Chapter 6.

Mechanical Behavior
Stress versus Strain
Elastic Deformation
Plastic Deformation
Hardness
Creep and Stress Relaxation
Viscoelastic Deformation
Stress versus Strain
Mechanical Properties
Deal directly with behavior of materials under applied forces.
Properties are described by applied stress and resulting strain, or applied strain
and resulting stress.
Example: 100 lb force applies to end of a rod results in a stress applied to the end of the
rod causing it to stretch or elongate, which is measured as strain.
Strength: ability of material to resist application of load without rupture.
Ultimate strength- maximum force per cross section area.
Yield strength- force at yield point per cross section area.
Other strengths include rupture strength, proportional strength, etc.
Stiffness: resistance of material to deform under load while in elastic state.
Stiffness is usually measured by the Modulus of Elasticity (Stress/strain)
Steel is stiff (tough to bend). Some beds are stiff, some are soft (compliant)
Testing Procedures
Mechanical Testing
Properties that deal with elastic or inelastic behavior of a material under load
Primary measurements involved are load applied and effects of load application
Two classification of tests; method of loading and the condition of the specimen
during the test
Primary types of tests
Tensile
Compression
Shear
Torsion
Flexure

Mechanical Test Considerations
Principle factors are in three main areas
manner in which the load is applied
condition of material specimen at time of test
surrounding conditions (environment) during testing
Tests classification- load application
kind of stress induced. Single load or Multiple loads
rate at which stress is developed: static versus dynamic
number of cycles of load application: single versus fatigue
Primary types of loading


tension
compression
shear
torsion
flexure
Standardized Testing Conditions
Moisture
100F, 100% R.H.
1 Day, 7 Days, 14 Days
Temperature
Room Temperature: Most common
Elevated Temperature: Rocket engines
Low Temperature: Automotive impact
Salt spray for corrosion
Rocker Arms on cars subject to immersion in NaCl solution for 1
Day and 7 Days at Room Temperature and 140 F.
Acid or Caustic environments
Tensile tests on samples after immersion in acid/alkaline baths.
Stress
Stress: Intensity of the internally distributed forces or
component of forces that resist a change in the form of a
body.
Tension, Compression, Shear, Torsion, Flexure
Stress calculated by force per unit area. Applied force
divided by the cross sectional area of the specimen.
Stress units
Pascals = Pa = Newtons/m
2

Pounds per square inch = Psi Note: 1MPa = 1 x10
6
Pa = 145 psi
Example
Wire 12 in long is tied vertically. The wire has a diameter of 0.100
in and supports 100 lbs. What is the stress that is developed?
Stress = F/A = F/tr
2
= 100/(3.1415927 * 0.05
2
)= 12,739 psi =
87.86 MPa


A
F
= o
Stress
Example
Tensile Bar is 10in x 1in x 0.1in is mounted vertically
in test machine. The bar supports 100 lbs. What is the
stress that is developed? What is the Load?
Stress = F/A = F/(width*thickness)

= 100lbs/(1in*.1in )=
1,000 psi = 1000 psi/145psi = 6.897 Mpa
Load = 100 lbs
Block is 10 cm x 1 cm x 5 cm is mounted on its side in
a test machine. The block is pulled with 100 N on both
sides. What is the stress that is developed? What is the
Load?
Stress = F/A = F/(width*thickness)

= 100N/(.01m * .10m )=
100,000 N/m
2
= 100,000 Pa = 0.1 MPa= 0.1 MPa
*145psi/MPa = 14.5 psi
Load = 100 N

10cm
5cm
10in
1 in
0.1 in
1 cm
100 lbs
Strain
Strain: Physical change in the dimensions of a specimen that results from
applying a load to the test specimen.
Strain calculated by the ratio of the change in length and the original length.
(Deformation)







