Discourse Analysis

A discourse is behavioral unit. It is a set of utterances which constitute a

recognizable speech event e.g. a conversation, a joke, a sermon, an interview etc.
In its historical and etymological perspective the term is used in different
perspectives e.g.
Verbal communication.
All this fine talk.
Direct / indirect speech.
To chat.
In order to narrow down the range of possible meanings, the modern
linguists have given different views or definitions.
Example:
Discourse is written as well as spoken: every utterance assuming the a
speaker and a hearer as discourse.
!envenisle, "#$": %&'(#)
An individualizable group of statements and sometimes as a regulated
practice that counts for a number of statements.
*oucault, "#$%: '&)
+he specification with the term is that ,discourse must be used with its social
purpose- this is the main specification of discourse.
+he brief difference between discourse and te.t, I think, will facilitate to
better understand the term Discourse.
Difference between Discourse and Text
Discourse Analysis focuses on the structure of naturally spoken language as
found in conversation interviews, commentaries and speeches.
+e.t analysis focuses on the structure of written language, as found in such
te.t as essays, notices, road signs and chapters.
/rystal. "#'$)
0ome scholars talk about ,spoken or written discourse- other about ,spoken
or written te.t-
/rystal. "#'$)
It means discourse and te.t can be used almost synonymously. !ut a
distinction is always there and that in discourse has some social purpose while te.t
fulfills the function of communication of some meaning only. As suggested by
1ichel 0tubbs "#'2) who treats te.t and discourse as more or less synonymous.
3awthorn "##%) says te.t may be non(interactive where as a discourse is
interactive. 1eans to say te.t is non(interactive that-s it only fulfils the function of
conveying some meaning. !ut discourse is always involved in two ways responses
in some formal or informal conversation and dialogues etc.
3awthorn "##%) further says ,discourse is a linguistic communication seen
as a transaction between speaker and hearer. 4hile te.t is also a linguistics
communication either spoken or written) seen simply as a message coded in its
auditory or visual medium-
+o conclude we can say discourse and te.t have something in common as
both use the medium of language whether in sign language. !oth have some
meaning that they try to convey.
!ut te.t has a limited scope as compare with discourse. In other words we
can say discourse is somewhat broad category in the system of language. And te.t
deals with the written from of language. Discourse has different form as Discourse
of Advertising, Discourse of 5acism, Discourse of 1edical etc. !ut te.t has no
such forms. Discourse can be found with in te.t. And not vice versa. +e.t has its
ma.imum interpretation in its ownself but discourse has a lot of things above the
language level.
Discourse analysis
Discourse analysis is an attempt to discover linguistic regularities in
discourse using grammatical, phonological and semantic criteria e.g. cohesion,
anaphora, inter sentence connectivity etc. It is an effort to interpreter what the
writer or speaker intended to convey with in a sensitive social conte.t.
Example:
*ather: Is that your coat on the floor again6
0on: yes goes on reading)
3ere in the above e.ample Discourse Analysis says that the answer of the
son is not clear one. It shows the e.ploitation of ambiguity about father-s command
to pick up his coat. 5ather the son deals his father-s command as a simple content
7uestion which can be answered in yes 8no.
Discourse Analysis is a process in which the reader and listener-s mind is
working up on the linguistic features of the utterance to grasp the intended
meaning of the writer or speaker.
9ven if the utterances or sentences are ungrammatical the Discourse
Analysis makes us grasp the intended meaning.
Example:
1y natal was in a small town, very close to 5iyadh capital of 0audi Arabia.
+he distance between my town and 5iadh $ miles e.actly. +he name of this
Almasani that means in 9nglish factories. It takes its name from the people carrer.
In childhood I remember the people live. It was very simple most the people was
farmer.
+he above paragraph is full of grammatical mistakes since by Discourse
Analysis of this te.t we can grasp mostly what are the informations the writer
wants to communicate.
Discourse concerns with communication so Discourse Analysis gives us the
interpretation of the communicated commodity.
Deices for Discourse Analysis
4e use different tools for Discourse Analysis. 0ome of them are as under:

