1

Glass
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Boole
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COPYRIGHT
DEPOSIT;
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The Great Telescope of the Lick Observatory.
Aperture, 36 inches; Length, 57 feet.
THE ELEMENTS OF
ASTRONOMY
A TEXTBOOK
BY
CHAKLES A. YOUNG, Ph.D., LL.D.
LATE PROFESSOR OF ASTRONOMY IN PRINCETON UNIVERSITY
AUTHOR OF "THE SUN," AND OF A "GENERAL ASTRON-
OMY FOR COLLEGES AND SCIENTIFIC SCHOOLS
"
REVISED EDITION
WITH ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS
GINN AND COMPANY
BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO LONDON
ATLANTA DALLAS COLUMBUS SAN FRANCISCO
c^
A
it
,
ENTERED It STATIONERS' HALL
COPYRIGHT, 1889, 1897, BY
CHARLES A. YOUNG
COPYRIGHT, 1917, BY
FREDERICK A. YOUNG
COPYRIGHT, 1919, BY
GINN AND COMPANY
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
319.1
*M
-7
1919
qCfte !3tftettgam 3$te8S
GINN AND COMPANY PRO-
PRIETORS
BOSTON

U.S.A.
'CLA511843
PREFACE.
The present volume is a new work, and not a mere
abridgment of the author's
K
General Astronomy." Much
of the material of the larger book has naturally been in-
corporated into this, and many of its illustrations are
used
;
but everything has been worked over with refer-
ence to the wants of institutions which demand a more
elementary and less extended course than that presented
in the
"
General Astronomy."
It has not always been easy to decide just how far to
go in cutting down and simplifying. On the one hand
the students who are expected to use the present book are
not children, but have presumably mastered the elementary
subjects which properly precede the study of Astronomy,
and it is an important part of their remaining educa-
tion to make them familiar with astronomical terms and
methods ; on the other hand it is very easy to assume too
much, and to make the book difficult and incomprehensible
by the use of too many unfamiliar terms, and the unpre-
pared presentation of new ideas and demonstrations

and
the danger is greater in a brief course than in a longer
one.
While therefore the writer has tried to treat every sub-
ject simply and clearly, he has not discarded the use of
technical terms in proper places, and he has always sought
IV PREFACE.
to stimulate thought, to discourage one-sided and narrow
ways of looking at things, and to awaken the desire for
further acquisition.
The book presupposes students anxious to learn, and
an instructor who understands the subject in hand,
and the art of teaching.
Special attention has been paid to making all statements
correct and accurate as
far
as they go. Many of them are
necessarily incomplete, on account of the elementary char-
acter of the work ; but it is hoped that this incomplete-
ness has never been allowed to degenerate into untruth,
and that the pupil will not afterwards have to unlearn
anything that the book has taught him.
In the text no mathematics higher than elementary
algebra and geometry is introduced
;
in the foot notes
and in the appendix an occasional trigonometric formula
appears.
Certain subjects, which, while they certainly ought to
be found within the covers of every text-book of Astron-
omy, are perhaps not essential to an elementary course,
have been relegated to an appendix. Where time allows,
the instructor will find it advisable to include some of
them at least in the student's work.
A brief Uranography is also presented, covering the
constellations visible in the United States, with maps on
a scale sufficient for the easy identification of all the prin-
cipal stars. It includes also a list of such telescopic
objects in each constellation as are easily found and lie
within the power of a small telescope.
The author is under special obligations to Messrs.
Kelley of Haverhill, Lambert of Fall River, and Par-
PREFACE. V
menter of Cambridgeport, for valuable suggestions and
assistance in preparing the work, and to his assistant, Mr.
Heed, for help in the proof-reading: also to Warner &
Swasey for the cut of the Lick telescope which forms the
frontispiece.
PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION OF 1897.
The progress of Astronomy since the first publication of
this work has been such as to require a thorough revision and
partial rewriting of the book in order to make it fairly rep-
resentative of the existing state of the science. Numerous
changes and corrections have been made, with some consider-
able "additions
;
but the necessary alterations have been so
managed that it is believed that no serious inconvenience will
arise in using the old and new editions together.
A
"
Synopsis for Review and Examination
"
has been added,
which, it is hoped, will be found useful by both teachers and
P
u
P
ils-
C. A. Young.
PREFACE TO ISSUE OF 1918
While the greater part of the text remains as it was written
by its author, such changes have been made in this issue as
are necessary to bring it down to date.
Mount Holyoke College
Anne Sewell Young
September, 1918
CONTENTS.
PAGES
INTRODUCTION . . . 1-4
CHAPTER I.

Fundamental Notions and Definitions: the

"
Doctrine of the Sphere
"
5-28
CHAPTER II.

Fundamental Problems of Practical Astron-

omy : the Determination of Latitude, of Time, of Longitude,
of the Place of a Ship at Sea, and of the Position of a Heav-
enly Body 29-44
CHAPTER III.

The Earth: its Form, Rotation, and Dimen-

sions
;
Mass, Weight, and Gravitation in General ; the Earth's
Mass and Density 45-66
CHAPTER IV.

The Orbital Motion of the Earth and

its Consequences : Precession ; Aberration ; the Equation of
Time : the Seasons and the Calendar 67-87
CHAPTER Y. The Moon: her Orbital Motion; her Distance,
Dimensions, Mass, and Density; Rotation and Librations
;
Phases; her Light and Heat and Physical Condition; Tele-
scopic Aspect and Surface Features . . . . . 88-113
CHAPTER VI.

The Sun : its Distance, Dimensions, Mass, and

Density
;
its Rotation and Equatorial Acceleration
;
Methods
of Studying its Surface ; Sun Spots, their Nature, Dimensions,
Development, and Motions ; their Distribution and Perio-
-
dicity ; Sun-Spot Theories ......
114-132
Vlll CONTENTS.
\/
CHAPTER VII.

The Spectroscope, the Solar Spectrum,

and the Chemical Constitution of the Sun : the Sun-Spot
Spectrum ; Doppler's Principle ; the Chromosphere and
Prominences
;
the Corona
;
the Sun's Light ; the Sun's Heat
;
Theory of its Maintenance and Speculations regarding the
Age of the Sun 133-160
CHAPTER VIII.Eclipses : Form and Dimensions of Shadows;
Eclipses of the Moon
;
Solar Eclipses, Total, Annular, and
Partial ; Ecliptic Limits, and number of Eclipses in a Year
;
Recurrence of Eclipses, and the Saros
;
Occultations . 161-174
CHAPTER IX.

Celestial Mechanics : the Laws of Central

Force
;
Circular Motion
;
Kepler's Laws
;
Newton's Verifica-
tion of the Theory of Gravitation ; the Conic Sections ; the
Problem of Two Bodies ; the Problem of Three Bodies and
Perturbations ; the Tides 175-198
CHAPTER X. The Planets in General : Bode's Law
;
Ap-
parent Motions
;
the Elements of a Planet's Orbit ; Determi-
nation of Period and Distance
;
Planetary Perturbations and
Stability of the System
;
Determination of the Data relating
to the Planets themselves
;
their Diameters, Masses, Rotations,
etc. ; Herschel's Illustration of the Scale of the System . 199-219
CHAPTER XI.

The Terrestrial and Minor Planets : Intra-

Mercurial Planets, and the Zodiacal Light . . . 220-242
CHAPTER XII.

The Major Planets : Jupiter, its Satellites,

the Equation of Light, and the Distance of the Sun
;
Saturn,
its Rings and Satellites
;
Uranus, its Discovery and Satellite
System
;
Neptune, its Discovery
;
its Satellite . . 243-263
CHAPTER XIII.

Comets and Meteors : Comets, their Num-

ber, Designation, and Orbits ; their Constituent Parts and
Appearance
;
their Spectra, Physical Constitution, and Proba-
ble Origin
;
Aerolites, their Fall and Characteristics
;
Shoot-
ing Stars and Meteoric Showers ; Connection between Meteors
and Comets
264-302
CONTENTS. IX
CHAPTER XIV.

The Stars : their Nature, Number, and Des-

ignation
;
Star Catalogues and Charts ; their Proper Motions,
and the Motion of the Sun in Space
;
Stellar Parallax
;
Star Magnitudes and Photometry; Variable Stars; Stellar
Spectra . . . . . 303-332
CHAPTER XV. The Stars (continued): Double and Multiple
Stars
;
Clusters and Nebulae
;
the Milky Way, and Distribu-
tion of Stars in Space ; the Stellar Universe
;
Cosmogony and
the Nebular Hypothesis 333-360
APPENDIX.
CHAPTER XVI.

Supplementary to Articles in the Text :

Celestial Latitude and Longitude. Corrections to a Meas-
ured Altitude. The Local Time from a Single Altitude of
the Sun.

Determination of Azimuth. Theory of the Fou-

cault Pendulum. Measurement of Mass independent of
Gravity.

The Equation of Time.

The Spectroscope and
the Solar Prominences. The Equation of Doppler's Prin-
ciple.

Areal, Linear, and Angular Velocities.

Gravitation
proved by Kepler's Harmonic Law.

Newton's Verification
of Gravitation by Means of the Moon.

The Conic Sections.

Elements of a Planet's Orbit.

The Mass of a Planet.

Danger from Comets.

Twilight 361-382
CHAPTER XVII.Determination of Solar and Stellar Par-
allax : Historical.

Geometrical Methods of finding the

Parallax of the Sun : Oppositions of Mars
;
Transits of
Venus and Halley's Method
;
De l'Isle's Method ; Helio-
metric and Photographic Methods
;
Gravitational Methods.

Absolute and Differential Methods of determining Stellar

Parallax. . . . . 383-395
CHAPTER XVIII.

Astronomical Instruments: The Tele-

scope, Simple Refracting, Achromatic, and Reflecting.

The Equatorial.

The Filar Micrometer and the Heli-
ometer.

The Transit Instrument.

The Clock and the
Chronograph.

The Meridian Circle.

The Sextant.

The
Pyrheliometer 396-426
CONTENTS.
TABLES OF ASTRONOMICAL DATA:
I. Astronomical Constants . .
II. The Principal Elements of the Solar System
III. The Satellites of the Solar System
IV. The Principal Variable Stars
V. The Best Determined Stellar Parallaxes
VI. Motion of Stars in the Line of Sight
VII. Orbits of Binary Stars ....
The Greek Alphabet and Miscellaneous Symbols
427
428
429
430
431
432
433
434
SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS
435-438
SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW AND EXAMINATION . 439-450
INDEX 451-462
SUPPLEMENTARY INDEX 463,464
URANOGRAPHY AND STAR-MAPS .
*
. . .
465-508
INTRODUCTION.
**:<
1. The earth, is a huge ball about 8000 miles in diameter,
composed of rock and water, and covered with a thin envelope
of air and cloud. Whirling as it flies, it rushes through empty
space, moving with a speed fully fifty times as great as that of
the swiftest cannon-ball. On its surface we are wholly uncon-
scious of the motion, because it is perfectly steady and without
jar.
As we look off at night we see in all directions the countless
stars, and conspicuous among them, and looking like stars,
though very different in their real nature, are scattered a few
planets. Here and there appear faintly shining clouds of
light, like the so-called Milky Way and the nebulae, and per-
haps, now and then, a comet. Most " striking of all, if she
happens to be in the heavens at the time, though really the
most insignificant of all, is the moon. By day the sun alone
is visible, flooding the air with its light and hiding the other
heavenly bodies from the unaided eye, but not all of them
from the telescope.
2. The Heavenly Bodies.

The bodies thus seen from the

earth are known as the "heavenly bodies." For the most part
they are globes like the earth, whirling on their axes, and mov-
ing swiftly through space, though at such distances from us
that their motions can be detected only by careful observation.
They
may be classified as follows: First, the solar system
proper, composed of the sun, the planets which revolve around
2 INTRODUCTION.
[
2
it, and the satellites, which attend the planets in their motion
around the sun. The moon thus accompanies the earth, which
herself belongs among the planets. The distances between
these bodies are enormous as compared with the size of the
earth, and the sun which rules them all is a body of almost
inconceivable magnitude.
Next, we have the comets and the meteors which, while they
acknowledge the sun's dominion, move in orbits of a different
shape from those of the planets, and are bodies of a very
different character. Finally, we have the stars and nebulas,,
at distances from us immensely greater than even those which
separate the planets. The stars are suns, bodies comparable
with our own sun in size and nature, and, like it, self-luminous,
while the planets and their satellites shine only by reflected
sunlight. Of the nebulae we know very little, except that they
are cloud-like masses of self-luminous matter, and belong to
the region of the stars.
3. Subject-Matter of Astronomy.

Astronomy is the science

which treats
of
the heavenly bodies. It investigates (a) their
motions and the laws which govern them; (b) their nature,
dimensions, and characteristics
;
(c) the
influence they exert
upon each other either by their attraction, their radiation, or
in any other way.
Astronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences : nearly the
earliest records that we find in the annals of China and upon
the inscribed
"
library bricks " of Assyria and Babylon relate
to astronomical subjects, such as eclipses and the positions of
the planets. Obviously in the infancy of the race the rising
and setting of the sun, the progress of the seasons, and the
phases of the moon must have compelled the attention of even
the most unobservant.
As Astronomy is the oldest of the sciences, so also it is one
of the most perfect, and in certain aspects the noblest, as
being the most
"
unselfish," of them all.

4] INTRODUCTION. 3
4. Utility.

Although, not bearing so directly upon the

material interests of life as the more modern sciences of Phys-
ics and Chemistry, it is really of high utility. It is by means
of Astronomy that the latitudes and longitudes of places upon
the earth's surface are determined, and by such determinations
alone is it possible to conduct vessels upon the sea. If we can
imagine that some morning men should awake with Astronomy
forgotten, all almanacs and astronomical tables destroyed, and
sextants and chronometers demolished, commerce would prac-
tically cease, and so far as intercourse by navigation is con-
cerned, the world would be set back to the days before Columbus.
Moreover, all the operations of surveying upon a large scale, such
as the determination of the boundaries of countries, depend
more or less upon astronomical observations. The same is true
of all operations which, like the railway service, require an ac-
curate knowledge and observance of the time ; for the funda-
mental time-keeper is the diurnal revolution of the heavens,
as determined by the astronomer's transit-instrument.
In ancient times the science was supposed to have a still higher
utility. It was believed that human affairs of every kind, the welfare
of nations, and the life history of individuals alike, were controlled,
or at least prefigured, by the motions of the stars and planets; so
that from the study of the heavens it ought to be possible to predict
futurity. The pseudo-science of Astrology based upon this belief
really supplied the motives that led to most of the astronomical obser-
vations of the ancients. Just as modern Chemistry had its origin in
Alchemy, so Astrology was the progenitor of Astronomy.
5. Place in Education.
Apart from the utility of Astron-
omy in the ordinary sense of the word, the study of the
science is of the highest value as an intellectual training.
No other science so operates to give us on the one hand just
views of our real insignificance in the universe of space, mat-
ter, and time, or to teach us on the other hand the dignity
of the human intellect as the offspring, and measurably the
4 INTRODUCTION.
[
5
counterpart, of the Divine ; able in a sense to
"
comprehend
n
the universe, and know its plan and meaning. The study of
the science cultivates nearly every faculty of the mind; the
memory, the reasoning power, and the imagination all receive
from it special exercise and development. By the precise
and mathematical character of many of its discussions it en-
forces exactness of thought and expression, and corrects that
vague indefiniteness which is apt to be the result of pure lit-
erary training. On the other hand, by the beauty and gran-
deur of the subjects it presents, it stimulates the imagination
and gratifies the poetic sense. In every way it well deserves
the place which has long been assigned to it in education.
6. The present volume does not aim to make finished
astronomers of high-school pupils. That would require years
of application, based upon a thorough mathematical training
as a preliminary. Our little book aims only to present such a
view of the elements of the science as will give the pupils of
our high schools an intelligent understanding of its leading
facts,

not a mere parrot-like knowledge of them, but an

understanding both of the facts themselves and of the general
methods by which we ascertain them. These are easily mas-
tered by a little attention, and that without any greater degree
of mathematical knowledge than may confidently be expected
of pupils in the latter years of a high-school course. Nothing
but the simplest Arithmetic, Algebra, and Geometry will be
required to enable one to deal with anything in the book,
except that now and then a trigonometric equation may be
given in a note or in the Appendix for the benefit of those
who understand that branch of mathematics.
The occasional references to
"
Physics" refer to Gage's
" Principles
of Physics'' (Goodspeed's revision), and those to "Gen. Ast." relate
to the author's
"
General Astronomy," or college text-book.
7] THE CELESTIAL SPHERE.
CHAPTER I.
FUNDAMENTAL NOTIONS AND DEFINITIONS, AND THE
DOCTRINE OF THE SPHERE.
7. The Celestial Sphere.

The sky appears as a hollow

vault, to which the stars seem to be attached, like specks of
gilding upon the inner surface of a dome. We cannot judge
of the distance of the concavity from the eye, further than
to perceive that it must be very far away, because it lies be-
yond even the remotest terrestrial objects. It is therefore nat-
ural, and it is extremely convenient from a mathematical point
of view, to regard the distance of the heavens as unlimited.
The celestial sphere, as it is called, is conceived of as so enor-
mous that the whole material universe lies in its centre like a
few grains of sand in the middle of the dome of the Capitol.
The imaginary radius of the celestial sphere is assumed to be
immeasurably greater than any actual distance known, and
greater than any quantity assignable,

in technical language,
mathematically
infinite.
There are other ways of regarding the celestial sphere, which are
equally correct and lead to the same general results without requiring
the assumption of an infinite radius, but on the whole they are more
complicated and less convenient than the one above indicated, which
is that usually accepted among astronomers.
8. Vanishing Point.

Since the radius of the celestial

sphere is thus infinite, any set of lines which are parallel to
each other, if extended indefinitely, will appear to pierce it at
a single point. The real distances of the parallel lines from
6 PLACE OF A HEAVENLY BODY. [|
each other remain, of course, unchanged however far they may
be produced ; so that whatever may be the radius of the
sphere, they actually pierce the surface in a group of separate
points. But since the radius of the sphere is
"
infinite," the
apparent size of the group of points, as seen from the earth,
will be less than any assignable quantity. In other words, to
the eye the area occupied by the group on the surface of the
sphere will shrink to a mere point,

the
"
vanishing point " of
perspective. Thus the axis of the earth, and all lines parallel
to it, pierce the heavens at the celestial pole ; and the plane
of the earth's equator, which keeps parallel to itself during
her annual circuit around the sun, marks out only one celestial
equator in the sky.
9. Place of a Heavenly Body.

This is simply the point

where a line, drawn from the observer through the body in
question and continued onward, pierces the sphere. It de-
pends solely upon the direction
of the body, and is obviously
in no way affected by its dis-
tance. Thus in Fig.
1, A, B, C,
etc., are the apparent places of
a,
6,
c, the observer being at 0.
Objects that are nearly in line
with each other, as h, i, 7c, will
appear close together in the sky,
however great their real dis-
tance from each other may be.
The moon, for instance, often
looks to us
"
very near
"
a star,
which is really of course at an immeasurable distance beyond
her.
10. Angular Measurement. It is clear that we cannot prop-
erly measure the apparent distance of two heavenly bodies
from each other in the sky by feet or inches. To say that two
Fig. 1.

10]
ANGULAR MEASUREMENT.
7
stars are about five
feet
apart, for instance (and it is not very
uncommon to hear such, an expression), means nothing unless
you tell how far from the eye the five-foot measure is to be
held. If 20 feet away, it means one thing, and corresponds,
nearly, to the apparent length of the "Dipper-handle" in the
sky (see Art.
23) ;
if 100 feet away, it corresponds to an
apparent distance only about one-fifth as great, or to one of
the shorter sides of the
"
Dipper-bowl " (see Art.
23) ;
but if
the five-foot measure were a mile away, its length would cor-
respond to an apparent distance about one-tenth the apparent
diameter of the moon. The proper units for expressing appar-
ent distances in the sky are those of angle, viz. : radians, or else
degrees
(),
minutes
('),
and seconds (").
The Great Bear's
tail or Dipper-handle is about 16 degrees long, the long side of
the Dipper-bowl is about 10 degrees, the shorter sides are
4
or
5
; the moon is about half a degree, or 30', in diameter.
11. The student will remember that a degree is one three-hundred-
and-sixtieth of the circumference of a circle, so that a quarter of the
circumference, or the distance from the point overhead to the horizon,
is 90 ; also, that a minute is the sixtieth part of a degree, and a sec-
ond the sixtieth part of a minute. The radian is the angle measured
360
by an arc of the circumference equal to its radius. It is , or
(approximately) 57.3, 3437'.7, or 206264". 8.
It is very important, also, that the student in Astronomy as soon as
possible should accustom himself to estimate celestial measures in
these angular units. A little practice soon makes it easy, though at
first one is apt to be embarrassed by the fact that the sky looks to the
eye not like a true hemisphere, but a flattened vault, so that all esti-
mates of angular distances for objects near the horizon are apt to be
exaggerated. The moon when rising or setting looks to most per-
sons much larger
1
than when overhead, and the
"
Dipper-bowl
"
.
x
This is due to the fact that when a heavenly body is overhead there
are no intervening objects by which we can estimate its distance from us,
while at the horizon we have the whole landscape between us and it. This
8 DISTANCE AND APPARENT SIZE. [
12
when underneath the pole seems to cover a much larger area than
when above it.
12. Relation between the Distance and Apparent Size of an
Object.