Strain units (Dimensionless)
When units are given they usually are in/in or mm/mm. (Change in dimension
divided by original length)
% Elongation = strain x 100%
0
l
l A
= c
l
0

l
F

Strain
Example
Tensile Bar is 10in x 1in x 0.1in is mounted vertically
in test machine. The bar supports 100 lbs. What is the
strain that is developed if the bar grows to 10.2in?
What is % Elongation?
Strain = (l
f
- l
0
)/l
0
= (10.2 -10)/(10)

= 0.02 in/in
Percent Elongation = 0.02 * 100 = 2%
Block is 10 cm x 1 cm x 5 cm is mounted on its side in
a test machine. The block is pulled with 1000 kN on
bone side. If the material elongation at yield is 1.5%,
how far will it grow at yield?
Strain = Percent Elongation /100 = 1.5%/100 = 0.015 cm /cm
Strain = (l
f
- l
0
)/l
0
= (l
f
-5)/(5)

= 0.015 cm/cm
Growth = 5 * 0.015 = 0.075 cm
Final Length = 5.075 cm


10cm
5cm
10in
1 in
0.1 in
1 cm
100 lbs
Strain
Permanent set is a change in form of a specimen once the
stress ends.
Axial strain is the strain that occurs in the same direction
as the applied stress.
Lateral strain is the strain that occurs perpendicular to the
direction of the applied stress.
Poissons ratio is ratio of lateral strain to axial strain.
Poissons ratio = lateral strain
axial strain
Example
Calculate the Poissons ratio of a material with lateral strain of
0.002 and an axial strain of 0.006
Poissons ratio = 0.002/0.006 = 0.333

Axial
Strain
Lateral
Strain
Note: For most materials, Poissons ratio is between 0.25 and 0.5
Metals: 0.29 (304 SS) to 0.3 (1040 steel) to 0.35 (Mg)
Ceramics and Glasses: 0.19 (TiC) to 0.26 (BeO) to 0.31 (Cordierite)
Plastics: 0.35 (Acetals) to 0.41 (Nylons)
Stress-Strain Diagrams
Equipment
Strainometers: measures dimensional changes that occur during
testing
extensometers, deflectometers, and compressometers measure changes in
linear dimensions.
load cells measure load
data is recorded at several readings and the results averaged, e.g., 10 samples
per second during the test.

Stress-Strain Diagrams
Stress-strain diagrams is a plot of stress with the
corresponding strain produced.
Stress is the y-axis
Strain is the x-axis


Stress
Strain
o
c
Linear
(Hookean)
Non-Linear
(non-Hookean)
Stiffness
Stiffness is a measure of the materials ability to resist deformation
under load as measured in stress.
Stiffness is measures as the slope of the stress-strain curve
Hookean solid: (like a spring) linear slope
steel
aluminum
iron
copper

All solids (Hookean and viscoelastic)
metals
plastics
composites
ceramics


kx F =
c o E =
Modulus
Modulus of Elasticity (E) or Youngs Modulus is the ratio of stress to
corresponding strain (within specified limits).
A measure of stiffness
Stainless Steel E= 28.5 million psi (196.5 GPa)
Aluminum E= 10 million psi
Brass E= 16 million psi
Copper E= 16 million psi
Molybdenum E= 50 million psi
Nickel E= 30 million psi
Titanium E= 15.5 million psi
Tungsten E= 59 million psi
Carbon fiber E= 40 million psi
Glass E= 10.4 million psi
Composites E= 1 to 3 million psi
Plastics E= 0.2 to 0.7 million psi


Modulus Types
Modulus: Slope of the stress-strain curve
Initial Modulus: slope of the curve drawn at the origin.
Tangent Modulus: slope of the curve drawn at the tangent of the
curve at some point.
Secant Modulus: Ratio of stress to strain at any point on curve in a
stress-strain diagram. It is the slope of a line from the origin to any
point on a stress-strain curve.


Stress
Strain
o
c
Initial Modulus
Tangent Modulus
Secant Modulus
Compression Testing
Principles
Compression results from forces that push toward each other.
Specimens are short and large diameter.
Circular cross section is recommended.
Length to diameter ratio is important consideration
Universal test machine (UTM)
Size and load of compression machine are specially built.
Load and compression amount are measured.
Stress
Force per unit area. Applied force divided by the cross
sectional area of the specimen.

