
settlers
significant others
social leaders
state departments
stores
students
supporters
talk show hosts
teachers
theatres
think tanks
travel agencies
TV characters
TV stations
unions
universities
victims
visionaries
war heroes
the wealthy
writers
younger students






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Examples of RAFT Formats

acceptance letter
advertisement
advice
apology
application
autobiography
biography
book jacket
caption
cartoon
commercial
complaint
confession
congratulations
contest entry
conversation
dialogues
diary entry
dictionary entry
dramatic
monologues
editorial
epitaph
essay
eulogy
expense account
farewell
fax message
fiction
film flyers
graffiti

how-to book
human interest
story
inaugural speech
internal dialogue
inquiry
interviews
invitation
job description
jokes
journals
legal brief
letter to the editor
letters
limerick
list
magazine
marriage proposal
memoirs
math notes
memos
message to the
future
metaphors
minutes of meeting
monologue
mystery
news story
nomination speech
novelette
obituary
observation papers
pamphlets

personal
correspondence
personal narrative
photo essay
photos and captions
placards
play
poetry
posters
position statement
PowerPoint
presentation
prayer
prediction
profiles
promotional
prophecy
protest
public statements
public notice
radio play
radio script
recommendation
rejection
reminiscences &
memories
report
requests
resignation
resume
reviews
riddles
rules and
regulations
science fiction story
series
science notes
scripts
sermon
ships log
short story
simulated memoir
sketches
skits
slogans
song
sonnets
sound tapes
tall tale
technical advice
technical manual
telegrams
telephone dialogue
travelogue
TV script
undercover report
wanted poster
war communiqu
warning
Who Done It
will
written debates
yearbook
YAL book


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Examples of Strong Verbs

appreciate
berate
boast
brag
convince
criticize
debate
demand
entertain
entreat
inform
object
offer
pacify
persuade
plead
praise
refute
warn
whine


Writing-to-Learn: Social Studies
What

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is it? Strategy: Reading Response Journal
A writing-to-
learn strategy
is one that
teachers
employ
throughout
and/or at the
end of a
lesson to
engage
students and
develop big
ideas and
concepts.
Journals have successfully been used as a means for students to express their thoughts,
feelings, and reactions about reading.
What does it do?
Journals help students think about and reflect on what they read. They assist students in
discovering what they know, in asking questions, in confidently sharing their observations
and opinions, and in clarifying their understanding. Journal entries provide the teacher with
an opportunity to assess students' comprehension and critical-thinking abilities.
How to implement?
Students are instructed to always write down the date, title, author, chapter, and page
of the text to which they are responding.
Students meet the expectations set for completing one or more thoughtful responses
during reading or homework time.
Responses are usually at least one page in length; however expectations may vary
based upon abilities of students.
Carefully crafted prompts must align with learning goals. Find or create prompts and
activities that help students respond in ways meaningful to them. The more engaged
students are in the writing, the more assessment information that can be gleaned
about what students know, think, and can do.
In the beginning, the teacher models the strategy by using his or her own response
journal.
Some options include:
1. Making predictions about what will happen next,
2. Explaining why the student liked or disliked the text,
3. Writing a personal reaction to the text,
4. Using graphic organizers,
5. Taking notes,
6. Recording imagery associated with the reading,
7. Recording vocabulary and/or definitions.

Writing-to-Learn: Social Studies
What

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23
is it? Strategy: Skimming and Scanning
Writing-to-
learn fosters
critical
thinking and
learning.
Requires the student to overview the chapter or section to be read and use the text features
(titles, headings, subheadings, captions, bolded words, lists, charts, graphs, photographs,
and visuals) to create two lists: Impressions and Questions, and Quick Facts. The purposes of
skimming and scanning are to create a context for reading and to activate prior knowledge.

It is writing
that uses
impromptu,
short, or
informal
writing tasks,
designed by
the teacher,
which are
included
throughout
the lesson to
help students
think through
key concepts
and ideas.
What does it do?
Previewing text is critical to understanding it. Skimming and Scanning enables students to
practice the skill of scanning text prior to reading, and to locate the portions of the text that
fits their purpose for reading while previewing the text to organize information.