Suppose a globe of the radius BG, Fig.

2, equal to
r. As seen from the point A its "apparent" (that is, angular)
semi-diameter will be the angle BAG, or s, its distance being
AC, or R. Evidently the nearer A is to G, i.e., the smaller R
may be, the greater will be the angle s. If the angle s is
1,
R will be 57.3+ times as great as ?*; and if it were only 1", R
would then be 206,265 times r. As long as the angle s does
not exceed
1
or 2, we may without sensible error take
R X r^-r,
Or R
s" \
57.3'
^
"*
^206265/
The distances i? and r are of course measured in units of
length, or "linear" units, such as miles, kilometers, or feet. In
makes it seem remoter when low down, and as the angular diameter is
unchanged, it makes it seem to us larger (Art. 12). It may be mentioned
as a rather curious fact that people unaccustomed to angular measure-
ments say, on the average, that the moon (when high in the sky) appears
about a foot in diameter. This implies that the surface of the sky appears
to them only about 110 feet
away. Probably this is connected with the
physiological fact that by the muscular sense, by means of the convergence
of the eyes, we can directly estimate distances up to about 100 feet with
more or less accuracy. Beyond that we depend for our estimate mainly
on intervening objects.

12] CIRCLES OF THE SPHERE. 9

general, therefore, for r, the radius
1
(in linear units) of a
globe whose angular semi-diameter is s", we have
r"
r R
i
Also s" = 206265
Z-
206265 R
We see therefore that the apparent diameter of the object
varies directly as the linear diameter, and inversely as the dis-
tance. In the case of the moon, R equals about 239,000 miles,
and r, 1081 miles ; whence, from the formula just given, her
semi-diameter,
s" = 206265 x
1Q81
,
239000'
which equals
933"
a little more than \.
0IE0LES OP THE SPHERE.
13. In order to be able to describe intelligibly the position
of a heavenly body in the sky, it is convenient to suppose the
inner surface of the celestial sphere to be marked off by circles
traced upon it,

imaginary circles, of course, like the merid-

ians and parallels of latitude upon the surface of the earth.
Three distinct systems of such circles are made use of, each of
which has its own special adaptation for its special purposes.
SYSTEM WHICH DEPENDS UPON THE DIRECTION OF THE
FORCE OF GRAVITY AT THE POINT WHERE THE OB-
SERVER STANDS.
14. The Zenith and Nadir.

If we suspend a plumb-line
(consisting simply of a slender thread with a heavy ball at-
tached to it) , the thread will take a position depending upon
1
The exact trigonometric equation is sins= , whence r
=
R sins.
R
This equation is exact, even if s is a large angle.
10
THE HORIZON. [
14
the direction of the force of gravity. If we imagine the line
of this thread to be extended upward to the sky, it will pierce
the celestial sphere at a point directly overhead, known as the
astronomical zenith,
1
or
"
the zenith
"
simply, unless some other
qualifier is annexed.
As will be seen later (Art.
82),
the plumb-line does not point exactly
to the centre of the earth, because the earth rotates on its axis and is
not strictly spherical. If an imaginary line be drawn
from
the centre
of
the earth upward through the observer, and produced to the celes-
tial sphere, it marks a point known as the
"
geocentric zenith," which is
never very far from the astronomical zenith, but is not identical, and
must not be confounded, with it. For most purposes the astronomi-
cal zenith is the better practical point of reference, because its posi-
tion can be determined directly by observation, which is not the case
with the geocentric zenith.
The nadir (also an Arabic term) is the point opposite to
the zenith in the invisible part of the celestial sphere directly
underneath.
15. The Horizon.

If now we imagine a great circle drawn

completely around the celestial sphere half way between the
zenith and nadir (and therefore
90
from each of them), it
will be the horizon.
2
Since the surface of still water, accord-
ing to hydrostatic principles, is always perpendicular to the
direction of gravity, we may also define the horizon as the
great circle in which a plane, tangent to a surface
of
still water at
the place
of
observation, cuts the celestial sphere; or, in slightly
different words, the great circle where a plane passing through
the observer's eye, and perpendicular to the plumb line, cuts the
sphere.
1
The word " zenith" is derived from the Arabic, as are many other
astronomical terms. It is a reminiscence of the centuries when the Arabs
were the chief cultivators of science.
2
Pronounced ho-ri'-zon
;
beware of the vulgar pronunciation hor'-i-zon.
15] VISIBLE HORIZON. 11
Sensible and Rational Horizon.
Many writers distinguish
between the "sensible" and "rational" horizons, the former being de-
fined by a horizontal plane drawn through the observer's, eye, while the
latter is defined by a plane, parallel to this, but drawn through the
centre
of
the earth. Since, however, the celestial sphere is infinite in
diameter, the two lines traced upon it by these planes, though 4000
miles apart, confound themselves to the observer's eye into a single
great circle,
90
from both zenith and nadir, agreeing with the first
definition given above. The distinction is not necessary.
16. Visible Horizon.

The word
"
horizon
"
means literally
"
the boundary" that is, the limit
of
landscape, where sky meets
earth or sea ; and this boundary line is known as the Visible
Horizon. On land it is of no astronomical importance, being
usually an irregular line broken by hills and trees and other
objects; but at sea it is practically a
true circle, nearly, though not quite,
coinciding with the horizon as above
defined. If the observer's eye were at
the water-level, the coincidence would
be exact ; but if he is at an elevation
above the surface, the line of sight
drawn from . his eye tangent to the
water inclines or
"
dips
"
downward by
a small angle, on account of the curva-
ture of the earth. This is illustrated
by Fig.
3,
where OH is the line of the
true level from the observer's eye at
0,
situated at an eleva-
tion, h
}
while OB is the line drawn to the visible horizon.
The visible horizon, therefore, is not a great circle of the
celestial sphere, but technically a small circle, parallel to the true
horizon and depressed below it by an amount measured by the
angle HOB, which is called the Dip
of
the Horizon.
1
In marine
astronomy this visible horizon is of great importance, because
it is the circle from which the observer measures with his
Fig. 3.

Dip of the Horizon.
1
The Dip (in minutes) =
y/h (in feet) nearly.
12 VERTICAL CIRCLES.
[16
sextant the height of the sun or other heavenly body, in the
operations by which he determines the place of his ship.
17. Vertical Circles; the Meridian and the Prime Vertical.

Vertical Circles are great circles drawn from the zenith at right
angles to the horizon. Their number is indefinite : each star
has at any moment its own vertical circle. That particular
vertical circle which passes north and south is known as the
Celestial Meridian, and is evidently the circle which would be
obtained by continuing to the sky the plane of the terrestrial
meridian upon which the observer is located. The vertical
circle at right angles to the meridian is the Prime Vertical.
Fig. 4.

The Horizon and Vertical Circles.

O, the place of the Observer.
OZ, the Observer's Vertical.
Z, the Zenith ; P, the Pole.
SENW, the Horizon.
SZPN, the Meridian.
EZW, the Prime Vertical.
M, some Star.
ZMH, arc of the Star's Vertical Circle.
TMR, the Star's Almucantar.
Angle TZM, or arc SH, Star's Azimuth.
Arc HM, Star's Altitude.
Arc ZM, Star's Zenith Distance.
18. Parallels of Altitude, or Almucantars.

These are small

circles of the celestial sphere drawn parallel to the horizon just
as the parallels of latitude on the earth's surface are drawn
parallel to the equator. The term Almucantar (Arabic) is
seldom used.

19] ALTITUDE AND ZENITH DISTANCE.

13
19. We are now prepared to designate the place of a body
in the sky by telling how many degrees it is above the horizon,
and how it
"
bears
"
from the observer.
Altitude and Zenith Distance.

The Altitude of a celestial

body is its angular elevation above the horizon
;
i.e., the number
of degrees between it and the horizon, measured on a vertical
circle passing through the object. In Fig. 4 the vertical circle
ZMHpasses through the body M. The arc MH measured in
degrees is the Altitude of M, and the arc ZM (the
"
comple-
ment
"
of MH) is called its Zenith Distance.
20. Azimuth and Amplitude.

The Azimuth (an Arabic

word) of a heavenly body is the same as its
"
bearing
"
in sur-
veying
;
measured, however, from the true meridian and not
from the magnetic.
1
It may be denned as the angle formed at the zenith between
the meridian and the vertical circle which passes through the
object ; or, what comes to the same thing, it is the arc
of
the
horizon intersected between the south point and the foot of
this circle. In Fig. 4 SZNis the meridian, and the angle SZM
is the azimuth of M, as also is the arc SH, which measures
the angle at Z. The distance of Hfrom the east or west point
of the horizon is called the Amplitude of the body; HE in the
figure is the amplitude of M.
21. There are various ways of reckoning azimuth. Many writers
express it in the same way as the bearing is expressed in Surveying
;
i.e., so many degrees east or west of north or south. In the figure, the
azimuth of Mthus expressed is about S.
50
E. The more usual way
at present, however, is to reckon it from the south point clear around
through the west to the point of beginning. Thus an object exactly
in the southwest would have an azimuth of 45, while that of M
would be the arc SWNEH, about 310.
1
The reader will remember, of course, that the magnetic needle does
not point exactly north* Its direction varies widely in different parts
of the earth, and not only so, but it changes slightly from hour to hour
during the day, as well as from year to year.
14 THE POLAR SYSTEM OF CIRCLES. [
2*
For example, to find a star whose azimuth is
260
and altitude
60, we must face 1ST.
80
E., and then look up two-thirds of
the way to the zenith, the zenith distance being
30.
22. Altitude and azimuth, however, are for many purposes
inconvenient, because for a celestial object they continually
change.
,
When the sun is rising, for instance, its altitude is zero. Half an
hour later it is increased by several degrees, and the azimuth also is
altered; for the sun does not (except to an observer at the earth's
equator) rise vertically in the sky, but slopes upward, moving from the
left towards the right; so also when it is setting: and the same is
true, in a general way, of every heavenly body.
It is desirable, therefore, to use a different way of defin-
ing the place of a body in the heavens which shall be free
from this objection, and this we can do by taking as the
"fundamentalline" of our system, not the direction
of
gravity
as shown by the plumb-line (which is not the same at any
two different points on the earth's surface, and is continually
changing as the earth turns around), but the direction
of
the
earth's axis.
SYSTEM OF CIRCLES DEPENDING ON THE DIRECTION 0
THE EARTHS AXIS OF ROTATION.
23. The Apparent Diurnal Rotation of the Heavens.

If we
go
1
out on some clear evening in early autumn and face the
north, we shall find the aspect of that part of the heavens
directly before us substantially as shown in Fig. 5. In the
1
The teacher is earnestly recommended to arrange to give the class, as
early in the course as possible, an evening or two in the open air. It is
the best and quickest way to secure an intelligent comprehension of the
fundamental points and circles of the celestial sphere ; and the study of
the constellations, though not of much account considered as astronomy,
is always interesting to young people and awakens interest in the science.
If the class can have access to a good celestial globe at the same time,
it will make the exercise easier and more profitable.
23]
THE CIRCITMPOLAE, STARS. 15
northwest is the constellation of the Great Bear (Ursa Major),
characterized by the conspicuous group of seven bright stars,
familiar to all our readers as the
"
Great Dipper." It now
MP
<\\
Fig. 5.
The Northern Circumpolar Constellations.
lies with its handle sloping upward toward the west. The
two easternmost stars of the four which form its bowl are
called the "Pointers"
because they point to the Pole-star,
which is a solitary star not quite half-way from the horizon
16 THE CIKCTTMPOLAR STARS.
[23
to the zenith, (in the latitude of New York). It is about
as bright as the brighter of the two Pointers, and a curved
line of small stars extending upward and westward joins
it to the bowl of the "Little Dipper," the Pole-star being
at the extremity of the handle. The two brightish stars,
which correspond in position to the Pointers in the Great
Dipper, are known as the
"
Guards" (of the pole).
High up on the opposite side of the Pole-star from the
Great Dipper, and at nearly the same distance, is an irregular
zigzag of five stars, about as bright as the Pole-star itself.
This is the constellation of Cassiopeia.
Below Cassiopeia lies Perseus
;
and still lower, near the northeast-
ern horizon, is Auriga (the Charioteer), with the bright star Capella,
the only really first-magnitude star in all the region of the sky with
which we are now dealing. Directly below the Pole-star the vacant
space is occupied by the large but insignificant constellation of the
Camelopard. Cepheus, also containing but few bright stars, is
directly above Cassiopeia. Above the Pole-star, between it and the
zenith, lies the head and neck of the Dragon (Draco), but its tail
extends westward nearly half-way around the pole, and is marked by
an irregular line of stars lying between the Great and Little Dippers.
(The above description, and the figure given, apply strictly to the
appearance of the heavens on Sept. 22, at 8 p.m., as seen by an
observer in latitude 40.)
24. If now we watch these stars for only a few hours, we
shall find that while all their configurations remain unaltered,
their places in the sky are slowly changing. The Great Dip-
per slides downward towards the north, so that by eleven
o'clock (on Sept.
22)
the Pointers are directly under the Pole-
star. Cassiopeia still keeps opposite however, rising towards
the zenith ; and if we continue the watch long enough, we shall
find that all the stars appear to be moving in concentric circles
around a point near the Pole-star, revolving counter-clockwise
(as we look towards the north) with a steady uniform motion,
which takes them completely around once a day, or, to be more

24]
DEFINITION OF THE POLES. 17
exact, once in 23
h
56
m
4.1
s
of ordinary time. They behave just
as if they were attached to the inner surface of a huge re-
volving dome.
At midnight (of Sept. 22) the position of the stars will be as indi-
cated by the figure, if we hold it so that the XII in the margin is at
the bottom ; at 4 a.m. they will have come to the position indicated
by bringing XYI to the bottom ; and so on. On the next night at 8
o'clock we shall find things (very nearly) in their original position.
If instead of looking towards the north we now look south-
ward, we shall find that there also the stars appear to move in
the same kind of way. The stars which are not too near the
Pole-star all rise somewhere in the eastern horizon, ascend
obliquely to the meridian, and descend to set at points on the
western horizon. The next day they rise and set again at
precisely the same points, and the motion is always in an arc
of
a circle, called the star's diurnal circle, the size of which
depends upon its distance from the pole. Moreover, all these
arcs are strictly parallel to each other.
25. The ancients accounted for these fundamental and ob-
vious facts by supposing that the stars are really attached to
the celestial sphere, and that this sphere really turns daily in
the manner indicated. According to this view there must
evidently be upon the sphere two opposite points which remain
at rest, and these are the Poles.
26. Definition of the Poles.

The Poles, therefore, maybe

defined as those two points in the sky where a star would have no
diurnal motion. Its exact position may be determined with
proper instruments by finding the centre of the small diurnal
circle described by some star near the pole, as for instance
the Pole-star.
1
1
The student must be careful not to confound the pole with the Pole-
star. The pole is an imaginary point ; the Pole-star is only that one of the
conspicuous stars which happens now to be nearest to that point. The
18 THE CELESTIAL EQUATOR. [26
This definition of the pole is that which would have been
given by any ancient astronomer ignorant of the earth's rota-
tion, and it is still perfectly correct. But knowing, as we now
do, that this apparent revolution of the celestial sphere is due
to the real rotation of the earth on its axis, we may also define
the poles as the points where the earth's axis
of
rotation, pro-
duced indefinitely, would pierce the celestial sphere.
Since the two poles are dia-
metrically opposite in the sky,
only one of them is usually vis-
ible from any given place. Ob-
servers north of the earth's
equator see only the north pole,
and vice versa for observers in
the southern hemisphere.
27. The Celestial Equator, or
Equinoctial.

This is a great
circle of the celestial sphere,
drawn half-way between the poles
(therefore everywhere
90
from
each of them), and is the great circle in ivhich the plane
of
the
earth's equator cuts the celestial sphere. It is often called the
l
i Equinoctial." Pig. 6 shows how the plane of the equator
produced far enough would mark out such a circle in the
heavens.
Fig. 6.

The Plane of the Earth's Equa

tor produced to cut the Celestial Sphere.
The equator cuts the horizon at the east and west points, but it
does not cut it perpendicularly nor pass through the zenith unless the
Pole-star (at present) is about \\ distant from the pole. If we draw an
imaginary line from the Pole-star to the star Mizar (Zeta Ursae Majoris,
the one at the bend of the Dipper handle), it will pass almost exactly
through the pole itself ; the distance of the pole from the Pole-star being
very nearly one-quarter
of
the distance between the two
"
Pointers."

28]
HOUR-CIRCLES. 19
observer is at the earth's equator ; at its highest point it is just as
far below the zenith as the pole is above the horizon.
28. Parallels of Declination.

Small circles drawn parallel

to the equinoctial, like the parallels of latitude on the earth,
are known as Parallels
of
Declination. For any star situated
on one of these parallels, the parallel is obviously identical
with the star's diurnal circle. (The reason why these circles
in the heavens are not called parallels of latitude will appear
later.)
29. Hour-Circles.

The great circles of the celestial sphere

which pass through the poles, like the meridians on the earth,
and are therefore perpendicular to the celestial equator ("sec-,
ondaries " to it), are called Hour-Circles. Some writers call
them celestial "meridians
"
but the term is objectionable, since
it is sometimes used to designate an entirely different set of
circles (the secondaries to the ecliptic Art.
38).
That par-
ticular hour-circle which passes through the zenith at any
moment is of course coincident with the Celestial Meridian,
defined in Art. 17.
30. The Celestial Meridian and the Cardinal Points.

The
best form for the definition of the Celestial Meridian is, the
great circle which passes through the zenith and the poles. The
points where this meridian cuts the horizon are the north and
south points, and the east and west points of the horizon lie
half-way between them ; the four being known as the Cardinal
Points. The student is especially cautioned against confound-
ing the North Point with the North Pole; the former being on
the horizon, the latter high up in the sky.
In Fig. 7 P is the north celestial pole, Z is the zenith, and SQZPN
is the celestial meridian. PmP' is the hour-circle of the object m,
and amRbV is its parallel of declination or diurnal circle. NESW is
the horizon, and the points indicated by these letters are the four
Cardinal Points.
20 DECLINATION AND POLAR DISTANCE.
[30
By means of the hour-circles and the celestial equator we
now have a second method of designating the position of an
object in the heavens : for Altitude and Azimuth we can sub-
stitute Declination and Hour-Angle.
31. Declination and Polar Distance.

The Declination of a
star is its angular distance north or south
of
the celestial equator
;
4- if north,

if south. It corresponds precisely with the
Latitude of a place on the earth's surface ; it cannot, however,
RZ
Pig. 7. Hour-Circles, etc.
O, place of the Observer; Z, his Zenith.
SENW, the Horizon.
POP', line parallel to the Axis of the Earth.
P and P', the two Poles of the Heavens.
EQ WT, the Celestial Equator, or Equinoc-
tial.
X, the Vernal Equinox, or
"
First of
Aries."
PXP', the Equinoctial Colure, or Zero
Hour-Circle.
m, some Star.
Ym, the Star's Declination: Pm, its North-
Polar Distance.
Angle mPE
= arc QY, the Star's (eastern)
Hour-Angle; =24
h
minus Star's
(western) Hour-Angle.
Angle XPm
= arc XY, Star's Right Ascen-
sion. Sidereal time at the moment
= 24
h
minus XPQ.
be called celestial
"
Latitude," because that term has been pre-
occupied by an entirely different quantity (Art.
38).
In Fig.
7, m Y is the
declination of m, and mP is its North
polar distance.