Strain calculated by the ratio of the change in length and
the original length. (Deformation)



l
F

l
0

A
F
= o
Expected Results
Similar Stress-strain curve as tensile testing





Stress
o
Strain
c
Shear Testing
Principles
Direct shear occurs when parallel forces are applied in the opposite
direction.
Single shear occurs on a single plane.
Double shear occurs on two planes simultaneously.


Shear Testing
Principles
Torsional shearing forces occur when the forces applied lie in
parallel but opposite directions. Twisting motion.
Torsional forces developed in a material are the result of an applied torque.
Torque is Forces x distance..
Universal test machine (UTM)
Special fixtures are needed to hold the specimen.
One end of the specimen is placed in a fixture that applies torsional
load and the other end is connected to a tropometer, which
measures the detrusion (load and deflection or twist)


Expected Results
Similar Stress-strain curve as tensile testing





Stress
o
Strain
c
Bend of Flexure Testing
Principles
Bending forces occur when load is applied to a beam or rod that involves
compression forces on one side of a beam and tensile forces on the other side.
Deflection of a beam is the displacement of a point on a neutral surface of a
beam from its original position under action of applied loads.
Flexure is the bending of a material specimen under load.
Strength that material exhibits is a function of the flexural modulus of the
material and the cross-sectional geometry.
Example, rectangular beam of 1 x 4 (W) will exhibit higher flexural strength than a
2 by 2 square beam of the same material modulus.
Properties are the same as in tensile testing.
Strength, deflection, modulus, ultimate strength, etc.
Specimen is loaded in a 3-point bending test
bottom goes in tension and the top goes in compression.
Failure analysis can provide information as the type of failure,
either tension or compression failure,
buckle prior to failure,
condition of fracture, e.e., rough, jagged, or smooth.



Equipment
Universal test machine (UTM)
Special fixtures are needed to hold the specimen.
Precautions
Specimen length should be 6 to 12 times the width to avoid shear failure or
buckling.
Areas of contact with the material under test should be such that unduly high
stress concentrations are avoided.
Longitudinal adjustments are necessary for the supports.
Lateral rotational adjustments should be provided to prevent torsional
stresses.
The parts should be arranged to be stable under load.

Expected Results
Similar Stress-strain curve as tensile testing





Stress
o
Strain
c
Impact Testing
Principles
Materials exhibit different properties depending on the rate at
which a load is applied and the resulting strain that occurs.
If a load is applied over a long period of time (static test)the material can
withstand greater loads than if the test is applied rapidly (dynamic).
Properties of materials are stain dependent.
Standardized tests are used to determine the amount of energy
required to break a material in impact tests.
Outcome of impact tests is to determine the amount of energy
needed to break a sample.



Impact Testing
Principles
Energy absorbed in several ways
Elastic deformation of the members or parts of a system.
Plastic deformation.
Hysteresis effects.
Frictional action
effects of inertia on moving parts.
Energy is defined as the ability to do work. E =W = F*D
Work is Force times distance moved.
Energy of a dropped object hitting a specimen is
E = w*h Energy is weight times height dropped.
E = m*g*h (metric) Energy is mass times gravity acceleration times height.




Equipment
Impact Testing Equipment
Izod and Charpy are the most common tests.
Both employ a swinging pendulum and conducted on small notched
specimens. The notch concentrated the load at a point causing failure. Other
wise without the notch the specimen will plastically deform throughout.
They are different in the design of the test specimen and the velocity at
which the pendulum strikes the specimen.
Charpy: the specimen is supported as a single beam and held horizontally.
Impacted at the back face of the specimen.
Izod: the specimen is supported as a cantilever and help vertically. Impacted
at front face of the specimen.
Figure 19-1

Impact Test
In standard testing, such as tensile and flexural testing, the
material absorbs energy slowly.
In real life, materials often absorb applied forces very quickly:
falling objects, blows, collisions, drops, etc.
A product is more likely to fail when it is subjected to an impact
blow, in comparison to the same force being applied more slowly.
The purpose of impact testing is to simulate these conditions.