How to implement:
Assign a portion of the text to Skim and Scan. Students should use a two column organizer
to preview the chapter for Impressions and Questions and Quick Facts.

I mpressions and Questions Quick Facts


Students work in pairs to skim and scan the assigned reading, ending by discussing what
they believe the chapter will be about. Using their organizer, students should record quick
factual information they learned by skimming and scanning, and questions and impressions
about the text.

Writing-to-Learn: Social Studies
What

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24
is it? Strategy: Strip Stories (story board graphics)
Writing-to-learn
fosters critical
thinking and
learning.

It is writing that
uses impromptu,
short, or informal
writing tasks,
designed by the
teacher, which are
included throughout
the lesson to help
students think
through key
concepts and ideas.


After students participate in an activity (inquiry, reading one or multiple texts, research
online, watching a DVD or play), they are given a finite number of boxes to sequence
and retell the important elements of the activity. Each box should include a thought or
speech bubble.

What does it do?
Engages students in sequencing, using cause and effect reasoning, synthesizing, and
identifying main or big ideas. Using a limited amount of boxes forces students to choose
only the most important elements of the experience.

How to implement:
The age and ability of the students will affect how the strip story is completed. One box
could be completed after each segment is read or experienced, or the strip story could
be constructed all at once as a way of checking for understanding at the end of the
experience. After the students strip stories are completed, they should be used as the
basis for small group discussion. After the discussion is concluded, each student should
write a paragraph about the main idea of the experience.




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25
Writing-to-Learn: Social Studies
What is it?
Writing-to-learn
fosters critical
thinking and
learning. It is writing
that uses impromptu,
short, or informal
writing tasks,
designed by the
teacher, which are
included throughout
the lesson to help
students think
through key concepts
and ideas.
Strategy: Summarizing
Requires students to use their own words to explain the concepts, ideas, or narrative
around which the lesson was built. A summary provides the most important points of
the text. It should be brief (short). Furthermore, the summary should be written as
much as possible in ones own words. It should contain only the main ideas and does
not include explanations or examples.

What does it do?
Requiring students to restate the main idea(s) in their own language builds
understanding and surfaces misunderstandings and misconceptions. It also helps
students make their own connections, and raise questions about the reading or learning
experience.

How to implement:
The teacher should model with the class the process of writing a summary on the
board. Working in pairs, students should then create a summary of an assigned reading
using the main points listed below:

1. Before beginning a summary, identify the main points of the text.
2. Underline/highlight and/or take notes on the text.
3. Write a sentence which includes the authors main idea or purpose for writing the
text or creating the experience. To do this, identify the topic (subject of the
reading, listening or acting [role playing or simulation] activity) and then identify
what the author says about the topic. This sentence is the topic sentence (main
sentence) of your summary.
4. Use your own words. If the authors words are used, use quotation marks and
give the page number.
5. Give the major supporting information which the author gives to explain the main
idea.



Writing-to-Learn: Social Studies
What

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26
is it? Strategy: Thinking Maps to Outlines
Writing-to-learn
fosters critical
thinking and
learning. It is
writing that uses
impromptu, short,
or informal writing
tasks, designed by
the teacher, which
are included
throughout the
lesson to help
students think
through key
concepts and ideas.
A structured thinking map and an outline accomplish the same goal but use two different
formats - one formal and one less formal. Thinking maps, the less formal of the two,
uses circles and lines to show relationships, while outlines show them through the
systematic use of letters and numbers.

What does it do?
The use of structured thinking maps and outlines start with the topic and branch to main
categories and subcategories. This work requires students to locate main ideas, support
information, interpret, generalize, paraphrase, differentiate, and categorize.

How to implement:
Teacher instruction will be necessary for both structured thinking maps and more
traditional outlines which utilize letters and numbers.
Major
World
Religions
Buddhism
Confucianism
J udaism
Christianity
Hinduism
Islam

Major World Religions
I. Christianity
A. History and beliefs
B. Worship and celebrations
II. Hinduism
A. History and beliefs
B. Worship and celebrations
III. Islam
A. History and beliefs
B. Worship and celebrations
IV. Judaism
A. History and beliefs
B. Worship and celebrations, etc.