32]
THE VERNAL EQUINOX. 21
32. Hour-Angle.

The Hour-Angle of a star at any moment

is. the angle at the pole between the celestial meridian and the
hour-circle
of
the star, which angle is measured by the arc
of
the celestial equator intercepted between the hour-circle
of
the
star and the meridian. In Fig.
7,
for the body m, it is the
angle mPZ, or the arc
Q
Y. This angle (or arc) may of course
be measured like any other, in degrees; but since it depends
upon the time which has elapsed since the body was last on
the meridian, it is more usual to measure it in hours, minutes,
and seconds
of
time. The
"
hour'" is then equivalent to
-fa
of
a circumference, or 15, and the minnte and second of time to
15 minutes and 15 seconds of arc respectively. Thus an hour-
angle of 4
h
2
m
3
s
equals
60 30' 45".
33. The position of the body m (Fig.
7)
is, then, perfectly defined
by saying that its declination is +
25, and its hour-angle
40
east (or
simply 320
if we choose to reckon completely around in the direction
of the diurnal motion) . Instead of 40 degrees, we might say 2
h
40
m
east, or 21
h
20
m
to correspond to the
320.
The declination of a star (omitting certain minutiae for the
present) remains practically unaltered even for years, but
the hour-angle changes continually and uniformly at the rate
of
15
for every (sidereal) hour.
34. The Vernal Equinox, or First of Aries.

The sun and

the planets do not behave as if they were firmly fixed upon
the celestial sphere like the stars ; but rather as if they were
glow-worms crawling slowly about upon its surface while it
carries them in its diurnal rotation. As every one knows, the
sun in the winter is far to the south of the equator, and in
the summer far to the north ; it crosses the equator, therefore,
twice a year, passing from the south to the north about March
20th, and always at the same point (neglecting for the present
the effect of what is known as precession, Art. 122) .
This
point is known as the Vernal Equinox, or the First of
22 RIGHT ASCENSION. [
34
Aries, and is made the starting-point for certain important
systems of celestial measurement. It is the "Greenwich" of
the celestial sphere.
Unfortunately it is not marked by any conspicuous star ; but a line
drawn from the Pole-star through Beta Cassiopeise (the westernmost
or "preceding" star in the zigzag) (see Fig.
5,
Art.
23) and continued
90
from the pole, strikes very near it.
35. Sidereal Time.

A sidereal clock is one that is set and

rated so that it marks noon every day, not at the moment
when the sun is crossing the meridian, but when the vernal
equinox does so. When the clock is correct (i.e., neither too
fast or slow), its face indicates the hour-angle
of
the vernal
equinox; and we may therefore define the sidereal time at
'
any moment as the hour-angle of the vernal equinox at
that moment.
It is called
"
sidereal " time because the length of its day is the time
that elapses between two successive passages of the same star across
the meridian. It is not convenient for the purposes of ordinary life
;
but for many astronomical purposes it is not only convenient, but
practically indispensable. It is usual to divide the face of the sidereal
clock into 24 hours, and to reckon the time completely around, instead
of counting it in two half-days of 12 hours each; moreover, its day,
for reasons which will be explained later (Art.
128),
is about four min-
utes shorter than the ordinary solar day.
36. Eight Ascension.

The "Right Ascension

"
of a star may
now be defined as the angle made at the celestial pole between the
hour-circle
of
the star and the hour-circle which passes through the
vernal equinox, and is known as the Equinoctial Colure. This
angle is measured by the arc
of
the celestial equator intercepted be-
tween the vernal equinox and the point where the star's hour-circle
cuts the equator, and is reckoned always eastward from the
equinox completely around the circle, and may be expressed
either in degrees or in hours. A star one degree west of the

36]
CELESTIAL LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE. 23
equinox has a right ascension of 359, or 23 hours and 56
minutes.
.
Evidently the diurnal motion does not affect the right ascension of
a star, but, like the declination, it remains practically unchanged for
years. In Fig.
7,
if X be the vernal equinox, the right ascension of
m is the angle XPm, or the arc XYmeasured from X eastward.
37. Observatory Definition of Right Ascension.

The right
ascension of a star may also be correctly, and for many pur-
poses most conveniently, defined, as the sidereal time at the
moment when the star is crossing the meridian.
Since the sidereal clock is made to show zero hours, minutes, and
seconds at the moment when the vernal equinox is on the observer's
meridian, its face at any other time shows the hour-angle of the
equinox ; and this is just what was defined in the preceding section
as the right ascension of any star which may then happen to be on
the meridian.
Obviously the positions of the heavenly bodies with refer-
ence to each other may be indicated by their declinations and
right ascensions, just as the positions of places on the earth's
surface are indicated by their latitudes and longitudes. The
declination of a star corresponds exactly to the latitude of a
city, and the star's right ascension to the city's longitude; the
vernal equinox taking, in the sky, the place of Greenwich on
the earth.
38. Celestial Latitude and Longitude.

A different way of
designating the positions of heavenly bodies in the sky has
come down to us from very ancient times. Instead of the
equator, it makes use of another circle of reference in the
sky known as the Ecliptic. This is simply the apparent path
described by the sun in its annual motion among the stars, and
may be defined as the intersection
of
the plane
of
the earth''s orbit
with the celestial sphere, the
"
vernal equinox
"
being one of the
24 KECAPITULATION.
[
38
two places in the sky where the celestial equator crosses it.
Before the days of clocks, the ecliptic was in many, respects
a more convenient circle of reference than the equator, and
was almost universally used as such by the old astronomers.
Celestial longitude and latitude are measured with reference to
the ecliptic in the same way that right ascension and declina-
tion are measured with respect to the equator. Too much
care cannot be taken to avoid confusion between terrestrial
latitude and longitude and the celestial quantities that bear
the same name (Appendix, Art.
491).
39. Recapitulation.

The direction
of
gravity at the point
where the observer happens to stand determines the zenith and
nadir, the horizon and the almucantars (parallel to the hori-
zon), and all the vertical circles. One of the verticals, the me-
ridian, is singled out from the rest by the circumstance that it
passes through the pole, thus marking the north and south
points where it cuts the horizon. Altitude and azimuth (or
their complements, zenith distance and amplitude) are the "co-
ordinates
"
which designate the position of a body by reference
to the zenith and meridian.
Evidently this set of points and circles shifts its position
with every change in the place of the observer. Each place
has its own zenith, its own horizon, and its own meridian.
In a similar way, the direction
of
the earth's axis (which is
independent of the observer's place on the earth) determines
the poles (Art.
26),
the equator, the parallels
of
declination, and
the hour-circles. Two of these hour-circles are singled out as
reference lines : one of them is the meridian which passes
through the zenith, and is a purely local reference line ; the
other, the equinoctial colure, which passes through the vernal
equinox, a point chosen from its relation to the sun's annual
motion.
Declination and. hour-angle define the place of a star with
reference to the pole and the meridian, while declination and
39] THE POLE AND LATITUDE. 25
right ascension refer it to the pole and vernal equinox. The
latter are the co-ordinates ordinarily given in star-catalogues
and almanacs for the purpose of defining the position of stars
and planets, and they correspond exactly to latitude and lon-
gitude on the earth, by means of which geographical positions
are designated.
Finally, the earth's orbital motion gives us the great circle of the sky
known as the ecliptic, and celestial latitude and longitude are quantities
which define the position of a star with reference to the ecliptic and
the vernal equinox. For most purposes this pair of co-ordinates is
practically less convenient than right ascension and declination
;
but,
as has been said, it came into use much earlier, and is not without its
advantages in dealing with the planets and the moon.
40. Relation of the Place of the Celestial Pole to the Ob-
server's Latitude.

If an observer were at the north pole of

the earth,- it is clear that the Pole-star would be very near his
zenith, while it would be at the horizon if he were at the
equator. The place of the pole in the sky, therefore, depends
evidently on the observer's latitude, and in this very simple
way

The Altitude of the Pole (its height in degrees

above the horizon) is
ALWAYS EQUAL TO THE
Latitude of the Ob-
server. This relation
will be clear from Fig. 8.
The latitude (astronomi-
cal) of a place may be
denned as the angle be-
tween the direction
of
gravity at that place and
the plane
of
the earth's
equator,-the angle OJVQ
in "the figure. If, now,
at we draw HH' perpendicular to ON, it will be a
"
level V.
Relation of Latitude to the Elevation
of the Pole.
26 THE EIGHT SPHERE. [
40
line, and will lie in the plane of the horizon. From also
draw OP" parallel to CP', the earth's axis. Both OP'
1
and CP
being parallel, will be directed to the same
"
vanishing-point
"
in the celestial sphere, (Art.
8),
and this point is the celestial
pole (Art.
26)
.
The angle H'OP" is therefore the altitude
of
the pole
as seen at O; and it obviously equals ONQ, since OH' is per-
pendicular to ON, and both CP
1
and OP" are perpendicular
to QQ'.
This fundamental relation, that the altitude
of
the pole is iden-
tical with the observer's latitude, cannot be too strongly impressed
on the' mind.
41. The Right Sphere. If the observer is situated at the
earth's equator (that is, in latitude zero), the pole will be in his hori-
zon, and the celestial equator will be a vertical circle, coinciding with
the "prime vertical" (Art.
17).
All heavenly bodies will rise and set
vertically instead of obliquely, as in our own latitudes; and their
diurnal circles will all be bisected by the horizon, so that they will be
12 hours above and 12 hours below it, and the length of the night will
always equal that of the day. This aspect of the heavens is called
the Right Sphere.
42. The Parallel Sphere.

If the observer is at the pole of the

earth, where his latitude equals 90, then the celestial pole will be at
the zenith, and the equator will coincide with the horizon. If he is at
the north pole, all the stars north of the celestial equator will remain
permanently above the horizon, never rising nor setting, but sailing
around the sky on parallels of altitude. The stars in the southern
hemisphere, on the other hand, will never rise to view.
Since the sun and moon move among the stars in such a way that
during half the time they are north of the equator and half the time
south of it, they will be half the time above the horizon and half
the time below it (at least approximately, since this statement needs to
be somewhat modified to allow for the effect of "refraction"

Art.
50). The moon will be visible for about a fortnight at a time, and
the sun for about six months.
42]
THE OBLIQUE SPHERE. 27
Fig. 9.
The Oblique Sphere.
It is worth noting that for an observer exactly at the north pole
the definitions of meridian and azimuth break down, since there the
zenith coincides with the pole. Face in what direction he will, he is
looking due south. If he
changes his place a few steps,
however, everything will come
right.
43. The Oblique Sphere.

At any station between

the pole and the equator
the pole will be at an eleva-
tion above the horizon, and
the stars will rise and set
in oblique circles, as shown
in Fig. 9. Those whose
distance from the elevated
pole is less than PN, the
latitude of the observer,
will of course never set, remaining perpetually visible. The
radius of this
"
circle of perpetual apparition," as it is called
(the shaded cap around P in the figure), is obviously just
equal to the height of the pole, becoming larger as the latitude
increases. On the other hand, stars within the same distance
of the depressed pole will lie within the
"
circle of perpetual
occultation," and will never rise above the horizon.
A star exactly on the celestial equator will have its diurnal
circle, EQ WQ', bisected by the horizon, and will be above the
horizon just as long as below it. A star north of the equator
(if the north pole be the elevated one) will have more than
half of its diurnal circle above the horizon, and will be visible
for more than twelve hours of each day; as, for instance, a
star at A,

and of course the reverse will be true of the stars

on the other side of the equator. Whenever the sun is north
of the celestial equator, the day will therefore be longer than
the night for all stations in northern latitude ; how much
28 THE OBLIQUE SPHERE.
[
43
longer will depend both on the latitude of the place and the
sun's distance from the equator (its declination).
44. Whenever the sun is north of the equator, it will, in northern
latitudes, rise at a point north of east, as B in the figure, and will
continue to shine upon every vertical surface that faces the north,
until, as it ascends, it crosses the prime-vertical EZW at some point
V. In the latitude of New York the sun on the longest days of sum-
mer is south of the prime-vertical only about eight hours of the whole
fifteen during which it is above the horizon. During seven hours of
the day it shines into north windows.
If the latitude of the observer is such that PN in the figure is
greater than the sun's polar distance at the time when it is farthest
north, the sun will make a complete circuit of the heavens without
setting, as is the case at the North Cape and at all stations within the
Arctic Circle. (See Art.
130.)
45. A celestial globe will be of great assistance in studying
these diurnal phenomena. The north pole of the globe must
be elevated to an angle equal to the latitude of the observer,
which can be done by means of the degrees marked on the
metal meridian ring. It will then be seen at once what stars
never set, which ones never rise, and during what part of the
24 hours any heavenly body at a known distance from the.
equator is above or below the horizon.
(For a description of the Celestial Globe, see Appendix, Art. 524.)
46] PKACTICAL PROBLEMS. 29
CHAPTER II.
FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS OF PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY.

THE DETERMINATION OF LATITUDE

;
OF TIME ; OF
LONGITUDE; OF THE PLACE OF A SHIP; OF THE POSI-
TION OF A HEAVENLY BODY.
46. There are certain problems of Practical Astronomy
1
which are encountered at the very threshold of all investiga-
tions respecting the dimensions and motions of the heavenly
bodies, the earth included. An observer must know how to
determine his position on the surface
of
the earth, how to ascer-
tain the exact time at which an observation is made, and how to
observe the precise position
of
a heavenly body, and fix its right
ascension and declination.
The first of these practical problems which we are to con-
sider is
47. The Determination of the Observer's Latitude.

In Geog-
raphy the latitude of a place is usually defined simply as its
distance north or south, of the earth's equator, measured in
degrees. This is not explicit enough, unless it is stated how
the degrees themselves are to be measured. If the earth were
a perfect sphere, there would be no difficulty. But since the
earth is quite sensibly flattened at its poles, the degrees (geo-
graphical) have somewhat different lengths in different parts
of the earth.
1
Practical Astronomy is that branch of Astronomy which treats of the
methods of making astronomical observations, the instruments used, and
the calculations by which the results are deduced.
30 PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY.
[47
An exact definition of the astronomical latitude of a place
has already been given (Art.
40). It is
(1)
the angle between
the direction
of
gravity and the plane
of
the equator, which is
the same as the altitude
of
the pole.
(2)
It may also be defined
as the declination
of
the zenith, as
^J^~ "^L is clear from Fig.
10, where PB,
yP the altitude of the pole, equals
/ \ QZ (since PQ and ZB are each
/
\ 90), and QZ by the very defini-
\
B
tion of declination (Art.
31) is
, ^
.
M T
.
the declination
of
the zenith. The
Fig. 10.

Determination of Latitude.
J
problem, then, is to determine,
by observing some of the heavenly bodies, either the angle
of elevation of the celestial pole, or the distance in degrees
between the zenith and the celestial equator.
48. First Method.

By circumpolars. The most obvious

method is by observing with a suitable instrument the altitude
of some star near the pole (a
"
circumpolar
"
star) at the
moment when it is crossing the meridian above the pole, and
again 12 (sidereal) hours later when it is once more on the
meridian below the pole. In the first case its elevation is the
greatest possible
;
in the second, the least possible. The mean
of
the two altitudes (each corrected for atmospheric refraction,
which will shortly be considered) is the latitude
of
the observer.
The method has the great advantage that it is an
"
independent
"
one; i.e., the observer is not obliged to make use of any data that
have been determined by his predecessors. But the method fails for
stations very near the equator of the earth.
49. The Meridian Circle.

The instrument with which such

observations are usually made in a fixed observatory is called the
meridian circle. The principle of it is exhibited in Fig. 11. It con-
sists of a telescope firmly attached to a stiff axis, which turns in bear-
ings attached to two solid piers. These bearings are so adjusted that
49]
DETERMINATION OF LATITUDE. 31
the axis is exactly level and exactly east and west. Near E, at the
eye end of the instrument, a
"
reticle
"
of spider-lines (see Appendix,
Art. 544) is so placed in the tube that on looking into the eye-piece it
can be distinctly seen at the same time with the star which is to be
observed

the field of view

being slightly illuminated so
that the spider-threads ap-
pear like dark lines drawn in
the sky.
The telescope as it is ro-
tated up or down upon the
pivots is obviously always di-
rected to the meridian
;
and
by elevating or depressing-
it, it can be so set that any
~J
given star will be
"
bisecteo
"
by the horizontal spider-line
of the reticle at the moment
when it crosses the meridian.
The instrument carries a
large and carefully graduated
circle so attached to the axis
as to turn with the telescope. Two or more so-called "reading micro-
scopes
"
fixed to the pier "read oif" the graduation of this circle, and
so determine the altitude of the object at which the telescope is pointed.
(A fuller account of the instrument and its appendages is given in the
Appendix, Art. 548.)
Fig. 11. The Meridian Circle (Schematic)
50. Refraction.

It was said that the observed altitudes must be

corrected for atmospheric refraction. As the rays of light enter the
earth's atmosphere from a distant object they are bent downward by
refraction (Physics, page
295),
except only such as strike the surface
of the atmosphere perpendicularly. Fig. 12 illustrates this effect.
Since the observer sees the object in the direction in which the rays
enter the eye, without any reference to its real position, this bending
down of the rays causes every object seen through the air to look
higher up in the sky than it would if the air were absent.
Under average conditions the refraction elevates a body at the
horizon about 35', so that the sun and moon in rising both appear
32
REFRACTION. [50
clear of the horizon while still wholly below it. At an altitude
of only
5
the refraction falls off to 10' ; at 44, it is
1'
; and at
the zenith, zero. Its amount at any
given altitude varies quite sensibly how-
ever, with the temperature and barometric
pressure, increasing as the thermome-
ter falls or as the barometer rises ; so
that whenever great accuracy is re-
quired in measures of altitude of a
heavenly body, we must have observa-
tions both of the thermometer and
barometer to go with the readings of
the "circle." In works on Practical
Astronomy tables are given by which the refraction can be computed
for an object at any altitude and in any state of the weather.
It is hardly necessary to say that this indispensable "refraction-
correction
"
of nearly all astronomical observations makes a great deal
of trouble and involves more or less error and uncertainty.
51. Second Method of Determining the Latitude.

By the
meridian altitude or zenith distance
of
a body whose declination
is accurately known.
In Fig. 13 the circle AQPB is the meridian,
Q
and P being
respectively the equator and the
pole, and Z the zenith. QZ is
obviously the declination
of
the
zenith, or the latitude of the ob-
server (Art. 47).
Suppose now
that we observe Zs, the zenith
distance of a star, s, south of the
zenith as it crosses the meridian,
and that Qs, the declination of the star, is known. Then, evi-
dently, QZ equals Qs +
sZ\ i.e., the latitude equals the declina-
tion
of
the star plus its zenith distance.
If a star were at ', south of the equator, the same equation would
still hold algebraically, because the declination Qs' is a minus quantity.

51]
DIFFERENT KINDS OF TIME. 33
If the star were at n, between the zenith and pole, we should have, lati-
tude equals the declination minus the zenith distance.
If we use the meridian circle in making our observations, we can
always select stars that pass near the zenith where the refraction is
small, which is in itself an advantage. Moreover, we can select the
stars in such a way that some will be as much north of the zenith as
others are south, and this will "eliminate" the refraction errors. On
the other hand, in using this method we have to obtain our star decli-
nations from the catalogues made by previous observers, and so the
method is not an
"
independent
"
one.
There are many other methods in use, some of which are
practically" more convenient and accurate than either of the
two described, but their explanation would take us too far.
See Art. 71* for a note upon Variation
of
latitude.
DIFFERENT KINDS OF TIME.
52. Time is usually denned as
"
measured duration." From
the earliest history the apparent diurnal rotation of the
heavens has been accepted as the standard, and to it we refer
all artificial measures of time, such as clocks and watches. In
practice the accurate
"
determination of time
"
therefore con-
sists in finding the hour -angle
of
the object which has been
selected to mark the beginning
of
the day by its
"
transit " across
the meridian.
In Astronomy, three kinds of time are now recognized,

Sidereal Time, Apparent Solar Time, and Mean Solar

Time, the last being the time of civil life and ordinary busi-
ness, while the first is most used for astronomical purposes.
Apparent solar time has now practically fallen out of use,
except in half-civilized countries where watches and clocks
are scarce and sun-dials are still the principal time-keepers.
53. Sidereal Time.