Impact Test
Impact testing is testing an object's ability to resist high-rate loading.
An impact test is a test for determining the energy absorbed in fracturing a test
piece at high velocity.
Most of us think of it as one object striking another object at a relatively high
speed.
Impact resistance is one of the most important properties for a part designer to
consider, and without question the most difficult to quantify.
The impact resistance of a part is, in many applications, a critical measure of
service life. More importantly these days, it involves the perplexing problem of
product safety and liability.
One must determine:
1.the impact energies the part can be expected to see in its lifetime,
2.the type of impact that will deliver that energy, and then
3.select a material that will resist such assaults over the projected life span.
Molded-in stresses, polymer orientation, weak spots (e.g. weld lines or gate
areas), and part geometry will affect impact performance.
Impact properties also change when additives, e.g. coloring agents, are added to
plastics.


Impact Test
Most real world impacts are biaxial rather than
unidirectional.
Plastics, being anisotropic, cooperate by divulging the
easiest route to failure.
Complicated choice of failure modes: Ductile or
brittle.
Brittle materials take little energy to start a crack, little
more to propagate it to a shattering climax.
Highly ductile materials fail by puncture in drop weight
testing and require a high energy load to initiate and
propagate the crack.
Many materials are capable of either ductile or brittle
failure, depending upon the type of test and rate and
temperature conditions.
They possess a ductile/brittle transition that actually shifts
according to these variables.
For example, some plastic food containers are fine when
dropped onto the floor at room temperature but a frozen one
can crack when dropped.
Expected Results
Charpy Test
Capacity of 220 ft-lb for metals and 4 ft-lbs for plastics
Pendulum swings at 17.5 ft/sec.
Specimen dimensions are 10 x 10 x 55 mm, notched on one side.
Procedure
Pendulum is set to angle, o, and swings through specimen and
reaches the final angel, |. If no energy given then o = |.
Energy is


Expected Results
Izod Test
Capacity of 120 ft-lb for metals and 4 ft-lbs for plastics
Impacted at the front face of the specimen.
Specimen dimensions are 10 x 10 x 75 mm, notched on one side.
Procedure
Pendulum is set to angle, o, and swings through specimen and
reaches the final angel, |. If no energy given then o = |.
Energy is


Fundamentals of Hardness
Hardness is thought of as the resistance to penetration by an object or the
solidity or firmness of an object
Resistance to permanent indentation under static or dynamic loads
Energy absorption under impact loads (rebound hardness)
Resistance toe scratching (scratch hardness)
Resistance to abrasion (abrasion hardness)
Resistance to cutting or drilling (machinability)

Principles of hardness (resistance to indentation)
indenter: ball or plain or truncated cone or pyramid made of hard steel or diamond
Load measured that yields a given depth
Indentation measured that comes from a specified load
Rebound height measured in rebound test after a dynamic load is dropped onto a
surface
Hardness Mechanical Tests
Brinell Test Method
One of the oldest tests
Static test that involves pressing a hardened steel ball (10mm) into a test
specimen while under a load of
3000 kg load for hard metals,
1500 kg load for intermediate hardness metals
500 kg load for soft materials
Various types of Brinell
Method of load application:oil pressure, gear-driven screw, or weights with a lever
Method of operation: hand or electric power
Method of measuring load: piston with weights, bourdon gage, dynamoeter, or
weights with a lever
Size of machine: stationary (large) or portable (hand-held)




Brinell Test Conditions
Brinell Test Method (continued)
Method
Specimen is placed on the anvil and raised to contact the ball
Load is applied by forcing the main piston down and presses the ball
into the specimen
A Bourbon gage is used to indicate the applied load
When the desired load is applied, the balance weight on top of the
machine is lifted to prevent an overload on the ball
The diameter of the ball indentation is measured with a micrometer
microscope, which has a transparent engraved scale in the field of view
Brinell Test Example
Brinell Test Method (continued)
Units: pressure per unit area
Brinell Hardness Number (BHN) = applied load divided by area of
the surface indenter
( )
2 2
2
d D D D
L
BHN

=
t
Where: BHN = Brinell Hardness Number
L = applied load (kg)
D = diameter of the ball (10 mm)
d = diameter of indentation (in mm)
Example: What is the Brinell hardness for a specimen with an indentation
of 5 mm is produced with a 3000 kg applied load.