Structured thinking maps begin with the traditional circle mapping procedure and
continue as students determine what subtopics will be included. In the example provided
the student will be creating an outline for the major religions of the world. The thinking
map first identifies the major world religions they have been taught and then the
subtopics. In this example, the same subtopics (this will not always be the case) will be
explored for all six religions. An example of how this will look is presented here:
Major World
Religions
Buddhism History and
Beliefs
Worship and
Celebrations



V.1.08

27


V.1.08

28
Writing-to-Learn: Social Studies
What is it?
Writing-to-learn
fosters critical
thinking and
learning. It is
writing that uses
impromptu, short,
or informal writing
tasks, designed by
the teacher, which
are included
throughout the
lesson to help
students think
through key
concepts and ideas.
Strategy: Word Bank
Writing from a word bank is a strategy used from the earliest grades. Students write a
paragraph utilizing words that the teacher has pre-selected.
What does it do?
Requires students to use the concepts and ideas around which the lesson was built.
Using a defined set of words assists students to make connections while focusing on the
vocabulary of the unit of study.
How to implement:
The teacher selects a set of related words. Then students use the word bank to create a
paragraph which summarizes what they have learned and connects the words in a
meaningful way.

elevation oxygen mountains altitude
climate atmosphere The Andes adapt

Some people who live in the Andes Mountains
must adapt their lives to living at a high altitude.
The elevation of the mountains affects both the climate
and the density of the oxygen.



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29
Writing-to-Demonstrate-Knowledge: Social Studies
What is it?
Instructional
technique that
guides a learner
through the
selection of a topic,
understanding of
the purpose,
drafting, editing,
revising, and
"publication" of a
finished work.
Strategy: Process Writing
Teachers guide students through the ongoing phases of planning/prewriting, drafting, revising,
editing (proofreading and correcting), and publishing (sharing by some means). Stages are
interactive. Students move back and forth between stages. Changes made in one area may
require returning to a step already completed.

What does it do?
Engages students in generating, capturing, and organizing ideas, writing a rough draft, finding
ways to improve the text, attending to spelling and grammar in the draft, and publishing.

How to implement:
As students engage in writing to demonstrate knowledge, we often expect the writing product
or project to go through the stages provided below:

Prewriting (brainstorming) is considered the most crucial of the stages. Writers get
ready to write by deciding on a topic, identifying an audience and purpose, determining
the appropriate form for the piece, and gathering ideas and data. Students often ask
themselves: What should I write about? What do I already know? Where can I find more
on the topic? Who is this being written for? What do I want my audience to know?

Drafting (composing) provides an opportunity for demonstrating and applying
knowledge in a final product. However, during this stage students let their creativity
flow. They should write without being concerned about the mechanics of spelling,
punctuation, or grammar and with an awareness that their first drafts are not finished
products. Any draft can continue to be improved. Students put ideas on paper, revise as
they write, and seek reactions or responses from other students. The strategy often
entails producing multiple drafts.

Revising helps students clarify and shape meaning as well as organize their writing.
The student is encouraged to rethink, add, substitute, delete and move words and ideas
around as they rework content and polish their pieces. Authors read their writing in


V.1.08

30
pairs, writing circles, and in conferences with their teacher. Listeners respond by noting
what they liked best and by making suggestions for improvement. The response is
aimed at clarifying confusions about the intent of the message and text. The writer
chooses whether or not to incorporate suggestions or ignore them. They ask: Does it
say what I wanted it to say? How can I make it clearer? How can I convey my message
more effectively? What is missing? What needs to be deleted? Does the text need to be
reordered? Does the paper make sense?

Editing is the stage in which the student takes another look, polishing the piece by
attending to surface errors. Students are guided to understand that errors can interfere
with meaning and distract readers from understanding the message. Students proof
their work using checklists and rubrics. They check for capitalization, complete
sentences, grammar, paragraph structure, punctuation, spelling, and vocabulary.

Publishing is complete when the text satisfactorily meets reorganization and editing
requirements. A high standard should be set for content and mechanics.


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31
Writing-to-Demonstrate-Knowledge: Social Studies
What is it?
When writing-to
demonstrate-
knowledge, students
show what they have
learned by
synthesizing
information and
explaining or
applying their
understanding of
concepts and ideas.
Students write for an
audience with a
specific purpose.
Products may apply
knowledge in new
ways or use
academic structures
for research and/or
formal writing.