The celestial object which determines

sidereal time by its position in the sky at any moment is, it
34 SIDEREAL AND SOLAR TIME. [
53
will be remembered, the "vernal equinox" or
"
first of Aries ";
i.e., the point where the sun crosses the celestial equator about
March 20th every year (Art.
34).
As has already been ex-
plained (Art.
35),
the sidereal time at any moment is, there-
fore, the hour-angle
of
the vernal equinox at that moment ; or,
what comes to the same thing, it is the time marked by a
clock which is so set and adjusted as to show {sidereal) noon
(0
h
,
m
,
s
)
at each transit of the
"
first of Aries." The sidereal
"day" is the interval between successive transits of this
point, and within less than
T
i^
of a second, is equal to the
interval between successive transits of any given star. The
equinoctial point is, it is true, invisible
;
but its position
among the stars is always known, so that its hour-angle can
be determined by observing them.
54. Apparent Solar Time.

Just as sidereal time is the

hour-angle of the vernal equinox, so apparent solar time at any
moment is the hour-angle
of
the sun. It is the time shown by
the sun-dial, and its "noon" occurs at the moment when the
sun crosses the meridian. On account of the annual eastward
motion of the sun among the stars, due to the earth's orbital
motion (more fully explained farther on

Art.
128),
the
day of solar time is about four minutes longer than the side-
real day. Moreover, because the sun's motion in the sky is
not uniform, the days of apparent solar time are not all of
the same length. December 23d, for instance, is 51 seconds
longer from noon to noon, reckoned by the sun, than Sept.
16th. For this reason, apparent solar time is unsatisfactory
for scientific use, and it has been discarded in favor of mean
solar time.
55. Mean Solar Time.

A.
fictitious sun is therefore imag-
ined, which moves around the sky uniformly, and in the celestial
equator, completing its annual course in exactly the same time

55]
CIVIL DAY

ASTRONOMICAL DAY. 35
as that in which the actual sun makes the circuit of the eclip-
tic, that is, in one year; and this "fictitious sun" is made the
time-keeper for mean solar time. The mean solar days are
therefore all exactly of the same length, and equal in length
to the average "apparent solar" day. It is mean noon when this
"
fictitious sun
"
crosses the meridian, and at any moment the
hour-angle
of
the "fictitious sun " is the mean time for that
moment.
56. Sidereal time will not answer for business purposes, because
its noon (the transit of the vernal equinox) occurs at all hours of the
day in different seasons of the year. On the 22d of September, for
instance, it comes at midnight. Apparent solar time is unsatisfactory
from the scientific point of view, because of the variation in the
length of its days and hours. And yet we have to live by the sun : its
rising and setting, daylight and night, control our actions. In mean
solar time we find a satisfactory compromise

a time-unit which is
invariable, and still in agreement with sun-dial time nearly enough for
convenience. It is the time now used for all purposes except in cer-
tain astronomical work. The difference between apparent time and
mean time, (never amounting to more than about a quarter of an hour,)
is called the
"
equation
of
time" and will be discussed hereafter in con-
nection with the earth's orbital motion (Art. 128). The Nautical
Almanac also furnishes data by means of which the sidereal time
may be accurately deduced from the corresponding solar time, or vice
versa, by a very brief
1
calculation.
57. The Civil Day and the Astronomical Day.

The astro-
nomical day begins at "mean noon"; the civil day, 12 hours
earlier at midnight. Astronomical mean time is reckoned
around through the whole 24 hours instead of being counted
in two series of 12 hours each : thus, 10 a.m. of Wednesday,
1
The approximate relation between sidereal and mean solar time is very
simple. On March 20th, the two times agree, and after that the sidereal
time gains two hours a month. On April 5th, therefore, the sidereal
clock is one hour in advance, on April 20th, two hours, and so on.
36 DETERMINATION OF TIME.
[57
Feb. 27th, civil reckoning, is Tuesday, Feb. 26th, 22 hours, by
astronomical reckoning. Beginners need to bear this in mind
in referring to the almanac.
DETERMINATION OF TIME.
58. In practice the problem of determining, time, always
takes the form of ascertaining the "error" or " correction
"
oj
a time-piece ;
that is, finding the amount by which a watch or
clock is faster or slower than the time it ought to indicate.
The method ordinarily em-
ployed by astronomers is by
means of the Transit Instru-
ment, which is an instrument
precisely like the meridian
circle (Art.
49)
without the
circle and its reading micro-
scopes. As the instrument
(Fig.
14)
is turned upon its
axis, the vertical wire in the
centre of the "reticle" exact-
ly follows the meridian, when
the instrument is in perfect
adjustment. If, then, we know
the instant shown by the
clock when a known star is crossing this wire, we have at
once the means of determining the error of the clock, because
the sidereal time at that moment is equal to the star's right
ascension (Art.
37).
The difference between the right ascen-
sion of the star as given in the almanac and the time shown
by the face of the clock at the moment of transit gives directly
the
"
error
"
of the sidereal clock.
The observation of only a single star would give the error of the
clock pretty closely, but it is much better and usual to observe a num-
Fig. 14. The Transit Instrument.

58]
DETERMINATION OF TIME. 37
ber of stars (from 8 to
10),
reversing the instrument upon its pivots
once at least during the operation. With a good instrument a skilled
observer can thus determine the clock error within about a thirtieth
of a second of time, provided proper means are taken to allow for his
"personal equation."
If instead of observing a star we observe the sun with this instru-
ment, the time shown by the (solar) clock ought to be noon plus or
minus the equation of time for the day as given in the almanac. But
for various reasons transit observations of the sun are less accurate
than those of the stars, and it is better to deduce the mean solar time,
when needed, from the sidereal by means of the almanac data. (For
a fuller description of the transit instrument and its adjustments see
Appendix, Art. 544.)
59. Personal Equation.

It is found that every observer has

his own peculiarities of time-observation, and the so-called "personal
equation
"
of an observer is the amount that must be added (algebraically)
to the time observed by him in order to get the actual moment
of
transit.
This personal equation differs for different observers, but is reason-
ably constant (though never strictly so) for one who has had sufficient
practice. In the case of observations with the chronograph (see
Appendix, Art.
547) it is usually less than 0.1 of a second.
The best device for eliminating it is one in which the observer
simply keeps the star accurately bisected by a micrometer wire, the
record being made automatically.
60. Other Methods of Determining Time. While the method
by the transit instrument is most used, and is on the whole the most
convenient and accurate, several other methods are available. At sea,
and by travellers on scientific expeditions, the time is usually deter-
mined by observing the altitude
of
the sun some hours before or after
noon (see Appendix, Art. 493). It can also be done roughly by means
of a noon-mark, which is simply a true north and south line running
from the bottom of some vertical line,

a line drawn on the floor

from the edge of the door-jamb, for instance. The moment when
the shadow falls on this line is apparent noon, and must be corrected
for the equation of time to get mean noon. As the shadow is some-
what indistinct, a determination made in this way is liable to an error
of half a minute or so.
38 LONGITUDE.
[61
LONGITUDE.
61. Having now the means of finding the true local time,
we can approach the problem of the longitude, in many re-
spects the most important of what may be called the
"
eco-
nomic" problems of Astronomy. The great observatories of
Greenwich and Paris were founded expressly to furnish the
necessary data for determining the longitude of ships at sea,
and the English government has given large prizes for the
construction of clocks and chronometers to be used in such
determinations.
The longitude of a place on the earth may be defined as
the angle (at the pole
of
the earth) between the standard
1
merid-
ian and the meridian passing through the place
;
and this of
course is equal to the arc
of
the equator intercepted between the
two meridians.
Since the earth turns uniformly on its axis, this angle is
strictly proportional to, and is measured by the time interven-
ing between the transits of the mean sun or of any given
star across the two meridians. It may therefore be defined as
the difference
of
local times between the standard meridian and
the place in question, or the amount by which noon at Green-
wich is earlier or later than noon at the station of the observer.
Accordingly, terrestrial longitude is now usually reckoned in
hours, minutes, and seconds rather than in degrees.
Since an observer can easily find his own local time by the
methods given above, the knot of the problem is simply this :
To find Greenwich local time at any moment without going
there.
62. First Method.

By Telegraph. Incomparably the best

method, whenever it is available, is to make a direct telegraphic
1
As to the standard meridian, there is some variation of usage among
different nations. The French reckon from Paris, but most other nations
use the meridian of Greenwich.
62]
LONGITUDE.
.
39
comparison between the clock of the observer and that of some
station the longitude of which is known. The difference
between the two clocks will be the true difference of longitude
of the places after the proper corrections for their errors and
"personal equation" (Art.
59)
have been applied.
Wireless telegraphy is now being used for this purpose. Anyone
on the Atlantic seaboard who has a wireless receiving set can get
accurate Washington
time from the signals sent out daily from
Arlington, Va.
63. Second Method.

By the Chronometer. The chronome-

ter is merely a very accurate watch. It is set to Greenwich
time at some place whose longitude is known, and thereafter
keeps that time wherever carried. The observer has only to
find the apparent
"
error " of such a chronometer ivith respect
to his local time, and this apparent error is his longitude.
Practically, of course, no chronometer goes absolutely without gain-
ing or losing
;
hence it is always necessary to know and allow for its
gain or loss since the time it was set. Three or more should
be used if possible, since any irregular going of either of them will
then be pretty surely indicated by its disagreement with the others.
64. Other Methods.

Before the days of telegraphs and reliable

chronometers, astronomers were generally obliged to get their Green-
wich time
from
the moon, which may be regarded as a clock-hand
with stars for dial figures. Since the laws of the moon's motion are
now well known, so that the place which the moon will occupy is pre-
dicted in the Nautical Almanac for every hour of every Greenwich
day, it is possible to deduce the Greenwich time at any moment when
the moon is visible, by some observation which will determine her
place among the stars. The almanac place, however, is the place at
which the moon would be seen by an observer situated at the centre
of
the earth, and consequently the actual observations in most cases re-
quire rather complicated and disagreeable reductions before they can
be made available.
40 LOCAL AND STANDARD TIME. [
64
Various kinds of observations of the moon are made use of for the
purpose, of which the most satisfactory are those obtained on occa-
sions when the moon
"
occults
"
a star or eclipses the sun. For fuller
explanations, see
"
General Astronomy."
65. Local and Standard Time.

Until recently it has been

always customary to use local time, each station determining
its own time by its own observations. Before the days of the
telegraph and while travelling was comparatively slow and
infrequent, this was best. At present, for many reasons, it is
better to give up the old system of local times in favor of a
system of standard time. The change facilitates all railway
and telegraphic business in a remarkable degree, and makes it
practically easy for every one to keep accurate time, since it
can be daily wired from some observatory to every telegraph
office. According to the system now established in North
America, there are five such standard times in use,

the
colonial, the eastern, the central, the mountain, and the Pacific,

which differ from Greenwich time by exactly

4, 5, 6, 7,
and
8 hours respectively, the minutes and seconds being everywhere
identical.
At most places only one of these standard times is employed ; but
in cities where different systems join each other, as for instance at
Atlanta and Pittsburgh, there are two standard times in use, differ-
ing from each other by exactly one hour, and from the local time by
about half an hour. In some such places the local time also main-
tains itself.
In order to determine the standard time by observation, it is only
necessary to determine the local time by one of the methods given,
and correct it according to the observer's longitude from Greenwich.
66. Where the Day begins.

It is evident that if a travel-

ler were to start from Greenwich on Monday noon and travel
westward as fast as the earth turns to the east beneath his
feet, he would keep the sun exactly upon the meridian all day
long and have continual noon. But what noon ? It was

66]
PLACE OF A SHIP AT SEA. 41
Monday when he started, and when he gets back to London
24 hours later it will be Tuesday noon there
;
and yet he has
had no intervening night. When did Monday noon become
Tuesday ?
It is agreed among mariners to make the change
of
date at
the 180th meridian from
Greenwich. Ships crossing this line
from
the east skip one day in so doing. If it is Monday after-
noon when a ship reaches the line, it becomes Tuesday after-
noon the moment she passes it, the intervening 24 hours being
dropped from the reckoning on the log-book. Vice versa,
when a vessel crosses the line from the western side, it counts
the same day twice, passing from Tuesday back to Monday and
having to do Tuesday over again.
This 180th meridian passes mainly over the ocean, hardly touching
land anywhere. There is some irregularity in the date actually used
on the different islands in the Pacific. Those which received their
earliest European inhabitants via the Cape of Good Hope, have, for
the most part, adopted the Asiatic date, even if they really lie east of
the 180th meridian, while those that were first approached via Cape
Horn have the American date. When Alaska was transferred from
Russia to the United States, it was necessary to drop one day of the
week from the official dates.
PLACE OF A SHIP AT SEA.
67. The determination of the place of a ship at sea is the
problem to which Astronomy mainly owes its economic im-
portance. As was said a few pages back, national observa-
tories and nautical almanacs were established in order to sup-
ply the mariner with the data needed to make this determi-
nation accurately and promptly. The methods employed are
necessarily such that the required observations can be made
with the sextant and chronometer. Fixed instruments (like the
transit instrument and meridian circle) are obviously out of
the question on board of a vessel.
42 LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE AT SEA. [
68
68. Latitude at Sea.

This is obtained by observing with,

the sextant the sun's maximum altitude, which, of course, is
reached when the sun is crossing the meridian. Since at sea,
the sailor seldom knows beforehand the precise chronometer
time of local noon, the observer takes care not to be too late
and begins to measure the sun's altitude a little before noon,
repeating his observations every minnte or two. At first the
altitude will keep increasing, but when noon is reached the
altitude will become stationary, and then begin to decrease.
The observer uses, therefore, the maximum altitude obtained,
which, duly corrected for
"
semi-diameter,"
"
dip of the hori-
zon,"
"
refraction," and
"
parallax," (see Appendix, Art.
492),
gives him the true altitude of the sun's centre, and taking this
from
90
we get its zenith distance. Looking in the almanac,
we find there the sun's declination given for Greenwich (or
Washington) noon of every day, with the hourly change, so
that we can easily deduce the exact declination at the moment
of the observation. Then the observer's latitude comes out at
once, because (Art.
51)
the latitude of the observer equals the
sun's zenith distance plus the sun's declination. It is easy in
this way, with a good sextant, to get the latitude within about
half a minute of arc (or, roughly, half a mile).
69. Determination of the Local Time and Longitude at Sea.
The usual method now employed for the longitude depends
upon the chronometer. This is carefully
"
rated
"
in port ; that
is, its error and its daily gain or loss are determined by com-
parisons with an accurate clock for a week or two, the clock
itself being kept correct by transit observations. By merely
allowing for its gain or loss since leaving port and adding
this gain or loss to the error which the chronometer had when
brought on board, the seaman at once obtains the error of the
chronometer on Greenwich time at any moment ; and allowing
for this error, he has the Greenwich time itself with an accu-
racy which depends only on the constancy of the chronometer's
69]
THE POSITION OF A HEAVENLY BODY. 43
rate : it makes no difference whether it is gaining much or
little, provided its daily rate is always the same.
He must also determine his own local time, and it must be
done with the sextant, since, as was said before, an instrument
like the transit cannot be used at sea. He does it by meas-
uring the altitude of the sun, not at or near noon, as generally
supposed, but when the sun is as near east, or west as the cir-
cumstances permit. From such an observation the sun's hour-
angle, i.e., the apparent time (and from this the mean time),
is easily found, by means of the so-called PZ8 triangle, pro-
vided the ship's latitude is known (see Appendix, Art. 493).
The longitude follows at once, being simply the difference be-
tween the Greenwich time and the local time (Art.
63).
For
"
Sumner's method
"
of determining a ship's place, see
"
The
Manual of Astronomy
"
or
"
General Astronomy."
DETERMINATION OF THE POSITION OF A HEAVENLY
BODY.
As the basis of all our investigations in regard to the mo-
tions of the heavenly bodies, we require a knowledge of their
" places
"
in the sky at known times. The "place" so-called,
is defined by the body's right ascension and declination.
70. 1. By the Meridian Circle.

If a body is bright enough

to be seen by the telescope of the meridian circle and comes to
the meridian in the night time, its right ascension and declina-
tion are best determined by that instrument. If the meridian
circle is in exact adjustment, the right ascension of the object
is simply the sidereal time when it crosses the middle wire of
the reticle of the instrument.
The "circle-reading," on the other hand, corrected for re-
fraction and parallax, gives the polar distance of the object
(the complement
of
its declination) if the "polar point" of
the circle has been determined (see Appendix, Art. 549). A
single complete observation with the meridian circle deter-
44 THE POSITION OF A HEAVENLY BODY. [
70
mines therefore both, the right ascension and the declination
of the object.
71. 2. By the Equatorial. If the body, a comet for instance,
is too faint to be observed by the telescope of the meridian
circle, which is seldom very powerful, or if it comes to the
meridian only in the daytime, we usually accomplish our object
by using the equatorial, and determine the position of the body
by measuring the
difference
of right ascension and declination
between it and some neighboring star, the place of which is
given in a star-catalogue.
In measuring this difference of right ascension and declination, we
usually employ a
"
micrometer
"
(Art.
542),
attached to the telescope.
The difference of right ascension between the star and the object to be
determined is measured by simply observing with the chronograph
the transits of the two objects across wires that are placed north and
south
;
the difference of declination, by bisecting each object with
one of the micrometer wires as it crosses the middle of the field of
view. The observed differences must be corrected for refraction,
and also for the motion of the body, if it is appreciable.
In some cases
"
altitude and azimuth instruments," so-called, are
used for such "extra-meridian" observations, especially in observing
the moon.
Art.
71*.
Variation of Latitude.
It has been discovered since
1889 that latitudes on the earth's surface certainly undergo slight
periodical changes, amounting sometimes to
0."6
within a year. In
other words, the earth's poles are not absolutely
fixed,
but wander about
to the extent of 50 or 60 feet, never going more than 30 feet or so
from their mean position. The motion is found to be compounded
of two
: one circular with a period of 14 months, the other in an
elongated oval with a period of exactly a year. It is supposed to be
due chiefly to causes depending upon the seasons, but the explanation
is not yet complete.
There is so far no evidence that any considerable changes have ever
occurred in the position of the poles.
72]
THE EARTH'S FORM, ETC. 45
CHAPTER III.
THE EARTH: ^TS FORM, ROTATION, AND DIMENSIONS.

MASS, WEIGHT, AND GRAVITATION.

THE EARTH'S
MASS AND DENSITY.
72. In a science which, deals with the heavenly bodies it
might seem at first that the earth has no place ; but certain
facts relating to it are just such as we have to investigate with
respect to her sister planets, are ascertained by astronomical
methods, and a knowledge of them is essential as a base of
operations. In fact, Astronomy, like charity, "begins at home,"
and it is impossible to go far in the study of the bodies which
are strictly "heavenly" until one has first acquired some
accurate knowledge of the dimensions and motions of the
earth itself.
73. The astronomical facts relating to the earth are broadly
these
:
1. The earth is a great ball about 7920 miles in diameter.
2. It rotates on its axis once in twenty
-four
sidereal hours.
3. It is not exactly spherical, but is flattened at the poles, the
polar diameter being nearly twenty-seven miles, or about one two
hundred and
ninety-fifth
part, less than the. equatorial.
4. It has a mean density between 5.5 and 5.6 as great as
that
of
water, and a mass represented in tons by six with twenty-
one ciphers following
(six thousand millions
of
millions
of
millions
of
tons).
5. It is
flying
through space in its orbital motion around the
sun with
a
velocity
of
about eighteen and a half miles a second;
i.e., about seventy-five
times as
swiftly
as an ordinary cannon'
ball.
46
SIZE OF THE EARTH.
[
74
74. The Earth's Approximate Form and Size. It is not
necessary to dwell on the ordinary proofs of the earth's globu-
larity. We will simply mention them.
1. It can be circumnavigated.
2. The appearance of vessels coming in from sea indicates
that the surface is everywhere convex.
3. The fact that the dip of the sea horizon (Art.
16),
as
seen from a given elevation, is (sensibly) the same in all direc-
tions, and at all parts of the earth, shows that the surface is
approximately spherical.
4. The fact that as one goes from the equator towards the
north the elevation of the pole increases in proportion to the
distance from the equator proves the same thing.
5. The outline
of
the earth's shadow, seen upon the moon dur-
ing lunar eclipses, is such as only a sphere could cast.
We may add, as to the smoothness and roundness of the
earth, that if the earth be represented by an 18-inch globe,
the difference between its greatest and least diameters would
be only about one-sixteenth of an inch ; the highest mountains
would project only about one-eightieth of an inch, and the
average elevation of continents and depths of the ocean would
be hardly greater on that scale than the thickness of a film of
varnish. Eelatively, the earth is really much smoother and
rounder than most of the balls in a bowling alley.
75. The Approximate Measure of the Earth's Diameter.