Ans:
( )
2
2 2
/ 6 . 142
) 5 ( ) 10 ( 10 ) 10 (
) 3000 ( 2
mm kg
mm mm mm mm
kg
BHN =

=
t
Brinell Test Method (continued)
Range of Brinell Numbers
90 to 360 values with higher number indicating higher hardness
The deeper the penetration the higher the number
Brinell numbers greater than 650 should not be trusted because the diameter of
the indentation is too small to be measured accurately and the ball penetrator
may flatten out.
Rules of thumb
3000 kg load should be used for a BHN of 150 and above
1500 kg load should be used for a BHN between 75 and 300
500 kg load should be used for a BHN less than 100
The materials thickness should not be less than 10 times the depth of the indentation

Advantages & Disadvantages of
the
Brinell Hardness Test
Advantages
Well known throughout industry with well accepted results
Tests are run quickly (within 2 minutes)
Test inexpensive to run once the machine is purchased
Insensitive to imperfections (hard spot or crater) in the material

Limitations
Not well adapted for very hard materials, wherein the ball deforms excessively
Not well adapted for thin pieces
Not well adapted for case-hardened materials
Heavy and more expensive than other tests ($5,000)

Rockwell Test
Hardness is a function of the degree of indentation of the
test piece by action of an indenter under a given static load
(similar to the Brinell test)
Rockwell test has a choice of 3 different loads and three
different indenters
The loads are smaller and the indentation is shallower than
the Brinell test
Rockwell test is applicable to testing materials beyond the
scope of the Brinell test
Rockwell test is faster because it gives readings that do not
require calculations and whose values can be compared to
tables of results (ASTM E 18)
Rockwell Test Description
Specially designed machine that applies load through a
system of weights and levers
Indenter can be 1/16 in hardened steel ball, 1/8 in steel ball, or
120 diamond cone with a somewhat rounded point (brale)
Hardness number is an arbitrary value that is inversely related to
the depth of indentation
Scale used is a function of load applied and the indenter
Rockwell B- 1/16in ball with a 100 kg load
Rockwell C- Brale is used with the 150 kg load
Operation
Minor load is applied (10 kg) to set the indenter in material
Dial is set and the major load applied (60 to 100 kg)
Hardness reading is measured
Rockwell hardness includes the value and the scale letter




Rockwell Values



Scale Indenter Applied Load
(kg)
A Brale 60
B 1/16 in 100
C Brale 150
D Brale 100
E 1/8 in 100
F 1/16 in 60
G 1/16 in 150
B Scale: Materials of medium hardness (0 to 100HR
B
) Most Common
C Scale: Materials of harder materials (> 100HR
B
) Most Common
Rockwell scales divided into 100 divisions with each division (point of
hardness) equal to 0.002mm in indentation. Thus difference between a
HR
B
51 and HR
B
54 is 3 x 0.002 mm - 0.006 mm indentation
The higher the number the harder the number
Rockwell and Brinell Conversion
For a Rockwell C values between -20 and 40, the Brinell
hardness is calculated by


For HR
C
values greater than 40, use


For HR
B
values between 35 and 100 use

( )
C
HR
x
BHN

=
100
10 42 . 1
6
( )
C
HR
x
BHN

=
100
10 5 . 2
4
( )
B
HR
x
BHN

=
130
10 3 . 7
3
Rockwell and Brinell Conversion
For a Rockwell C values, HR
C
, values greater than 40,