Form/Format: Essay Writing
An essay is a piece of writing, usually from an author's personal point of view. Essays are
non-fiction writing that support thesis statements. They conform to all rules of grammar and
punctuation.

What does it do?
Essay writing provides opportunities for students to develop their ideas about a topic,
express a point of view, or persuade the reader to accept their thesis. To write an essay, a
student must use skills of analysis, synthesis, summary, and evaluation.

How to implement:
Students should know where on the continuum of writing formality their teachers
expectations are for the essay they are assigned to write. Some common differences are:

Formal Informal
Third person point of view
Never uses contractions
Has a serious official sound
Factual
May use first person
Contractions are acceptable
More like a conversation
More emotional
Teachers should provide students with guidelines for essay writing. A sample of
guidelines commonly used are:
1. Develop a limited topic which is well defined and debatable and that has more than
one side.
2. The writer must understand other sides of the position so that the strongest
information to counter the other side can be presented.
3. Develop the statement of position. The topic sentence cannot be a fact as facts cannot
be debated. The statement should direct readers to follow the writers logic towards a
specifically stated conclusion.


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32

4. In preplanning the essay, generate and then use at least three reasons that support
the position. Introduce these in the same introductory paragraph.
5. Reasons introduced in the opening introductory paragraph should be the topics of
paragraphs in the body of the paper. They should be supported with additional
separate facts.
6. The body of the essay uses specific evidence, examples and statistics rather than
generalizations or personal opinions. Each topic sentence has been introduced in the
introduction. Additional sentences closely relate to the topic and the sentence before
it.
7. Use adequate transitions between paragraphs so that the reader follows the writers
logic.
8. Clearly redefine the topic and restate the most compelling evidence, remembering
that this is the last chance to be convincing. Do not introduce new material in the
conclusion.


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33
Writing-to-Demonstrate-Knowledge: Social Studies
What is it?
When writing-to
demonstrate-
knowledge,
students show
what they have
learned by
synthesizing
information and
explaining or
applying their
understanding of
concepts and ideas.
Students write for
an audience with a
specific purpose.
Products may apply
knowledge in new
ways or use
academic
structures for
research and/or
formal writing.
Form/Format: Persuasive Civic Writing
This type of persuasive writing is very specific. It is writing focused on an issue of public
policy and is intended to persuade public policy makers and other citizens to adopt a
particular position. Persuasive civic writing is modeled in the editorial sections of
newspapers and magazines across the United States. It is considered to be an important
skill for all citizens.

What does it do?
Persuasive civic writing requires that students study the facts and then use their
knowledge and values to formulate a position. Reasonable people with access to the
same knowledge will often disagree on the correct course of action based on their own
personal and political values. Persuasive civic writing requires students to use their
ability to interpret and synthesize information, analyze and evaluate credible arguments,
and develop a position.

How to implement:
Review with students the framework used by many editorial writers.

1. Clearly state and support your position.
2. Use factual information to support your position.
3. Support your position with data.
4. Use a core democratic value to support your position.
5. Acknowledge a reasonable argument someone with an opposing viewpoint might
make and refute it.

Practice persuasive civic writing with questions of public policy on issues that reasonable
people would hold opposing views.




Writing-to-Demonstrate-Knowledge: Social Studies
What

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34
is it? Form/Format: Report Writing
When writing-to-
demonstrate-
knowledge students
show what they
have learned by
synthesizing
information and
explaining their
understanding of
concepts and ideas.
Students write for
an audience with a
specific purpose.
Products may apply
knowledge in new
ways or use
academic
structures for
research and/or
formal writing.
Usually shorter in length and scope than a research paper, a report describes and
summarizes the findings of an individual or group following a systematic inquiry or an
examination of a series of incidents, conversations, studies, interpretation or
observations. The purpose of the work is to persuade or inform an audience using
factual material.

What does it do?
To record research, decisions and/or events, to record progress on a task, to inform or
persuade an audience with factual material. Using a predetermined format, the report
requires students to define, apply and analyze information. Synthesizing, summarizing,
and evaluating information are skills needed in report writing.