There are various ways of determining the diameter of the

earth. The best, in fact the only accurate one, is by measur-
ing arcs
of
meridian, so as to ascertain the number
of
miles or
kilometres in a degree of the earth's circumference. This will
be more fully discussed in Articles 86-89.
There are various approximate methods, one of the simplest
of which is the following :
Erect upon a reasonably level plane three rods in line, a mile

75]
THE EAETH'S DIAMETER AND ROTATION. 47
apart from each, other, and cut off their tops at the same level,
carefully determined with a surveyor's levelling instrument.
It will then be found, on sighting across from AtoC (Fig.
15),
that the line, after allowing for refraction, passes about eight
inches below B, the top of the middle rod.
Suppose the circle ABC completed, and that E is the point of
the circumference opposite B, so that BE equals the diameter
of the earth (i.e., BE = 2B). By geometry,
HA
2
BD:BA::BA:BE-,
whence BE = ^--
BJJ
Fig. 15.

Curvature of the Earth's Surface.

Now BA is one mile, and BD equals two-thirds of a foot, or
yJ^
of a mile; hence BE equals
l
2
920
7920 miles.
On account of refraction, however, the result cannot be made exact.
The necessary correction is large, and varies with the thermometer
and barometer
;
so that the actual observed length of BD, instead of
being 8 inches, ranges from 5 to 7 according to circumstances.
iL
76. The Rotation of the Earth. At the time of Copernicus
the only argument he could adduce in favor of the earth's
rotation
l
was that the hypothesis is much more probable than
the older one, that the heavens themselves revolve.
1
The word
"
rotate
"
denotes a spinning motion like that of a wheel on
its axis. The word "revolve" is more general, and may be applied either
to describe such a spinning motion, or (and this is the more usual use in
Astronomy) , to describe the motion of a body travelling around another,
as when we say that the earth
"
revolves " around the sun.
48 FOUCAULT S PENDULUM EXPERIMENT.
[76
All the phenomena then known would be sensibly the same
on either supposition. The apparent diurnal motion of the
heavenly bodies can be fully accounted for (within the limits
of the observations then possible) either by supposing that the
stars are actually attached to a celestial sphere which turns
daily, or that the earth itself rotates ui^on
an axis ; and for a
long time the latter hypothesis did not seem to most people
so probable as the older and more obvious one.
A little later, after the telescope had been invented, analogy
could be adduced ; for with the telescope we can see that the
sun, moon, and many of the
planets are rotating globes.
Within the present century
it has become possible to
adduce experimental proofs
which go still further, and
absolutely demonstrate the
earth's rotation : some of
them even make it visible.
77. Foucault's Pendulum
Experiment.

Among these
experimental proofs the most
impressive is the pendulum
experiment devised and first
executed by Foucault in 1851.
From the dome of the Pan-
theon in Paris, he hung a
heavy iron ball about a foot
in diameter by a wire more
A circular rail some twelve
Fig. 16.

Foucault's Pendulum Experiment.

than 200 feet long (Fig.
16)
feet across, with a little ridge of sand built upon it, was placed
in such a way that a pin attached to the swinging ball would
just scrape the sand and leave a mark at each vibration. To
put the ball in motion it was drawn aside by a cotton cord and
77] INVARIABILITY OF THE EARTH'S ROTATION. 49
left to come absolutely to rest ; then the cord was burned off,
and the pendulum started to swing in a true plane. But this
plane seemed to deviate slowly towards the right, so that the pin
on the pendulum-ball cut the sand-ridge in a new place at
each swing, shifting at a rate which would carry the line
com-
pletely around in about 32 hours, if the pendulum did not first
come to rest. In fact the floor of the Pantheon was actually
and visibly turning under the plane of the pendulum vibra-
tion. The experiment created great enthusiasm at the time,
and has since been frequently performed.
For fuller discussion, see Appendix, Art. 494.
78. We merely mention (without discussion) a number of other
demonstrations of the earth's rotation.
(a) By the gyroscope, an experiment also due to Foucault.
(b) The slight eastward deviation
of
bodies in falling from a great
height. The idea of the experiment was first suggested by Newton,
but its actual execution has only been carried out during the present
century

by several different observers.

(c) The deviation
of
projectiles.
{d) Various phenomena connected with Meteorology and Physical
Geography, such as the direction of the trade winds and the great
currents of the ocean, which are determined by the earth's rotation
;
so also the direction of the revolution of cyclones, which in the north-
ern hemisphere move contrary to the hands of a watch, while in
the southern their motion is in the opposite direction (see "General
Astronomy").
It might seem at first that the rotation of the earth in 24
hours is not a very rapid motion. A point on the equator
moves, however, nearly 1000 miles an hour, which is about 1500
feet per second,

very nearly the speed of a cannon-ball.

79. Invariability of the Earth's Rotation.

It is a question
of great importance whether the clay ever changes its length.
Theoretically, it must almost necessarily do so. The friction
of the tides and the deposit of meteoric matter upon the earth
50 THE EARTH'S ROTATION. [
79
both, tend to retard the earth's rotation; while, on the other
hand, the earth's loss of heat by radiation and the consequent
shrinkage must tend to accelerate it and to shorten the day.
Then geological causes act some one way and some the other.
At present we can only say that the change, if any change
has occurred since Astronomy became accurate, has been too
small to be detected.
The day is certainly not longer or shorter by the
To
part of a second
than it was in the days of Ptolemy
;
probably it has not changed by
the
xoVo P
art- The criterion is found in comparing the times at
which celestial phenomena, such as eclipses, transits of Mercury, etc.,
have occurred during the range of astronomical history. Professor
Newcomb's investigations in this line make it highly probable, how-
ever, that the length of the day has not been absolutely constant dur-
ing the last 150 years.
80. Effects of the Earth's Rotation upon Gravity on the
Earth's Surface. As the earth rotates, every particle of its
matter is subjected to a so-called ^centrifugal force" directed
away from the axis of the earth (Physics, page
63),
and this
force depends upon the radius of the circle upon which the
particle moves, and the velocity with which it moves.
V
2
The formula is C
= -~-, in which V is the velocity of the moving
particle, R the radius of the circle, and C is the centrifugal force,
expressed as an" acceleration,
1
'
in the same way that gravity is expressed
by
g,
the velocity of 32| feet, which a falling body acquires in the
first second of its fall.
As stated in the Physics in the passage referred to, a body
at the equator
of
the earth has its weight diminished by
g-J-g-
part,
in consequence of this force. (But see Art.
91.)
81. Effect of Centrifugal Force in diminishing Gravity.

Between the equator and the poles the centrifugal force is

less than at the equator, because the circle described each day
by a body at the earth's surface is smaller, its distance from
8
81j
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE. 51
the axis being less. Moreover, as shown in Fig.
17,
the cen-
trifugal force MT at M, since it acts at right angles to the
earth's axis, OP, is not directly op-
posed to the earth's attraction, which
acts (nearly) on the line MO
;
it is
not, therefore, wholly effective in
diminishing the weight of the body.
To ascertain the effect produced
upon the weight, MT must be "re-
solved" (Physics,
p. 52) into the
two component forces MB and MS.
The first Of these alone acts to les-
The Earth's Centrifugal Force.
sen the weight.
82. Effect of the Horizontal Component of the Centrifugal
Force.

The horizontal component MS tends to make the

plumb-line deviate from the line MO (drawn to the earth's
centre) towards the equator, so as to make a smaller angle
with the earth's axis than it otherwise would.
In latitude 45, this horizontal component of the centrifugal force
has a maximum equal to about
7fy
of the whole force of gravity, and
causes the plumb-line to deviate about
6'
from the direction it would
otherwise take. If the earth's surface were strictly spherical, this
horizontal force would make every loose particle tend to slide towards
the equator, and the water of the ocean would so move. But the
earth bulges at the equator just enough to counteract this sliding
tendency, and in consequence the deviation of the plumb-line
from a
line drawn to the earth's centre is nearly doubled. (See Art.
90.)
83. Gravity.

What is technically called "gravity" is not

simply the attraction of the earth for a body upon its surface,
but the resultant of the attraction combined with this centrifugal
force. It is only at the equator and at the pole that
"
gravity"
is directed strictly towards the earth's centre. Lines of level
are always perpendicular to
"
gravity," and they are, "therefore,
not true circles around the earth's centre. If the earth's rota-
52 THE EARTH'S DIMENSIONS.
[83
tion were to cease, the Mississippi River would at once have
its course reversed, since the mouth of the river is several
thousand feet further from the centre of the earth than are
its sources.
84. Accurate Determination of the Earth's Dimensions.

The form of the earth, instead of being spherical, is much

more nearly that of an
"
oblate spheroid of revolution
"
(an
orange-shaped solid) quite sensibly flattened at the poles ; the
polar diameter being shorter than the equatorial by about
yi^
part. According to
"
Clarke's
l
Spheroid of 1866
"
(which is
adopted by our Coast and Geodetic Survey as the basis of all
calculations) the dimensions of the earth are as follows :

Equatorial radius, (a) 6,378,206.4 metres = 3963.307 miles.

Polar radius,
(6)
6,356,583.8 metres = 3949.871 "
Difference, 21,622.6 metres = 13.436 "
These numbers are likely to be in error as much, perhaps, as 100
metres, and possibly somewhat more ; they can hardly be 300 metres
wrong.
This deviation of the earth's form from a true sphere is due
simply to its rotation, and might have been cited as proving
it. The centrifugal force caused by the rotation modifies the
direction of gravity everywhere except at the equator and
the poles (Art.
82) ;
and so the surface necessarily takes the
spheroidal form.
85. Methods of Determining the Earth's Form.

There are
several ways of doing this : one by measurement
of
distances upon
its surface in connection with the latitudes and longitudes of
the points of observation. This gives not only the
form, but
the dimensions also; i.e., the size in miles or metres. An-
1
Col. A. R. Clarke, for many years at the head of the English Ordnance
Survey but now retired.

85]
MEASUREMENT OF AN AUC. 53
other method is by the observation
of
the force
of
gravity at
various points

observations which are made by means of a

pendulum apparatus of some kind, and determine only the
form
of the earth, but not its size.
86. The simplest form of the method by actual measure-
ment is that in which we determine the length
of
degrees
of
latitude, some near the equator, and others near the poles,
and still others intermediate.
If the earth were exactly spherical, the length of a degree
would, of course, be everywhere the same. Since it is not, the
length of a degree will be greatest where the earth is most
nearly
flat;
i.e., near the poles; in other words, the distance
between two points on the same meridian having their plumb-
lines inclined to each other at an angle of one degree will be
greatest where the surface is least curved.
The measurement of an
"
arc
"
involves two distinct sets of
operations, one purely astronomical, the other geodetic. Hav-
ing selected two terminal stations several hundred miles apart,
and one of them as nearly as possible due north of the other,
we must determine
first
the distance between them in feet or
metres, and second (by astronomical observations), their
differ-
ence
of
latitude in degrees, with the exact azimuth or bearing of
the line that connects them.
87. Geodetic Operations.

Tlie determination
of
the distance
in
feet or metres. It is not practicable to measure this with
sufficient accuracy directly, as by simple "chaining," bat we
must have recourse to the process known as
"
triangulation."
Between the two terminal stations (A and H, Fig.
18)
others are
selected such that the lines joining them form a complete chain of
triangles, each station being visible from at least two others. The
angles at each station are carefully measured; and the length of one
of the sides, called the
"
base" is also measured with all possible pre-
cision. It can be done with an error not exceeding an inch in ten
54 LENGTH OF A DEGREE.
[87
miles. (BU is the base in the figure.) Having the length of
the base, and all the angles, it is then possible to calculate every
other line in the chain of triangles. An error of more than three
feet in a hundred miles would be unpar-
donable.
88. Astronomical Operations.
By
as-
tronomical observations we must deter-
mine (a) the true bearing or azimuth
of
the lines
of
the triangulation, and also
(6)
the
difference
of
latitude in degrees be-
tween A and H.
To effect the first object, it will be suffi-
cient to determine the azimuth of any one
of the sides of the system of triangles by the
method given in the Appendix, Art. 495.
This being known, the azimuth of every
other line is easily got from the measured
angles, and we can then compute how many
feet or metres one terminal station is north
of the other,

the line Ah in the figure.

(b) The difference
of
latitude. This is
obtained simply by determining the latitudes
of A and II by one of the methods of Art.
47,
or by any other method that will determine
astronomical latitudes with precision. It is
well, also, to measure the latitudes of a num-
ber of the intermediate stations, and to determine the azimuths of a
number of lines of the triangulation instead of a single one (in order
to lessen the effect of errors of observation)
.
89. The Length of a Degree of Latitude.

The geodetic and

astronomical observations thus give the length of the line Ah,
both in feet
and in degrees, so that we immediately find the
number
of
feet in that degree
of
latitude which has its middle
point half-way between A and h. If the earth were spherical,
the length of a degree would be everywhere the same, and the
Fig. 18.

89]
THE ELLIPTICITY OP THE EARTH. 55
earth's diameter would be found simply by multiplying the
length, of one degree by 360 and dividing the product by it,
that is, 3.1415926.
More than twenty such arcs have been measured in differ-
ent parts of the world, varying in length from
48
to
2,
and
it appears clearly that the length of the degrees, instead of
being everywhere the same, increases towards the pole.
At the equator, one de
At lat.
20
it a
40
"
u tt
goo
u
"
goo
u
At the pole,
"
ee = 68.704 miles
= 68.786
"
= 68.993

= 69.230
"
= 69.386
"
= 69.407 "
The difference between the equatorial and polar degree of
latitude is more than seven-tenths of a mile, or over 3500 feet
;
while the probable error of measurement cannot exceed a foot
or two to the degree.
90.. The Ellipticity or Oblateness of thfe Earth.

The cal-
culations by which the precise form of the earth is deduced
from such a series of measurements of arcs lie beyond our
scope, but the net result is as stated in Art. 84.
The fraction obtained by dividing the difference between the
equatorial and polar radii, by the equatorial {i.e., the frac-
tion
=

),
is called by various names, such as the "Polar
Compression" the
u
Ellipticity
" x
or the Oblatexess, of the
earth
;
the last term being most used.
Owing to the obvious irregularities in the form of the earth,
the results obtained by combining the arcs in different ways
1
This
"
ellipticity
"
of the earth's elliptical meridian must not be con-
eccentricity," the formula for which is \'
^
a
2
founded with its "eccentriciti/" the formula for which is
\
The
"
ellipticity " of the earth's meridian is about
^Ijt
hs " eccentricity
r
56 DETERMINATION OF THE EARTH'S FORM. [
90
are not exactly accordant, so that a very considerable vari-
ation is fonnd in the ellipticity as deduced by different
authorities.
91. Determination of the Earth's Form by Pendulum Experi-
ments.

For details of experiments of this kind we must

refer the reader to the
"
General Astronomy." It is sufficient
for our purpose simply to say that such observations show
that the force
of
gravity is greater at the pole than at the equator
by about
y-i-g-
part; i.e., weighed in a spring balance, a man who
weighs 190 pounds at the equator would weigh 191 at the
pole. The centrifugal force of the earth's rotation accounts
for about one pound in 289 of the difference. The remainder
(about one pound in
555)
has to be accounted for by the differ-
ence between the distances of the centre of the earth from the
pole and from the equator. At the pole a body is nearer the
centre of the earth than anywhere else on the earth's surface,
and as a consequence the earth's attraction upon it is greater.
The result of the pendulum observations thus far made indicates
for the earth an ellipticity of about
^3,

in practical (though not

absolute) agreement with the result derived by measurement of arcs.
There are other purely astronomical methods of determining the
form of the earth, depending upon certain irregularities in the moon's
motion which are due to the "bulge" at the earth's equator ; and upon
the moon's effect in producing "precession
"
(Art. 124). They indi-
cate a slightly smaller "oblateness
"
of about
^i^.
92. Station Errors.

If the latitudes of all the stations in a tri-

angulation, as determined by astronomical observations, are compared
with their differences of latitude as deduced from trigonometrical
operations, we find the discrepancies by no means insensible. They
are in the main due not to errors of observation, but to irregularities
in the direction
of
gravity, and depend upon the variations in the density
of the crust and the irregularities of the earth's surface. Such irregular-
ities are called station errors. According to the Coast Survey, in the

92]
ASTRONOMICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL LATITUDE. 57
eastern part of the United States these station errors average about
lh seconds of arc, affecting both the longitudes and latitudes of the
stations, as well as the astronomical azimuths of the lines that join
them. Station errors of from
4"
to
6"
are not very uncommon, and
in mountainous countries these deviations occasionally amount to
30"
or
40".
93. Distinction between Astronomical and Geographical Lat-
itude.

The astronomical latitude of the station is that actually deter-

mined by astronomical observations. The geographical latitude is the
astronomical latitude corrected
for
"
station error.** It may be denned
as the angle formed with the plane of the equator by a line drawn
from the place perpendicular to the surface
of
the
"
standard spheroid"
at that station. Its determination involves the adjustment and even-
ing-off of the discrepancies between the geodetic and astronomical
results over extensive regions of country. The geographical latitudes
are those used in constructing a map.
For most purposes, however, the distinction may be neglected,
since on the scale of an ordinary map the
"
station errors " would
be insensible.
94. Geocentric Latitude.

The astronomical latitude at any

place (Art.
47)
is, it will be remembered, the angle between
the plane of the equator and the direction
of
gravity at that
place. The geocentric latitude, on the other hand, is the angle
made at the centre
of
the earth, as the word implies, between
the plane of the equator and a line drawn
from
the observer
to the centre
of
the earth; which line,. evidently does not coin-
cide Avith the direction of gravity, since the earth is not
spherical.
In Fig. 19, the angle MNQ is the astronomical latitude of the point
M. (It is also the geographical latitude, provided the
"
station error"
at that point is insensible.) The angle MOQ is the geocentric lati-
tude. The angle ZMZ', the difference of the two latitudes, is called
the angle
of
the vertical, and reaches its maximum,
11' 31"
at lati-
tude
45.
58 SURFACE AND VOLUME OF THE EARTH. [
94
The geocentric degrees are longer near the
equator than near the poles, and it is worth
noticing that if we form a table like that
of Art.
89,
giving the length of each degree
of geographical latitude from the equator
to the pole, the same table, read backwards,
gives the length of the geocentric degrees
;
i.e., at the pole a degree of geocentric lati-

'
jsf q
tude is 68.704 miles, and at the equator
Fig. 19. Astronomical and
69.407 miles.
Geocentric Latitude.
Geocentric latitude is seldom employed
except in certain astronomical calculations
in which it is necessary to
"
reduce the observations to the centre of
the earth."
95. Surface and Volume of the Earth.

The earth is so
nearly spherical that we can compute its surface and volume with suf-
ficient accuracy by the formulae for a perfect sphere, provided we put
the earth's mean semi-diameter for r in the formulae. This mean semi-
diameter of an oblate spheroid is not
,
but

, because if we
2 6
draw through the earth's centre three axes of symmetry at right
angles to each other, one will be the axis of rotation and both the
others will be equatorial diameters. The mean semi-diameter r of the
earth thus computed is 3958.83 miles
;
its surface (47rr
2
)
is 196,944,000
square miles, and its volume
(f
7rr
3
),
260,000 million cubic miles, in
round numbers.
III.
THE EARTH'S MASS AND DENSITY.
96. Definition of Mass.

The mass of a body is the

"
quan-
tity of matter" in it; i.e., the number of "pounds," "kilo-
grams," or "tons" of material it contains. It must not be
confounded with the
"
volume
"
of a body, which is simply its
bulk
;
i.e., the number of cubic feet or cubic miles in it ; nor is
it identical with its "weight," which is simply the force
with
which the body tends to move towards the earth. It is true
that under ordinary circumstances the mass of a body and its

96]
THE EARTH'S MASS AND DENSITY. 59
weight are proportional, and numerically equal ; a mass of ten
pounds
"
weighs
"
very nearly ten pounds under ordinary cir-
cumstances
;
but the word
"
pound " in the two halves of the
sentence means two entirely different things; the pound of
"mass" is one thing, the pound of "force" a very different one.
97. Mass and Force distinguished.