Example,
Convert the Rockwell hardness number HRc 60 to BHN


( )
C
HR
x
BHN

=
100
10 5 . 2
4
( ) 60 100
10 5 . 2
4

=
x
BHN
625 = BHN
Form of Polymers
Thermoplastic Material: A material that is solid,
that possesses significant elasticity at room
temperature and turns into a viscous liquid-like
material at some higher temperature. The process
is reversible

Polymer Form as a function of temperature
Glassy: Solid-like form, rigid, and hard
Rubbery: Soft solid form, flexible, and elastic
Melt: Liquid-like form, fluid, elastic
Temp
Glassy
Rubbery
Melt
Polymer
Form
Tm
Tg
Glass Transition Temperature, Tg
Glass Transition Temperature, Tg: The temperature by
which:
Below the temperature the material is in an immobile (rigid)
configuration
Above the temperature the material is in a mobile (flexible)
configuration
Transition is called Glass Transition because the
properties below it are similar to ordinary glass.
Transition range is not one temperature but a range over a
relatively narrow range (10 degrees). Tg is not precisely
measured, but is a very important characteristic.
Tg applies to all polymers (amorphous, crystalline, rubbers,
thermosets, fibers, etc.)
Glass Transition Temperature, Tg
Glass Transition Temperature, Tg: Defined as
the temperature wherein a significant the loss of modulus (or
stiffness) occurs
the temperature at which significant loss of volume occurs

Modulus
(Pa)
or
(psi)
Temperature
-50C 50C 100C 150C 200C 250C
Tg
Vol.
Temperature
-50C 50C 100C 150C 200C 250C
Tg Tg
Crystalline Polymers: Tm
Tm: Melting Temperature


T > Tm, The order of the molecules is random (amorphous)
Tm >T >Tg, Crystallization begins at various nuclei and the order of the
molecules is a mixture of crystals and random polymers (amorphous).
Crystallization continues as T drops until maximum crystallinity is achieved. The
amorphous regions are rubbery and dont contribute to the stiffness. The crystalline
regions are unaffected by temperature and are glassy and rigid.
T < Tg, The amorphous regions gain stiffness and become glassy
Polymer Form
Temp
Glassy
Rubbery
Melt
Tm
Tg
Crystalline Polymers Tg
Tg: Affected by Crystallinity level
High Crystallinity Level = high Tg
Low Crystallinity Level = low Tg


Modulus
(Pa)
or
(psi)
Temperature
-50C 50C 100C 150C 200C 250C
Tg
High Crystallinity
Medium Crystallinity
Low Crystallinity
Temperature
T > Tm, The amorphous polymers volume decreases linearly with T.
Tm > T >Tg, As crystals form the volume drops since the crystals are
significantly denser than the amorphous material.
T < Tg, the amorphous regions contracts linearly and causes a change in
slope
Temperature Effects on Specific
Volume


-50C 50C 100C 150C 200C 250C
Tg Tg
Specific
Volume
Elastomers
Elastomers are rubber like polymers that are thermoset or
thermoplastic
butyl rubber: natural rubber
thermoset: polyurethane, silicone
thermoplastic: thermoplastic urethanes (TPU), thermoplastic
elastomers (TPE), thermoplastic olefins (TPO), thermoplastic
rubbers (TPR)
Elastomers exhibit more elastic properties versus plastics
which plastically deform and have a lower elastic limit.
Rubbers have the distinction of being stretched 200% and
returned to original shape. Elastic limit is 200%