Characteristics:
Teachers recognize the following common elements:
Teacher-selected topic,
Writing which requires: prioritizing, summarizing, generalizing, paraphrasing,
or sequencing,
Writing which uses the expository structure.










Expository Writing
Introduction
-Topic Sentence
Body
-Reasons/facts/details
-Elaborations
Conclusion
-Summary/Call to action


Statement(s) or bibliography on how, and from where, the information was gathered
using accurate citations and references, including footnotes and endnotes


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35
Topical or chronological development
Inclusion of paraphrasing/indirect speech and quotes
A summary which can be provided at the beginning (an abstract) or at the
end (conclusion)
For longer written reports, an organization that includes a title, headings,
subheadings, and table of contents

How to implement:
Instruction in report writing is necessary to prevent rambling or plagiarized assignments.
It should include:

Gathering information and taking notes,
Creating the introduction,
Supporting the body with evidence and examples,
Summarizing the main points in a conclusion,
Citing resources and web sites.

The student or teacher identifies a topic to be explored and reported on. An organized
search is planned and conducted by a student or a group of students. The group
summarizes their findings and takes the writing through the writing process using a
rubric or checklist to define quality. Students must pay attention to both the accuracy of
their content and the mechanics of good writing. The traditional framework for
expository writing includes an introduction, body, and conclusion. Students should
include a bibliography of books, web sites, and other resources.




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36
Writing-to-Demonstrate-Knowledge: Social Studies
What is it?
When writing-to-
demonstrate-
knowledge students
show what they
have learned by
synthesizing
information and
explaining or
applying their
understanding of
concepts and ideas.
Form/Format: Research Report
The research report is an informational text produced as part of a research project. It
summarizes the intent, process, sequence, and content of research, provable findings,
and conclusions. Research preceding the report is completed through a systematic
inquiry into a subject or problem in order to discover, verify, or revise relevant facts or
principles relating to that subject or problem. Credible reporting requires credible
research questions and procedures.

What does it do?
Provides an opportunity for students to demonstrate their comprehensive knowledge of a
topic in a structured format.

How to implement:
It is necessary for students to receive instruction on the following topics prior to writing
a research report.

Selecting a topic
Narrowing the topic
Asking questions about the
topic
Gathering information
Taking notes
Creating a position or thesis
statement
Creating the introduction
Supporting the body with
evidence and examples
Summarizing the main points
in the conclusion
Avoiding plagiarism
Outlining or mapping to
create organization
Citing works and web sites
Critiquing the credibility of
websites and web authors
Prewriting the first draft
Revising
Editing the final draft




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37
Writing-to-Demonstrate-Knowledge: Social Studies
What is it?
When writing-to
demonstrate-
knowledge,
students show
what they have
learned by
synthesizing
information and
explaining or
applying their
understanding of
concepts and ideas.
Students write for
an audience with a
specific purpose.
Products may apply
knowledge in new
ways or use
academic
structures for
research and/or
formal writing.
Form/Format: Using Narrative Writing to Demonstrate Knowledge
The narrative writing basic format is beginning, middle, and end using character,
settings and plot. The goal of this type of writing is to demonstrate knowledge learned
about individuals, events, causes, and consequences.

When to use it?
When used to demonstrate knowledge, the narrative writing format can reveal students
knowledge of nuances of character. It also lends itself to rich descriptions of place and
time. It is effectively used when the personalities, talents, and leadership capabilities of
real-life people are important to understanding the topic or when the setting is unique.
Writing in this way requires empathy on the part of the student. The details of the story
assist the student in analyzing the actions of the individuals.

Characteristics:
Narrative writing in social studies is characterized by being:
Written in first or third person,
Telling a story using character, setting, and plot,
Using dialogue,
Organizing events sequentially, but may include flashbacks or flash-forwards,
Demonstrating factual accuracy.
How to Implement:
Use when the topic has strong characters, a strong timeline or setting which is
significant and rich in detail (e.g., autobiography, biography, historical memoir). When
using this type of writing in social studies, students should work together to create:
a story of importance and accuracy,
vivid depiction of characters and setting by showing the reader the setting or
individual(s) using descriptive words,
presentation of the events in clear and chronological order.