This identity of names

for the units of mass and
force
leads to perpetual ambiguity,
and is very unfortunate, though the reason for it is per-
fectly obvious, because in most cases we measure masses by
weighing. The unit of mass is a certain piece of platinum, or
some such unalterable substance which is kept at the national
capital, and called the standard "pound," or
"
kilogram." The
pound or kilogram of weight or force, on the other hand, is
not the piece of metal at all, but the attraction between it and
the earth at some given place, as, for instance, Paris. It is a
pull or a stress.
The mass of a given body,

the number of mass-pounds in

it

is invariable ; its weight, on the other hand,

the number
of /orce-pounds which measures its tendency to fall,

depends
on where the body is. At the equator it is less than at the
pole ; at the centre of the earth it would be zero, and on the
surface of the moon only about one-sixth of what it is on
the earth's surface.
The student must always be on his guard whenever he
comes to the word "pound" or any of its congeners, and
consider whether he is dealing with a pound of mass or force.
Many high authorities now advocate the entire abandonment of
these old force-units which bear the same names as the mass-units,
and the substitution in all scientific work of the dyne (Physics,
p. 33)
and its derivative, the megadyne. The change would certainly con-
duce to clearness, but would, for a time at least, involve much incon-
venience. The dyne equals
-yy^S
or 1-0199, times the weight of a
milligramme at Paris; and the megadyne, 1.0199 times the weight of
a kilogramme at the same place.
60 THE MEASUREMENT OF MASS. [
98
98. The Measurement of Mass. This is usually effected by
a process of
"
weighing
"
with some kind of balance, by means
of which we ascertain directly that the
"
weight " of the body
is the same as the weight of a certain number of the standard
units in the same place, and thence infer that its mass is the
same.
It may be done also, though in practice not very conveniently, by
ascertaining what velocity is imparted to a body by the expenditure
of a known amount of energy (see Appendix, Art. 496).
But it is obvious that neither of these methods could be
used to measure the enormous mass of the earth, and we must
look for some different process by which to ascertain the num-
ber of tons of matter it contains.
The end is accomplished by comparing the attraction which
the earth exerts upon some body at its surface, with the attrac-
tion exerted upon the same body by a knoivn mass at a knoivn
distance.
99. Gravitation. The Cause of
"
Weight."

Science cannot
yet explain why bodies tend to fall towards the earth, and push
or pull towards it when held from moving. But Newton dis-
covered that the phenomenon is only a special case of the much
more general fact which he inferred from the motions of the
heavenly bodies, and formulated as
"
the law
of
gravitation,"
1
under the statement that any two particles
of
matter
"
attract"
each other with a force tvhich is proportional to their masses and
inversely proportional to the square
of
the distance between them.
If instead of particles we have bodies composed of many
particles, the total force between the bodies is the sum of the
attractions of the different particles, each particle attracting
every particle in the other body.
1
The word
"
gravitation
"
is used to denote the attraction of bodies for
each other in general, while "gravity" (French
"
pesanteur") is limited to
the force which makes bodies fall
at the surface
of
the earth or other heavenly body.

100]
THE ATTRACTION OF SPHERES. 61
100. We must not imagine the word
"
attract " to mean too
much. It merely states as a fact that there is a tendency for
bodies to move toward each other, without including or imply-
ing any explanation
of
the
fact.
Thus far no explanation has appeared which is less difficult to com-
prehend than the fact itself. Whether bodies are drawn together by
some outside action, or pushed together, or whether they themselves
can "act" across space with mathematical intelligence,

in what way
it is that "attraction
"
comes about, is still unknown, and apparently
as inscrutable as the very nature and constitution of an atom of mat-
ter itself. It is at present simply a fundamental fact, though it is not
impossible that ultimately we may be able to show that it is a neces-
sary consequence of the relation between particles of ordinary matter
and the all-pervading
"
ether
"
to which we refer the phenomena of
light, radiant heat, electricity, and magnetism (Physics,
p. 267).
101. The Attraction of Spheres.

If the two attracting

bodies are spheres, either homogeneous, or made up of concen-
tric shells which are of equal density throughout, Newton
showed that the action is precisely the same as if all the matter
of each sphere were collected at its centre ; and if the distance
between the bodies is very great compared with their size, then,
whatever their form, the same thing is very nearly true.
If the bodies are prevented from moving, the effect of at-
traction will be a stress or pull, to be measured in dynes or
/orce-units (not mass-units), and is given by the equation
F(dynes)
=
GXM
1
XM
2
+-
d\
where M
x
and M
2
are the masses of the two bodies expressed in
mass-units (grammes), d is the distance between their centres
(in centimetres), and G is a factor known as "The Constant of
Gravitation," which equals 0.0000000666 according to the latest
determination by Boys in 1894. G will of course have a differ-
ent numerical value if other units of mass and distance are used.
1
M v M
1
It will not do to write the formula F=
J
A
? (omitting the G), un-
d?
less the units are so chosen that the unit of force shall be equal to the
62
ACCELERATION BY GRAVITATION. [
102
102. Acceleration by Gravitation.

If M
x
and M
2
are set free
while under each other's attraction, they will at once begin to approach
each other, and will finally meet at their common centre of gravity,
having moved all the time with equal "momenta" (Physics,
p. 29),
but with velocities inversely proportional to their masses. At the end of
the first second M
x
will have acquired a velocity of
which, the student will observe, is entirely independent of M
x
itself
:
a grain of sand and a heavy rock fall at the same rate in free space
under the attraction of the same body, at the same distance from it.
(In the C. G. S. system G
1
is identical with G. In other systems of
units it is usually numerically different.) Similarly M
2
will have
acquired a velocity
***
The velocities with which the two bodies are approaching each other
will be the sum of these velocities ; and if we denote this
"
accelera-
tion
"
(or the velocity of approach acquired in one second) by
/,
just
as
g
is used to denote the acceleration due to gravity in a second, we
shall have
/^(fLUL).
This is the form of the law of gravitation which is most used in deal-
ing with the motions of the heavenly bodies. The reader will notice
that while the expression for F (the force in dynes) has the product of
the masses in its numerator, that for
f
(the acceleration) has their
sum.
103. We are now prepared to discuss the methods of meas-
uring the earth's mass. It is only necessary, as has been
attraction between two masses each of one unit at a distance of one unit.
It is not true that the attraction between two particles, each having a mass
of one pound, at a distance of one foot, is equal to a stress of either one
pound or one dyne.

103]
THE TORSION BALANCE. 63
already said (Art.
98),
to compare the attraction which the
earth exerts on a body, X, at its surface (at a.
distance,
therefore, of 3959 miles from its centre) with the attraction
exerted upon X by some other body of a known mass at a
known distance. The practical difficulty is that the attrac-
tion of any manageable body is so very small, compared with
that of the earth, that the experiments are extremely delicate,
and unless the mass is one of several tons, its attraction will
be only a minute fraction of a grain of force, hard to detect
and worse to measure.
The different methods which have been actually used for determin-
ing the mass of the earth are enumerated and discussed in the
"
Gen-
eral Astronomy," to which the student is referred. We limit ourselves
to the presentation of a single one, which is perhaps the best, and is
not difficult to understand.
104. The Earth's Mass and Density determined by the
Torsion Balance.

This is an apparatus invented by Michell,

but first employed by Cavendish, in 1798. A light rod
carrying two small balls at its extremities is suspended
at its centre by a fine, metallic wire, so that it will hang
horizontally. If it be allowed to come to rest, and then a
very slight deflecting force be applied, the rod will be pulled
out of position by an amount depending on the stiffness
and length of the wire as well as the intensity of the force.
When the deflecting force is removed, the rod will vibrate
back and forth until brought to rest by the resistance of
the air. The
"
torsional
coefficient"
as it is called, i.e., the
stress which will produce a twist of one revolution, can be
accurately determined by observing the time
of
vibration, when
the dimensions and weight of the rod and balls are known.
(See Physics (Anthony & Brackett),
p. 117.) This will
enable us to determine what fraction of a grain (of force) or
of "a dyne is necessary to produce a twist of any. number of
degrees.
64 CALCULATION OF THE EARTH'S MASS. [
105
105. If, now, two large balls, A and B, Fig.
20,
are brought
near the smaller ones, as shown in the figure, a deflection will
be produced by their attraction, and the small balls will move
from a and b to a
f
and b'. By shifting the large balls to the
other side at A' and B' (which can be done hj turning the
frame upon which these balls are supported) we get an equal
deflection in the opposite direc-
tion; that is, from a
1
and b' to
a" and b", and the difference
between the two positions as-
sumed by the two small balls,
that is a'a" and b'b" will be twice
the deflection.
It is not necessary, nor even best,
to wait for the balls to come to rest.
When vibrating slightly we note the
extremities of their swing. The mid-
dle point of the swing gives the place
of rest, while the time occupied by
the swing is the period of vibration,
which we need in determining the
coefficient of torsion. We must also
Fig. 20. Plan of the Torsion Balance, measure the distances Aa', A'b", Bb\
and B'a" between the centre of each
of the large balls and the point of rest of the small ball when deflected,
106. Calculation of the Earth's Mass from the Experiment.

The earth's attraction on each of the small balls evidently

equals the ball's iveight. The attractive force of the large ball
on the small one near it is found from the observed deflection.
If, for instance, this deflection is 1, and the coefficient of tor-
sion is such that it takes one grain (of force) to twist the wire
one whole turn, then the deflecting force, which we will call
f,
will be
-gi-Q
of a grain. One-half of this deflecting force will
be due to A's attraction of a
;
half, to i?'s attraction of b. Call

106]
DENSITY OF THE EAETH. 65
the mass of the large ball B and that of the small ball b, and
let d be the measured distance Bb' between their centres. We
shall then have the equation
v-*
2
^-*-.*
(1)
Similarly calling E the mass of the earth, and R its radius,
w being the weight of the small ball (which weight measures
the force of the earth's attraction upon it), we shall have
~<t}"*-sF*
(2
>
whence (dividing the second equation by the first),
E
_
n fw\ fff
B
\fj\d\
which gives the mass of the earth in terms of B.
107. Density of the Earth.

Having the mass of the earth,

it is easy to find its density. The volume or bulk of the earth
in cubic miles has already been given (Art.
95),
and can be
found in cubic feet by simply multiplying that number by the
cube of 5280. Since a cubic foot of water contains
62
J-
mass-
pounds (nearly), the mass the earth would have,
if
composed
of
water, follows. Comparing this with the mass actually ob-
tained, we get its density. A combination of the results of all
the different methods hitherto employed, taking into account
their relative accuracy, gives about 5.53 as the most probable
value of the density of the earth according to our present
knowledge.
108. In the earlier experiments by this method, the small balls
were of lead, about two inches in diameter, at the extremities of a light
wooden rod five or six feet long enclosed in a case with glass ends;
and their position and vibration was observed by a telescope looking
66 CONSTITUTION OF THE EARTH'S INTERIOR. [
1Q8
directly at them from a distance of several feet. The attracting
masses, A and B, were balls (also of lead) about one foot in diameter.
Boys in 1894 used a most refined apparatus in which the small
balls of gold,
\
of an inch in diameter, were hung at the end of a
beam only half an inch long which was suspended by a delicate fibre
of quartz. The deflections due to the attraction of two sets of lead
balls, respectively
2\
and 4|- inches in diameter, were measured by
observing with a telescope the reflection of a scale in a little mirror
attached to the beam. He obtained 5.527 for the earth's density.
Earlier determination's by Cornu and Wilsing have given 5.56 and
5.58 respectively. A still later important determination by a differ-
ent method, completed by Richarz at Berlin in
1896, gives 5.505.
From Equation
(1),
page 65, G
=
%fd
2
-f b
x
B; so that it is
determinable directly from the observations, without any reference
to the density of the earth.
109. Constitution of the Earth's Interior.

Since the average

density of the earth's crust does not exceed three times that
of water, while the mean density of the whole earth is about
5.55, it is obvious that at the earth's centre the density must
be very much greater than at the surface,

very likely as
high as eight or ten times the density of water, and equal to
that of the heavier metals. There is nothing surprising in
this. If the earth were once fluid, it is natural to suppose
that in the process of solidification the densest materials
would settle towards the centre.
Whether the centre of the earth is solid or fluid, it is difficult to
say with certainty. Certain tidal phenomena, to be mentioned here-
after, have led Lord Kelvin to express the opinion that the earth as a
whole is solid throughout, and
"
more rigid than glass," volcanic cen-
tres being mere
"
pustules," so to speak, in the general mass. To
this most geologists demur, maintaining that at the depth of not
many hundred miles the materials of the earth must be fluid or at
least semi-fluid. This is inferred from the phenomena of volcanoes,
and from the fact that the temperature continually increases with
the depth so far as we have yet been able to penetrate.
110]
APPARENT MOTION OF THE SUN.
67
CHAPTER IV.
THE APPARENT MOTION OF THE SUN, AND THE ORBITAL
MOTION OF THE EARTH. PRECESSION AND NUTATION.

ABERRATION.

THE EQUATION OF TIME. THE SEA-

SONS AND THE CALENDAR.
110. The Sun's Apparent Motion among the Stars.

The
sun has an apparent motion among the stars which makes it
describe the circuit of the heavens once a year, and must have
been among the earliest recognized of astronomical phenomena,
as it is obviously one of the most important.
As seen by us in the United States, the sun, starting in the
spring, mounts higher in the sky each day at noon for three
months, appears to stand still for a few days at the summer
solstice, and then descends towards the south, reaching in
the autumn the same noon-day elevation which it had in the
spring. It keeps on its southward course to the winter sol-
stice in December, and then returns to its original height at
the end of a year, marking and causing the seasons by its
course.
Nor is this all. The sun's motion is not merely a north and
south motion, but it also advances continually eastward among
the stars. In the spring the stars, which at sunset are rising
in the eastern horizon, are different from those which are
found there in summer or winter. In March the most con-
spicuous of the eastern constellations at sunset are Leo and
Bootes. Alittle later Virgo appears, in the summer Ophiuchus
and Libra ; still later Scorpio, while in midwinter Orion and
Taurus are ascending as the sun goes down.
6$ THE ECLIPTIC. [111
111. So far as the obvious appearances are concerned, it is
quite indifferent whether we suppose the earth to revolve
around the sun, or vice versa. That the earth really moves,
is absolutely demonstrated however by two phenomena too
minute and delicate for observation without the telescope, but
accessible to modern methods. One of them is the aberration
of
light, the other the annual parallax
of
the
fixed stars. These
can be explained only by the actual motion of the earth. We
reserve their discussion for the present.
112. The Ecliptic, its Related Points and Circles.
By
ob-
serving daily with the meridian circle the sun's declination,
and the difference between its right ascension and that of
some standard star, we obtain a series of positions of the
sun's centre which can be plotted on a globe, and we can thus
mark out the path of the sun among the stars. It turns out
to be a great circle, as is shown by its cutting the celestial
equator at two points just
180
apart (the so-called
"
equinoc-
tial points" or "equinoxes," Art.
34),
where it makes an
angle with the equator of approximately 23^.
1
This great
circle is called the Ecliptic, because, as was early discovered,
eclipses happen only when the moon is crossing it. It may
be defined as the circle in which the plane
of
the earth's orbit cuts
the celestial sphere, just as the celestial equator is the trace of
the plane of the terrestrial equator.
The angle which the ecliptic makes with the equator at
the equinoctial points is called the Obliquity
of
the Ecliptic.
This obliquity is evidently equal to the sun's maximum decli-
nation, or its greatest distance from the equator, reached in
June and December.
113. The two points in the ecliptic midway between the
equinoxes are called the Solstices, because at these points the
i
23 27' 08".0
in 1900.
113]
THE ZODIAC AND ITS SIGNS. 69
sun "stands/' i.e., ceases to move in declination. Two circles
drawn through the solstices parallel to the equator are called
the Tropics, or "turning lines/' because there the sun turns
from its northward motion to a southward, or vice versa.
The two points in the heavens
90
distant from the ecliptic
are called the Poles
of
the Ecliptic.
The northern one is in the constellation Draco, about midway
between the stars Delta and Zeta Draconis, and on the Solstitial Colure
(the hour-circle which runs through the two solstices), at a distance
from the pole of the heavens equal to the obliquity of the ecliptic, or
about 23^. Great circles drawn through the poles of the ecliptic,
and therefore perpendicular, or
"
secondaries," to the ecliptic, are
known as Circles
of
Latitude. It will be remembered (Arts. 38 and
39)
that celestial latitude and longitude are measured icith reference to the
ecliptic and not to the equator.
114. The Zodiac and its Signs. Abelt
16
wide (8 on each
side of the ecliptic) is called the Zodiac, or
"
Zone
of
Animals"
the constellations in it, excepting Libra, being all figures of
animals. It is taken of that particular width simply because
the moon and the principal planets always keep within it.
It is divided into the so-called Signs, each
30
in length, having
the following names and symbols :

Spring
f Aries
f
} Taurus
8
( Gemini n
( Cancer
<n>
Summer
-}
Leo SI
( Virgo
trjj
r
Libra
=2=
Autumn
)
Scorpio i*i
( Sagittarius
t
r
Capricornus V?
Winter
\
Aquarius zz
( Pisces
X
The symbols are for the most part conventionalized pictures of the
objects. The symbol for Aquarius is the Egyptian character for water.
The origin of the signs for Leo, Capricornus, and Virgo is not quite
clear,
70 THE EARTH'S ORBIT.
[1H
In the zodiacs of the
and Scorpion appeal
The zodiac is of extreme antiquity,
earliest history the Lion, Bull, Earn,
precisely as now.
115. The Earth's Orbit.

The ecliptic is not the orbit of

the earth, and must not be confounded with it. It is simply
a great circle
of
the infinite celestial sphere, the trace made upon
that sphere by the plane of the earth's orbit, as was stated
in its definition. The fact that the ecliptic is a great circle
gives us no information about the earth's orbit itself, except
that it all lies in one plane passing through the sun. It tells us
nothing as to the orbit's real form and size.
By reducing the observations of the sun's right ascension
and declination through the year to longitude and latitude
(the latitude would always be exactly zero except for some
slight perturbations), and combining these data with observa-
tions of the sun's ap-
parent diameter, we can,
however, ascertain the
form
of the earth's orbit
and the law
of
its motion
in this orbit. The size
of the orbit its scale of
miles

cannot be fixed
until we find the sun's
distance.
116. To find the Form
of the Orbit, we proceed
thus : Take a point,
8,
for the sun, and draw
through it a line,
Sf
(Fig.
21),
directed towards the vernal equi-
nox, from which longitudes are measured. Lay off from S
lines indefinite in length, making angles with
Sf
equal to the
earth's longitude as seen from the sun
1
on each of the days
1
This is
180
+
the sun's longitude as seen from the earth.
Fig. 21.
Determination of the Form of the Earth's Orbit.
116] DEFINITIONS OF ORBITAL ELLIPSE. 71
when observations were made. We shall thus get a sort of
"
spider," showing the direction of the earth as seen from the
sun on each of those days.
Next as to the distances. While the apparent diameter of
the sun does not tell us its absolute distance from the earth,
unless we know this diameter in miles, yet the changes in the
apparent diameter do inform us as to the relative distance at
different times, the distance being inversely proportional to
the sun's apparent diameter (Art.
12).
If then on this
"
spider
"
we lay off distances equal to the quotient obtained by dividing
some constant, say 10000", by the sun's apparent diameter
at each date, these distances will be proportional to the true
distance of the earth from the sun, and the curve joining the
points thus obtained will be a true map of the earth's orbit,
though without any scale of miles. When the operation is
performed, we find that the orbit is an ellipse of small
"
eccen-
tricity
"
(about
-g^),
with the sun not in the centre, but at one
of
the tivofoci.
117. Definitions relating to the Orbital Ellipse.