Rubbers
Rubbers have the distinction of being stretched 200%
and returned to original shape. Elastic limit is 200%
Natural rubber (isoprene) is produced from gum resin
of certain trees and plants that grow in southeast Asia,
Ceylon, Liberia, and the Congo.
The sap is an emulsion containing 40% water & 60% rubber particles
Vulcanization occurs with the addition of sulfur (4%).
Sulfur produces cross-links to make the rubber stiffer and harder.
The cross-linkages reduce the slippage between chains and results in
higher elasticity.
Some of the double covalent bonds between molecules are broken,
allowing the sulfur atoms to form cross-links.
Soft rubber has 4% sulfur and is 10% cross-linked.
Hard rubber (ebonite) has 45% sulfur and is highly cross-linked.
Vulcanizable Rubber
Typical tire tread
Natural rubber smoked sheet (100),
sulfur (2.5) sulfenamide (0.5), MBTS (0.1), strearic acid (3), zinc
oxide (3), PNBA (2), HAF carbon black (45), and mineral oil (3)
Typical shoe sole compound
SBR (styrene-butadiene-rubber) (100) and clay (90)
Typical electrical cable cover
polychloroprene (100), kaolin (120), FEF carbon black (15) and
mineral oil (12), vulcanization agent
Thermoplastic Elastomers
Polyurethanes
Have a hard block segment and soft block segment
Soft block corresponds to polyol involved in polymerization in ether based
Hard blocks involve the isocyanates and chain extenders
Polyesters are etheresters or copolyester thermoplastic
elastomer
Soft blocks contain ether groups are amorpous and flexible
Hard blocks can consist of polybutylene terephthalate (PBT)
Polyertheramide or polyetherblockamide elastomer
Hard blocks consits of a crystallizing polyamide

Soft
Hard
Hard
Hard
Soft
Soft
Testing Elastomers
Modulus is low for elastomers and rubbers
Fig 6-47, 6-48, 6-50
Modulus depends upon
Crosslinking = modulus
Temp = modulus
Rubbers have
large rubber region
Large elastic component
Can test over and over again
With same results

Modulus
(Pa)
or
(psi)
Temperature
-50C 50C 100C 150C 200C 250C
Heavy crosslinking
Medium crosslinking
Low crosslinking
Tg
Tm
Modulus
(Pa)
or
(psi)
Rubbery Region
Tm
Tg Troom
Stress
(Pa)or
(psi)
Strain
Low modulus
High modulus
Glasses and Ceramics Thermal
Viscosity- materials resistance to flow
Viscosity of glasses are between 50 and 500 P, whereas viscosity
of water and liquid metals are 0.01p
Viscosity of soda-lime glass from 25C to 1500C. (Fig 6-42)
Melting range is between 1200 and 1500C
Working range is between 700 and 900 C
Annealing Point
Internal stresses can be relieved
Softening point at 700C
Viscosity = 10
13.5
P
Glass transition
Occurs around annealing point



Temperature, C
Log
Viscosity
(poise)
0 500 1000 1500
20
15
10
5
0
Annealing Point
Annealing Range
Working Range
Melting Range
Glasses and Ceramics Stresses
Thermal stresses occur during production of tempered glass.
Fig 6-43
High breaking strength of product is due to residual compressive
stress at the material surfaces.
Above Tg
No tension or compression
Air quenched surface below Tg
Compression on surface tension on the bottom
Slow cool to room temperature
Surface compression forces on tension inside.



Long Term Static Loading: Creep
Creep
Measures the effects of long-term application of loads that are below the elastic
limit if the material being tested.
Creep is the plastic deformation resulting from the application of a long-term
load.
Creep is affected by temperature
Creep procedure
Hold a specimen at a constant elevated temperature under a fixed applied stress
and observe the strain produced.
Test that extend beyond 10% of the life expectancy of the material in service are
preferred.
Mark the sample in two locations for a length dimension.
Apply a load
Measure the marks over a time period and record deformation.

Creep Results
Creep versus time


Creep
(in/in)
Time (hours)
Primary Creep
Secondary Creep
Tertiary Creep
l
0

l
F

Constant
Load
Fixed
Short Term Conventional Testing
Tear
Flexible plastics and elastomers often fail in a tearing mode and
their resistance to tearing is often inadequately reflected in tensile
strength
Standard tear tests involve a variety of test specimen geometries
(angle tear, trouser tear, etc.) Figure 4.12
Conducted on a Universal testing machine or specialized equip
Involve a cut, slit, or nick which is made before the test.
Biaxial stress
Developed when a circular diaphragm, pipe, or container is
subjected to pressure (Fig 4.13)
Basis for quick-burst tests.
The pressure at failure (rupture), or the stress is measured