!i"#ohesion
/ohesion refers to the ties and connections which e.ist within te.ts
that link different parts of sentences or larger unit of discourse.
#ohesie Deices

!a"Anaphoric $elation
Interpretation of te.t from some previously e.pressed idea entity.
Example:
3e did that there.
9very word has some anaphoric reference with which interpretation could not be
made.
!b" #ataphoric $elation
It means referring forward. It refers the identity what is being e.pressed and
what is to be e.pressed.
Example:
3ere is the #, : /lock news.
!y using these relation and links we can better interpret and
analyzed discourse.
%)#oherence
+he language users try to come to an interpretation in the scenario of
knowledge of the world they posses. /oherence is not something which e.ists in
the language but something which e.ists in people. !y using coherence the reader
arums semantic unity the paragraph.
Example:
3er: +hat-s the telephone
3im: I- am in the both.
3er: :k.
4e can interpret the above dialogue with the help of conventional action and by
our background knowledge that someone in the bathroom can not attend the
telephone.
!%" &arallelism
;arallelism means side by side. In some piece of literature some
comparisons or contrasts go side be side with each other. +hey also help
to interpreter the whole te.t.
Example:
In <ane Austen-s ,;ride and ;rejudice-, good marriages and bad
marriages are compared and contrasted on parallel levels.
!'" (peech Eents
0peech events are mainly concerned what people say in different
environment e.g. Debate, interview, discussions, 7uiz etc are different (peech
Eents. 0peakers may have different speech roles as friend, strangers, young or old
of e7ual or une7ual status
+his background knowledge about the personality and environment give a better
comprehension for better interpretation of discourse.
!)" *ackground +nowledge
!ackground knowledge can be very much helpful in interpreting any te.t.
0chema and script are two terms that comprise the background knowledge.
0chema and script tells us what is actually the real situation and what are the
actions.
(chema is conventional knowledge which e.ists in memory.
(cript is essentially a dynamic schema in which conventional action takes place.
+he schema of a supermarket holds the knowledge ,food displayed on
shelves, checkout counters- etc.
4hile in script such actions are involved as going to movies, eating in a
restaurant etc.
Example:
Trying not to be out of the office (u,y went into the nearest place- sat
down and ordered a sandwich.
3ere in the above e.ample the background knowledge of the situation and
the action can be traced out through the schema and script as:
(chema tells us:
0uzy may be an office girl
+he nearest place is some restaurant.
(cript tells us:
About the action she performed as:
*irstly, she unlocked the door.
0econdly, she walked to the nearest restaurant.
+hirdly, she opened the door of the restaurant. etc.
3ere schema and script tells us what is actually the real situation and what are the
actions.
!.". #onersational /nteraction
/onversation is an activity where for the most part thw or more people take
turn at speativn: in these tusns at speaking one has to pick up the completion point
to take his turn to speak. +his is conversational interaction.
During the discourse we not only taking part in conversation but we are also
analyzing. +he discourse simultaneously. 0o in the conversation turn taking helps
us to successfully complete the discourse.
!0" The co1operation principle
=rice "#$>) set 2our 3axims which say that in conversational e.changes
the participants are in fact co(operating with each other.
!i". 3axim of 4uantity
1ake your contribution as informative as is re7uired but not more or less
than is re7uired.
!ii". 3axim of 4uality
Don-t say that which you believe to be false or for which you lack evidence.
!iii". 3axim of $elation
!e relevant
!i". 3axim of 3anner
!e clear, brief and orderly.
Example:
#arol : Are your coming to the party tonight5
6ara: /7e got exam tomorrow.
Apparently this e.change have no relevance but by using these 1a.ims we can
analyze the discourse as:
". 1a.im of ?uantity:( information is that @ara has e.ams
%. 1a.im of ?uality: 0he is describing a fact of her e.ams.
2. 1a.im of 5elation: It is the reason why she could not come to the party
A. 1a.im of 1anner: A clear cut refusal.
+he following can be the intended meaning:
+omorrow : 9.am
+o night : 0tudy, ;reparation
+onight : Bo party
Intended meaning : 5efusal
+he analysis of the above statement shows the use of ma.ims of co(
cooperation in Discourse Analysis.