The ellipse
is a curve such that the sum
of
the two distances
from any point
on its circumference to two points within, called the
foci,
is always
constant and equal to the so-called major axis
of
the
In Fig. 22, SP + PF equals
R
AA', AA' being the major axis.
A C is the semi-major axis, and is
usually denoted by i or a. BC
is the semi-minor axis, denoted
by B or b; the eccentricity, de-
^
noted by e, is the fraction or ratio

or -, and is usually expressed

as a decimal. (CS is c).
If
a cone is cut across obliquely
by a plane, the section is an ellipse,
which is therefore called one of the
Art.
506).
-
/ \
-~
^P
/ \
/ ^^\
/
/
/ /
/ / ^
^
"1
I F C
B'

S
J
Fig. 22. The Ellipse.
Conic Sections
"
(see Appendix,
72 LAW OF THE EARTH'S MOTION. [
H?
The points where the earth is nearest to and most remote
from the sum are called respectively the Perihelion and the
Aphelion, the line joining them being the major-axis of the
orbit. This line indefinitely produced in both directions is
called the Line
of
Apsides, the major-axis being a limited piece
of it. A. line drawn from the sun to the earth or any other
planet at any point in its orbit, as SP in the figure, is called
the planet's Radius vector, and the angle ASP, reckoned from
the perihelion point, A, in the direction of the planet's motion
towards B, is called its Anomaly.
The variations in the sun's diameter are too small to be detected
without a telescope, so that the ancients failed to perceive them.
Hipparchus, however, about 120 B.C., discovered that the earth is not
in the centre of the circular
1
orbit which he supposed the sun to de-
scribe with uniform velocity. Obviously the sun's apparent motion is
not uniform, because it takes 186 days for the sun to pass from the
vernal equinox to the autumnal, and only 179 days to return. Hip-
parchus explained this want of uniformity by the hypothesis that the
earth is out of the centre of the circle.
118. To find the Law of the
Earth's Motion.

By comparing
the measured apparent diameter
with the differences of longitude
from day to day we can deduce
Ka
not only the form of the orbit but
the "law"
of
the earth's motion
in it. On arranging the daily
T7 oo
7, ,,
. ..
,
. motions and apparent diameters
Fig. 23.
Equable Description of Areas.
rr
in a table, we find that the daily
motions vary directly as the squares
of
the diameters. From this
1
He ;and every one else until the time of Kepler) assumed on meta-
physical grounds that the sun's orbit must necessarily be a circle, and
described with a uniform motion, because (they said) the circle is the
only perfect curve, and uniform motion is the only perfect motion proper
to heavenly bodies.

118]
kepler's problem. 73
it can be shown to follow that the earth moves in such a way
that its radius vector describes areas proportional to the times, a
law which Kepler first brought to light in 1609. That is to
say, if ab, cd, and
ef,
Fig.
23, be portions of the orbit described
by the earth in different weeks, the areas of the elliptical
sectors aSb, cSd, and
eSf
are all equal. A planet near peri-
helion moves faster than at aphelion in just such proportion
as to preserve this relation.
119. Kepler's Problem.

As Kepler left the matter, this is

a mere fact of observation. Newton afterwards demonstrated
that it is a necessary mechanical consequence of the fact that
the earth moves under the action of a force always directed
towards the sun (see Appendix, Art. 502). It is true in every
case of elliptical motion, and enables us to find the position of
the earth, or any planet, at any
time when we once know the
time of its orbital revolution
(technically the "period ") and
the time when it was at peri-
helion. Thus, the angle ASP,
Fig.
24,
or the anomaly of the
planet, must be such that the
shaded area of the elliptical sec-
^
r
.
Fig. 24. Kepler's Problem.
tor ASP will be that portion
of the whole ellipse which is represented by the fraction
, t
being the number of days since the planet last passed peri-
helion, and T the number of days in the whole period.
If, for instance, the earth last passed perihelion on Dec. 31st (which
it did), its place on May 1st must be such that the sector A SP will be
121
-
- of the whole of the earth's orbit, since it is 121 days from Dec.
31st to May 1st. The solution of this problem, known as Kepler's
Problem, leads to
"
transcendental " equations, and can be found in
books on Physical Astronomy.
74 CHANGES IN THE EARTH'S ORBIT. [
120
120. Changes in the Earth's Orbit.

The orbit of the earth

changes slowly in
form
and position, though it is unchangeable
(in the long run) as regards the length of its major axis and
the duration
of
the year.
(1)
Change in the Obliquity
of
the Ecliptic. The ecliptic slightly
and very slowly shifts its position among the stars, thus altering their
latitudes and the angle between the ecliptic and the equator. The
obliquity is at present about
24'
less than it was 2000 years ago, and
is still decreasing about
0".5
a year. It is computed that this diminu-
tion will continue for some 15,000 years, reducing the obliquity to
about 221, when it will begin to increase. The whole change can
never exceed l^ on each side of the mean.
(2)
Change
of
Eccentricity. At present the eccentricity of the earth's
orbit (which is now 0.0168) is also slowly diminishing. According
to Leverrier, it will continue to decrease for about 24,000 years until
it becomes 0.003 and the orbit is almost circular. Then it will
increase again for some 40,000 years until it becomes 0.02. In this
way the eccentricity will oscillate backwards and forwards, always,
however, remaining between zero and 0.07; but the successive oscilla-
tions of both the eccentricity and obliquity are unequal in amount
and in time, so that they cannot properly be compared to the
"
vibra-
tions of a mighty pendulum," which is rather a favorite figure of
speech in certain quarters.
(3)
Revolution
of
the Apsides
of
the Earth's Orbit. The line of
apsides of the orbit (which now stretches in both directions towards
the opposite constellations of Sagittarius and Gemini) is also slowly
and steadily moving eastward at a rate which would carry it around
the circle in about 108,000 years. But the rate will vary.
These so-called "secular" changes are due to "perturbations" caused
by the action of the other planets upon the earth. Were it not for
their attraction, the earth would keep her orbit with reference to the
sun strictly unaltered from age to age, except that possibly in the
course of millions of years the effects of falling meteoric matter and
of the attraction of the nearer fixed stars might become perceptible.
121. Besides these secular perturbations of the earth's Orbit, the
earth itself is continually being slightly disturbed in its orbit. On
account of its connection with the moon, it oscillates each month a

121]
PRECESSION OF THE EQUINOXES. 75
few hundred miles above and below the true plane of the ecliptic, and
by the action of the other planets it is sometimes set forward or back-
ward in its orbit to the extent of some thousands of miles. Of course
every such displacement produces a corresponding slight change in
the apparent position of the sun.
122. Precession of the Equinoxes.

The length of the year

was found in two ways by the ancients :

1st. By observing the time when the shadow cast at noon

by a
"
gnomon
"
is longest or shortest : this determines the
date of the solstice.
2d. By observing the position of the sun with reference to
the constellations

their
"
heliacal " rising and setting,

i.e.,
the times when given constellations rise and set at sunset.
Comparing the results of observations made by these two
methods at long intervals, Hipparchus in the second century
b.c. found that they do not agree, the year reckoned
from
solstice
to solstice or from equinox to equinox being about twenty min-
utes shorter than the year reckoned with reference to the constel-
lations. The equinox moves westward on the ecliptic about
50
".2
each, year, as if advancing to meet the sun at each annual
return. He therefore called this motion of the equinoxes
"
Precession."
On examining the latitudes of the stars, we find them to have
changed but slightly in the last 2000 years. We know therefore that
the ecliptic maintains its position sensibly unaltered. The right ascen-
sions and declinations of the stars, on the other hand, are found to be
both constantly changing, and this makes it certain that the celestial
equator shifts its position. On account of the change in the place of
the equinox, the longitudes of the stars grow uniformly larger, having
increased nearly
30
in the last 2000 years.
123. Motion of the Pole of the Heavens around the Pole of
the Ecliptic.

The obliquity of the ecliptic, which equals the

angular distance of the pole of the heavens from the pole of
the ecliptic, is not sensibly affected by precession. That is to
76 PRECESSION OF THE EQUINOXES.
[123
say,

as the earth, travels around its orbit in the plane

of the ecliptic (just as if that plane were the level sur-
face of a sheet of water in which the earth swims half im-
mersed), its axis, ACX (Fig.
25),
always preserves the same
constant angle of
23|-
with, the perpendicular SCT which
points to the pole of
the ecliptic. But in
consequence of pre-
cession, the axis while
keeping its inclina-
tion unchanged,
shifts
conically around the
line SCT (like the
axis of a spinning
top before it becomes
steady), taking up
successively the posi-
tions A'C, etc., thus
carrying the equinox
from V to V, and so
on.
In consequence of
this shift of the axis,
the pole of the heavens, i.e., that point in the sky to which
the line CA happens to be directed at any time, describes a
circle around the pole of the ecliptic in a period of about
25,800 years (360-- 50.2"). The pole of the ecliptic remains
practically fixed among the stars, but the pole of the equator
has moved many degrees since the earliest observations. At
present the Pole-star (Alpha Ursse Minoris) is about
1\
from
the pole, while in the time of Hipparchus the distance was
fully 12
; during the next century it will diminish to about
30', and then it will increase again.
If upon a celestial globe we take the pole of the ecliptic as a centre
and describe around it a circle with a radius of 23, it will mark the
Fig. 25.

123]
PHYSICAL CAUSE OF PRECESSION.
77
track of the celestial pole among the stars. It passes pretty near
the star Yega (Alpha Lyrae), on the opposite side of the circle from
the present Pole-star; so that, about 12,000 years hence, Vega will
be the Pole-star,

a splendid one.
Reckoning backwards, we find that about 4000 years ago Alpha
Draconis was the Pole-star, and about 3 from the pole.
Another effect of precession is that the signs of the zodiac
do not now agree with the constellations which bear the same
name. The sign of Aries is now in the constellation of Pisces,
and so on ; each sign having
"
backed " bodily, so to speak,
into the constellation west of it.
N. B. This precessional motion of the celestial pole must not be
confounded with the motion of the terrestrial pole which causes vari-
ation of latitude (Art, 71*).
124. Physical Cause of Precession.

The physical cause of

this slow conical rotation of the earth's axis around the pole
of the ecliptic was first explained by Newton, and lies in the
two facts that the earth is not exactly spherical, and that the
sun and moon
1
act upon the equatorial
"
ring
"
of matter
which projects above the true sphere, tending to draw the
plane of the equator into coincidence with the plane of the
ecliptic by their greater attraction on the nearer portions of
the "ring."
If it were not for the earth's rotation, this action of the sun and
moon would bring the two planes of the ecliptic and the equator into
coincidence ; but since the earth is spinning on its axis, we get the
same result that we do with the whirling wheel of a gyroscope, by
hanging a weight at one end of the axis. We then have a combina-
tion
of
two rotations at right angles to each other, one the whirl
1
The planets exert a very slight influence upon the motion of the equi-
nox, not, however, by producing a true precession, but by slightly disturb-
ing the position of the plane of the earth's orbit (Art. 120
(1)).
This
effect is in the opposite direction from the true precession produced by
the sun and moon, and is about 0".16 annually.
78 PHYSICAL CAUSE OF PRECESSION.
[124
of the wheel, the other the
"
tip
"
which the weight tends to give
the axis. Compared with the mass of the earth and its energy of
rotation this disturbing force is very slight, and consequently the
rate of precession extremely slow. Our space does not permit a dis-
cussion of the manner in which the forces operate to produce the
peculiar result. For this, as also for an account of the so-called
Equation
of
the Equinoxes and Nutation, the reader is referred to higher
text-books.
125. Aberration. The fact that light is not transmitted
instantaneously, but with a finite velocity, causes the apparent
displacement of an object viewed from any moving station,
unless the motion is directly towards or from that object. If
c
he motion of the observer is slow, this displacement or "aber-
ration
"
is insensible ; but the earth moves so swiftly
(18J
miles per second) that it is easily observable in the case of the
stars. Astronomical aberration may be denned, therefore, as
the apparent displacement
of
a heavenly body due to the combina-
tion
of
the orbital motion
of
the earth with that
of
light. The
direction in which we have to point our telescope in observing
a star is not the same as if we were at rest.
We may illustrate this by
considering what would hap-
pen in the case of falling rain-
drops observed by a person in
motion. Suppose the observer
standing with a tube in his
hand while the drops are fall-
ing vertically : if he wishes to
have the drops descend axially
through the tube without touch-
ing the sides, he must obviously
keep it vertical so long as he
stands still ; but if he advances
in any direction the drops will strike his face and he must draw back
the bottom of the tube (Fig.
26)
by an amount which equals the
advance he makes while a drop is falling through it
j
i.e., he must
Fig. 26. Aberration of a Raindrop.

125]
EFFECT OF ABERRATION. 79
incline the tube forward at an angle,
1
a, depending both upon the ve-
locity of the rain-drop and the velocity of his own motion, so that
when the drop, which entered the tube at B, reaches A', the bottom
of the tube will be there also.
It is true that this illustration is not a demonstration, because light
does not consist of particles coming towards us, but of waves trans-
mitted through the ether of space. But it has been shown (though
the proof is by no means elementary) that within very narrow limits,
the apparent direction of a wave is affected in precisely the same way
as that of a moving projectile.
126. The Effect of Aberration on the Place of a Star.

The
velocity of light being 186,330 miles per second (according to
the latest experiments of Newcomb and Michelson) while that
of the earth in its orbit is 18.5 miles, we find that a star,
situated on a line at right angles to the direction of the earth's
motion, is apparently displaced by an angle which equals
206
'
265
"
x
i|io'
or20
"-
5-
(The Astronomical Congress of 1896 adopted the value, 20".47.)
This is the so-called
"
Constant of Aberration."
If the star is in a different part of the sky its displacement
will be less, the amount being easily calculated when the star's
position is given.
A star at the pole of the ecliptic being permanently in a direction
perpendicular to the earth's motion, will always be displaced by the
same amount of 20".5, but in a direction continually changing. It must
therefore appear to describe during the year a little circle,
41"
in
diameter.
A star on the ecliptic appears simply to oscillate back and forth in
a straight line
41"
long. In general, the
"
aberrational orbit " is an
ellipse, having its major axis parallel to the ecliptic and always
41"
long, while its minor axis depends upon the star's latitude.
1
Tang a= , or (when a is small) a = 206265"^-, where u is the veloc-
ity of the pbseryer and Fthat of the drop.
80 THE SUN'S DISTANCE BY ABERRATION. [
127
127. Determination of the Sun's Distance by means of the
Aberration of Light.

Since (foot-note to Art.

125)
<*"=
206265
f>
u
= mw
v
-
When, therefore, we have ascertained the value of a" (20
".47)
from observations of the stars, and of
V (186,330 miles) by
physical experiments, we can immediately find u, the velocity
of the earth in her orbit. The circumference of the earth's
orbit is then found by multiplying this velocity, w, by the
number of seconds in a sidereal year (Art.
133),
and from this
we get the radius of the orbit, or the earth's mean distance
from
the sun, by dividing the circumference by 2-rr. Using the
values above given, the mean distance of the sun comes out
92,877,000
miles. But the uncertainty of a" is probably as
much as 0".03, and this affects the distance proportionally,
say one part in
600,
or 150,000 miles. Still the method is one
of the very best of all that we possess for determining in
miles the value of
"
the Astronomical Unit." See Appendix,
Chap. XV.
CONSEQUENCES OF THE EARTH'S ORBITAL MOTION.
128. Solar Time and the Equation of Time.

Since the sun

makes the circuit of the heavens in a year, moving always
towards the east, the solar day, or the interval between the
two successive transits of the sun across any observer's merid-
ian, is longer than that between two transits of a given star, or
twenty-four sidereal hours. The difference must amount to
exactly one day in a year ; i.e., while in a year there are
366^
(nearly) sidereal days, there are only
365J
solar days. The
average daily difference is therefore a little less than 4
m
.
Moreover, the sun's advance in light ascension between two
successive noons varies materially, so that the apparent solar
days are not all of the same length. Accordingly, as explained
4 /

128]
CONSEQUENCES OP EARTH'S ORBITAL MOTION. 81
in Arts. 54 and
55,
mean time has been adopted, which is kept
by a, fictitious
or mean sun, moving uniformly in the equator
at the same average rate as that of the real sun in the ecliptic.
The hour-angle of this mean sun is the local mean time, or
clock time, while the hour-angle of the real sun is the apparent
or sun-dial time.
The
"
equation
of
time
"
is the difference between these two
times, reckoned as plus when the sun-dial is slower than the
clock and minus when it is faster, i.e., it is the "correction
"
which
must be added (algebraically) to apparent time in order to get
mean time.
1
The principal causes of this difference are two.
1. The variable motion
of
the sun in the ecliptic due to the
eccentricity
of
the earth's orbit.
2. The obliquity
of
the ecliptic.
For an explanation of the manner in which these causes operate,
see Appendix, Arts. 497-499.
The two causes mentioned are, however, only the principal ones.
Every perturbation suffered by the earth comes in to modify the
result ; but all the other causes combined never affect the equation of
time by more than a very few seconds.
The equation of time becomes zero
four
times a year, viz.,
about April 15th, June 14th, Sept. 1st, and Dec. 24th. The max-
ima are Feb. 11th,
+
14
m
32
s
;
May 14th,
- 3
55; July 26th,
-r-6
m
12
s
;
and Nov. 2d,
-
16
m
18
s
;
but the dates and amounts
vary slightly from year to year.
129. The Seasons.

The earth in its annual motion keeps

its axis always nearly parallel to itself, for the mechanical
reason that a spinning body maintains the direction of its axis
1
Since it is the difference between the hour-angles of the fictitious and
real suns at any moment, it may also be defined as the difference between
their right ascensions; or, as a formula, we may write E = a
t
a
m,
in which
a
m
is the right ascension of the mean sun, and a
t
that of the true sun.
82 DIURNAL PHENOMENA NEAR THE POLE. [
129
invariable, unless disturbed by extraneous force (very prettily
illustrated by the gyroscope). On March. 20th, the earth is
so situated that the plane of its equator passes through the
sun. At that time, therefore, the circle which bounds the
illuminated portion of the earth passes through the two poles,
and day and night are everywhere equal, as implied by the term
"
equinox." The same is again true on the 22d of September.
About the 21st of June, the earth is so situated that its north
pole is inclined towards the sun by about 23|-. The south
pole is then in the obscure half of the earth's globe, while the
north pole receives sunlight all day long ; and in all portions
of the northern hemisphere the day is longer than the night,
the difference depending upon the latitude of the place : in the
southern hemisphere, on the other hand, the days are shorter
than the nights. At the time of the winter solstice these con-
ditions are, of course, reversed, and the southern pole has the
perpetual sunshine.
At the equator of the earth the day and night are equal at
all times of the year, and in that part of the earth there are
no seasons in the proper sense of the word.
130. Diurnal Phenomena near the Pole. The Midnight Sun.

At the north pole of the earth, where the celestial pole is in the
zenith and the diurnal circles are parallel with the horizon (Art.
42),
the sun will maintain the same elevation all day long, except for the
slight change caused by its motion in declination during 24 hours.
The sun will appear on the horizon at the date of the vernal equinox
(in fact, about two days before it, on account of refraction), and
will slowly wind upwards in the sky until it reaches its maximum
elevation of
23J
degrees on June 21st. Then it will retrace its course
until two or three days after the autumnal equinox, when it sinks out
of sight.
At points between the north pole and the polar circle the sun will
appear above the horizon earlier in the year than March 20th, and
will rise and set daily until its declination becomes equal to the observ-
er's distance from
the pole. It will then make a complete circuit of the
heavens daily, never setting again until it reaches the same decli-

130]
EFFECTS ON TEMPERATURE. 88
nation in its southward course, after passing the solstice. From that
time it will again rise and set daily until it reaches a southern declina-
tion just equal to the observer's polar distance. Then the long night
begins, and continues until the sun, having passed the southern sol-
stice, returns again to the same declination at which it made its
appearance in the preceding spring.
At the polar circle itself, or, more strictly speaking, owing to refrac-
tion, about
f
south of it, the
"
midnight sun" will be seen on just one
day in the year

the day of the summer solstice.

131. Effects on Temperature. The changes in the duration
of "insolation" (exposure to sunshine) at any place involve
changes of temperature and of other climatic conditions, thus
producing the Seasons. Taking as a standard the amount of
heat received in twenty-four hours on the day of the equinox,
it is clear that the surface of the soil at any place in the
northern hemisphere will receive daily from the sun more than
this average amount of heat whenever he is north of the celes-
tial equator; and for two reasons :

1. Sunshine lasts more than half the day.

2. The mean altitude of the sun during the day is greater
than at the time of the equinox, since he is higher at noon
and in any case reaches the hori- ..
zon at rising and setting. ISTow >/
V/^X
the more obliquely the rays
V/
/
S
/
\/^^^\
strike, the less heat they bring /
\y^
/
"^
to each square inch of the sur-
/ x
^
S
/
face, as is obvious from Fig. 27.
cA-~S-

\--v
ji)
/
A beam of sunshine having a
/S^h
2^^
cross section, ABCD, when it
A
strikes the surface at an angle,
_

'*'[
T^
Effect of Sun's Elevation on Amount of
h, (equal to the SUn's altitude)
Heat imparted to the Soil.
is spread over a much larger
surface, Ac, than when it strikes perpendicularly. This differ-
ence in favor of the more nearly vertical rays is exaggerated
by the absorption of heat in the atmosphere, because rays that
84 TIME OF HIGHEST TEMPERATURE. [
131
are nearly horizontal have to traverse a much greater thick<
ness of air before reaching the ground.
For these two reasons, therefore, the temperature rises rap-
idly at a place in the northern hemisphere as the sun comes
north of the equator.
132. Time of Highest Temperature.

We, of course, receive

the most heat in twenty-four hours at the time of the summer
solstice ; but this is not the hottest time of summer for the
obvious reason that the weather is then getting Jiotter, and the
maximum will not be reached until the increase ceases
;
i.e.,
not until the amount
of
heat lost in twenty-four hours equals that
received. The maximum is reached in our latitude about the
1st of August. For similar reasons the minimum temperature
of winter occurs about Feb. 1st.
Since, however, the weather is not entirely "made on the spot
where it is used," but is much influenced by winds and currents that
come from great distances, the actual time of the maximum tempera-
ture at any particular place cannot be determined by mere astronom-
ical considerations, but varies considerably from year to year.
133. The Three Kinds of Year.

Three different kinds of

''
year " are now recognized,

the Sidereal, the Tropical (or

Equinoctial), and the Anomalistic.
The sidereal year, as its name implies, is the time occupied
by the sun in apparently completing the circuit from a given
star to the same star again. Its length is 365 days, 6 hours,
9 minutes, 9 seconds.
From the mechanical point of view, this is the true year
;
i.e., it is the
time occupied by the earth in completing its revolution around the
sun from a given direction in space to the same direction again.
The tropical year is the time included between two succes-
sive passages of the vernal equinox by the sun. Since the
equinox moves yearly,
50".
2 towards the west (Art.
122),
this

133]
THE CALENDAR. 85
tropical year is shorter than the sidereal by about 20 minutes,
its length being 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, 46 seconds.
Since the seasons depend on the sun's place with respect to the
equinox, the tropical year is the year of chronology and civil
reckoning.
The third kind of year is the anomalistic year, the time be-
tween two successive passages of the perihelion by the earth.
Since the line of apsides of the earth's orbit makes an east-
ward revolution once in about 108,000 years (Art.
120),
this
kind of year is nearly 5 minutes longer than the sidereal, its
length being 365 days, 6 hours, 13 minutes, 48 seconds.
It is but little used, except in calculations relating to perturbations.
134. The Calendar.

The natural units of time are the day,

the month, and the year. The day is too short for conveni-
ence in dealing with considerable periods, such as the life of a
man, for instance, and the same is true even of the month, so
that for all chronological purposes the tropical year (the year
of the seasons) has always been employed. At the same
time, so many religious ideas and observations have been con-
nected with the change of the moon, that there has been a
constant struggle to reconcile the month with the year. Since,
however, the two are incommensurable, no really satisfactory
solution is possible, and the modern calendar of civilized
nations entirely disregards the lunar phases.
In the earliest times the calendar was in the hands of the priest-
hood and was predominantly lunar, the seasons being either disre-
garded or kept roughly in place by the occasional intercalation or the
dropping of a month. The Mohammedans still use a purely lunar
calendar, having a
"
year
"
of 12 months, containing alternately 354
and 355 days. In their reckoning the seasons fall continually in dif-
ferent months, and their calendar gains on ours about one year in
thirty-three.
86 THE METONIC CYCLE AND GOLDEN NUMBER. [
135
135. The Metonic Cycle and Golden Number.

Meton, a
Greek astronomer, about 433 B.C., discovered that a period of 235
months is very nearly equal to 19 years of 365^ days each, the differ-
ence being hardly more than two hours. It follows that every 19th
year the new moons recur on the same days of the month ; so that,
as far as the moon's phases are concerned, the almanacs of 1880 and
1899, for instance, would agree (but the way in which the intervening
leap years come in may make a difference of one day)
.
The golden number of the year is its number in this Metonic cycle.
It is found by adding 1 to the "date number
"
of the year and divid-
ing by 19 : the remainder is the golden number, unless it comes out
zero, in which case 19 itself is taken. Thus the golden number of
1890 is found by dividing 1891 by 19; the remainder, 10, is the golden
number of the year. This number is still employed in the ecclesiasti-
cal calendar for finding the date of Easter.
136. The Julian Calendar.

When Julius Caesar came into

power he found the Roman Calendar in a state of hopeless con-
fusion. He, therefore, sought the advice of the astronomer
Sosigenes, and in accordance with his suggestions established
(b.c.
45)
what is known as the Julian Calendar, which still,
either untouched or with a trifling modification, continues in
use among all civilized nations. Sosigenes discarded all con-
sideration of the moon's phases, and adopting
365J
days as
the true length of the year, he ordained that every fourth
year should contain 366 days, the extra day being inserted by
repeating the sixth day before the Calends of March, whence
such a year is called "Bissextile." He also transferred the
beginning of the year, which before Caesar's time had been in
March (as indicated by the names of several of the months,

December, the tenth month, for instance) to January 1st.

Caesar also took possession of the month Quintilis, naming it July.
after himself. His successor, Augustus, in a similar manner appro-
priated the next month, Sextilis, calling it August, and to vindicate
his dignity and make his month as long as his predecessor's, he added
to it a day filched from February.

136]
THE GREGORIAN CALENDAR. 87
The Julian Calendar is still used unmodified in the Greek
Church, and also in many astronomical reckonings.
137. The Gregorian Calendar.

The true length of the

tropical year is not
365J
days, but 365 days, 5 hours, 48
minutes, 46 seconds, leaving a difference of 11 minutes and 14
seconds by which the Julian year is too long. This difference
amounts to a little more than three days in 400 years. As a
consequence, the date of the vernal equinox comes continually
earlier and earlier in the Julian calendar, and in 1582 it had
fallen back to the 11th of March instead of occurring on the
21st, as it did at the time of the Council of Mce, a.d. 325.
Pope Gregory, therefore, under the astronomical advice of
Clavius, ordered that the calendar should be restored by
adding ten days, so that the day following Oct. 4th, 1582,
should be called the 15th instead of the 5th ; further, to pre-
vent any future displacement of the equinox, he decreed that
thereafter only such "century years" should be leap years as
are divisible by 400. (Thus 1700, 1800, 1900, 2100, and so
forth, are not leap years, but 1600 and 2000 are.)
138. The change was immediately adopted by all Catholic countries,
but the Greek Church and most Protestant nations refused to recognize
the Pope's authority. The new calendar was, however, at last adopted
in England by an act of Parliament passed in 1751. It provided that
the year 1752 should begin on Jan. 1st (instead of March 25th, as
had long been the rule in England), and that the day following Sept.
2d, 1752, should be reckoned as the 14th instead of the 3d, thus drop-
ping 11 days. At present (since 1800 and 1900 were leap years in
the Julian calendar and not in the Gregorian) the difference between
the two calendars is 13 days. Thus, in Russia the 23d of June is
reckoned the 10th; but in that country both dates are ordinarily
used for scientific purposes, so that the date mentioned would be
written June
|f.
When Alaska was annexed to the United States,
the official dates had to be changed by only eleven days, one day
being provided for by the alteration from the Asiatic date to the
American (Art.
66).
88 THE MOON. [
139
CHAPTER V.
THE MOON.

HER ORBITAL MOTION AND THE MONTH.

DISTANCE, DIMENSIONS, MASS, DENSITY, AND FORCE OF

GRAVITY.

ROTATION AND LIBERATIONS.

PHASES.

LIGHT AND HEAT.

PHYSICAL CONDITION.

TELE-
SCOPIC ASPECT AND PECULIARITIES OF THE LUNAR
SURFACE.
139. Next to the sun, the moon is the most conspicuous
and to us the most important of the heavenly bodies : in fact,
she is the only one except the sun, which exerts the slightest
influence upon the interests of human life. If the stars and
the planets were all extinguished, our eyes would miss them,
and that is all. But if the moon were annihilated, the inter-
ests of commerce would be seriously affected by the practical
cessation of the tides. She owes her conspicuousness and
her importance, however, solely to her nearness, for she is
really a very insignificant body as compared with stars and
planets.
140. The Moon's Apparent Motion, Definition of Terms, etc.

One of the earliest observed of astronomical phenomena

must have been the eastward motion of the moon with refer-
ence to the sun and stars, and the accompanying change of
phase. If, for instance, we note the moon to-night as very
near some conspicuous star, we shall find her to-morrow night
at a point considerably farther east, and the next night farther
yet ; she changes her place about
13
daily and makes a com-
plete circuit of the heavens, from star to star again, in about
27-J-
days. In other words, she revolves around the earth in

1*0]
SIDEREAL AND SYNODIC MONTHS. 89
that time, while she accompanies us in our annual journey
around the sun.
Since the moon moves eastward among the stars so much
faster than the sun (which takes a year in going once around),
she overtakes and passes him at regular intervals ; and as her
phases depend upon her apparent position with reference to
the sun, this interval from new moon to new moon is specially
noticeable and is what we ordinarily understand as the
"month."
The angular distance of the moon east or west of the sun at
any time is called her "Elongation."
1
At new moon it is zero,
and the moon is said to be in
"
Conjunction." At full moon
the elongation is 180, and she is said to be in
"
Opposition."
In either case the moon is in "Syzygy"; i.e., the sun, moon,
and earth are arranged along a straight line. When the elon-
gation is
90
she is said to be in
"
Quadrature."
141. Sidereal and Synodic Months.

The sidereal month is

the time it takes the moon to make her revolution
from a given
star to the same star again. It averages 27 days, 7 hours, 43
minutes, 11.55 seconds, or 27.32166 days, but varies some 3
hours on account of
"
perturbations." The mean daily motion
is
360 -^
27.32166, or
13 11'.
Mechanically considered, the
sidereal month is the true one.
The synodic month is the time between two successive conjunc-
tions or oppositions ; i.e., between successive new or full moons.
Its average value is 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes, 2.864 sec-
onds, but it varies 13
h
,
mainly on account of the eccentricity
of the lunar orbit. As has been said already, this synodic
month is what we ordinarily understand by the term "month."
1
There is a slight difference between elongation in right ascension and
elongation in longitude, and a corresponding difference between con-
junction and opposition in right ascension and longitude respectively.
Conjunction in right ascension occurs when the difference
of
right ascension
of the sun and moon is zero; conjunction in longitude when the
difference
of
longitude (reckoned on the ecliptic, it will be remembered) is zero.
90 THE MOON'S PATH. [
141
If Mbe the length of the moon's sidereal period, E the length of the
sidereal year, and S that of the synodic month, the three quantities
are connected by a simple relation which is easily demonstrated.

is the fraction of a circumference moved over

bv
the moon in a
M
1
J
day. Similarly is the apparent daily motion of the sun. The dif-
E
ference is the amount which the moon gains on the sun daily. Now
it gains a whole revolution in one synodic month of S days, and there-
fore must gain daily of a circumference. Hence we have the im-
o
portant equation
JL _i =
1
M E~ S
Another way of looking at the matter, leading, of course, to the
same result is this :

In a sidereal year the number of sidereal

months must be just one greater than the number of synodic months :
the numbers are respectively 13.369+ and 12.369
+ .
142. The Moon's Path among the Stars.

By observing the
moon's right ascension and decimation daily with the meridian
circle or other suitable instruments, we can map out its appar-
ent path, just as in the case of the sun (Art.
112). This path
turns out to be (very nearly) a great circle, inclined to the
ecliptic at an angle of about
5
8'.
The two points where it
cuts the ecliptic are called the Nodes, the ascending node being
the one where the moon passes from the south side to the
north side of the ecliptic, while the opposite node is called
the descending node.
The moon at the end of the month never comes back exactly
to the point of beginning among the stars, on account of the so-
called "perturbations," due mostly to the attraction of the sun.
One of the most important of these perturbations is the "re-
gression
of
the nodes." These slide westward on the ecliptic
just as the vernal equinox does (precession), but much faster,
completing their circuit in about 19 years instead of 26,000.
When the ascending node of the moon's orbit coincides with the
vernal equinox, the angle between the moon's path and the celestial
142J INTERVAL BETWEEN MOON'S TRANSITS. 91
equator is
23 28'
+
5 8', or
28 36'
;
9}
years later, when the descend-
ing node has come to the same point, the angle is only
23 28' 5 8',
or
18 20'.
In the first case the moon's declination will range during
the month from +28 36'
to
28
36', which makes a difference of
more than
57
in its meridian altitude. In the second case the whole
range is reduced to
36 40'.
143. Interval between the Moon's Successive Transits ; Daily
Retardation of its Rising and Setting. Owing, to the east-
ward motion of the moon, it comes to the meridian later each
day by about 51
m
on the average
;
but the retardation ranges
all the way from 38 minutes to 66 minutes, on account of the
variations in the rate of the moon's motion in right ascension.
These variations are due to the oval form of its orbit and to
its inclination to the celestial equator, and are precisely analo-
gous to those of the sun's motion, which produce
"
the equa-
tion of time
"
(Art.
128) ;
but they are many times greater.
The average retardation of the moon's daily rising and set-
ting is also, of course, the same 51
m
,
but the actual retardation
is still more variable than that of the transits, depending, as
it does, to some extent on the latitude
of
the observer as well
as on the variations in the moon's motion. At New York
the range is from 23 minutes to 1 hour and 17 minutes. In
higher latitudes it is still greater.
In latitudes above
61 30'
the moon, when it has its greatest possi-
ble declination of
28 36'
(Art.
142),
will become circumpolar for a
certain time each month, and will remain visible without setting at
all (like the "midnight sun") for a greater or less number of days,
according to the latitude of the observer.
144. Harvest and Hunter's Moon.

The full moon that

occurs nearest the autumnal equinox is known as the harvest
moon, the one next following as the hunter's moon. At that
time of the year the moon while nearly full rises for several
consecutive nights nearly at the same hour, so that the moon-
light evenings last for an unusually long time. The phenome-
92 POEM OF THE MOO^S ORBIT. [
144
non, however, is much more striking in Northern Europe than
in the United States.
In September the full moon is near the vernal equinox, where its
path is least inclined to the eastern horizon, so that the retardation
of its rising is small. Fig. 28 represents a celestial globe looked at
from the east. HNis the horizon, E the east point, P the pole, and
EQ the equator. If, now, the first of Aries is rising at E, the line
JEJ' will be the ecliptic and will be inclined to the horizon at an
\\ / A
H(
^^C
\n
/
\y
qf
\^_^>z/
Fig. 28.
-
-Explanation of the Harvest Moon.
angle less than QEH by
28i,
which is the inclination of the equator.
If, on the other hand, the first of Libra is rising, the ecliptic will be
the line DED'. If the ascending node of the moon's orbit happens
to coincide with the first of Aries, then, when this node is rising, the
moon's path will lie still more nearly horizontal than JJ', as shown
by the dotted line MEM'.
145. Form of the Moon's Orbit.

By observation of the
moon's apparent diameter in connection with observations of
her place in the sky, we can determine the
form
of her orbit
around the earth in the same way that the form of the earth's
orbit around the sun was worked out in Art. 116. The moon's
apparent diameter ranges from
33' 33"
when as near as pos-
sible, to
29' 24"
when most remote. (Neison.)
The orbit turns out to be an ellipse like that of the earth
around the sun, but one of much greater eccentricity, averag-

145]
PARALLAX. 93
ing about
^
(as against
^).
We say
"
averaging " because
it varies from
y
1
- to
T
on account of perturbations.
The point of the moon's orbit nearest the earth is called the
perigee, that most remote, the apogee, and the indefinite line
passing through these points, the line
of
apsides, while the
major axis is that portion of this line which lies between the
perigee and apogee. This line of apsides is in continual motion
on account of perturbations (just as the line of nodes is Art.
142) ;
but it moves eastward instead of westward, completing
its revolution in about nine years.
In her motion around the earth the moon also observes the
same law of equal areas that the earth does in her orbit around
the sun.
THE MOON'S DISTANCE.
146. In the case of any heavenly body one of the first and
most fundamental inquiries relates to its distance from us
:
until the distance has been somehow measured we can get no
knowledge of the real dimensions of its orbit, nor of the size,
mass, etc., of the body itself. The problem is usually solved
by measuring the apparent
"
parallactic
n
displacement of the
body due to a known change in the position of the observer.
Before proceeding farther we must therefore briefly discuss
the subject of parallax.
147. Parallax.

In genial the word "parallax" means the

difference between the d' ections of a heavenly body as seen
by the observer and as seen from some standard point of
reference. The "annual" or "heliocentric" parallax of a star
is the difference of the star's direction as seen from the earth
and from the sun. The "diurnal" or "geocentric"
parallax of
the sun, moon, or a planet, is the difference of its direction
as seen from the centre
of
the earth and from the observer's
station on the earth's surface, or what comes to the same
thing, it is the angle at the body made by the two lines drawn
94 PARALLAX AND DISTANCE.
[147
from it, one to the observer, the other to the centre
of
the earth.
In Fig. 29 the parallax of the body, P, is the angle OPC,
which equals xOP, and is the
difference between ZOP and
ZCP. Obviously this parallax
is zero for a body directly over-
head at Z, and a maximum
for a body just rising at P
h
Moreover, and this is to be
specially noted, this parallax
of a body at the horizon

"
the horizontal parallax
"

is
simply the angular semi-diame-
ter
of
the earth as seen
from the
body. When we say that the
moon's horizontal parallax is 57', it is equivalent to saying that
seen from the moon the earth appears to have a diameter of
114'.
148. Relation between Parallax and Distance.

When the
horizontal parallax of any heavenly body is ascertained, its
distance follows at once through our knowledge of the earth's
dimensions. From Art. 12 we have the equation
Diurnal Parallax.
r
-*(
206265/
in which r is the earth's radius, R the distance of the body,
and s" the apparent semi-diameter of the earth (in seconds of
arc) as seen from the body ; i.e., s" = the body's
"
horizontal
parallax" If, as is usual, we write p" instead of s" for the
horizontal parallax of the body, this gives
This implies, of course, that a body whose horizontal parallax
is
1"
is at a distance 206,265 times the earth's radius ; if the
parallax is
10"
it is only
T
L
as far away, and so on.
148]
DETERMINING THE MOONS PARALLAX. 95
Since the radius of the earth varies slightly in different latitudes,
we take the equatorial radius as a standard, and the equatorial horizon-
tal parallax is the earth's equatorial semi-diameter as seen from the
body. It is this which is usually meant when we speak simply of
"
the parallax
"
of the moon, of the sun, or of a planet
;
(but never
when we speak of the parallax of a star.)
149. Method of Determining the Moon's Parallax and Dis-
tance.

We limit ourselves to giving a single one, perhaps the sim-

plest, of the different methods that are practically available. At each
of two observatories, B and C, Fig. 30, on, or very nearly on, the
same meridian and very far apart (Santiago, and Cambridge, U.S.,
for instance), the moon's zenith distance,
ZBM and Z'CM, is ob-
served simultaneously with
the meridian circle or some
equivalent instrument. This
gives in the quadrilateral
BOCM the two angles OBM
and OCM, each of which is
the supplement of the moon's
geocentric zenith distance at
B and C respectively. The
angle BOC, at the centre of
the earth, is the difference
of the geocentric latitudes of
the two observatories (numeri-
cally, their sum).
Moreover, the sides BO and CO are known, being radii of the earth.
The quadrilateral can, therefore, be solved by a simple trigonometrical
process,
1
and we can find the line MO. Knowing MO and OK, the
radius of the earth, the horizontal parallax, OMK, follows at once.
1
The solution is effected as follows:
(1)
In the triangle BOC, we have
given BO, OC, and the included angle BOC. Hence we can find the side
BC, and the two angles OBC and OCB.
(2)
In the triangle BCM, BC
is now known, and the two angles MBC and MCB are got by simply sub-
tracting OBC from OBM, and OCB from OCM: hence we can find BM
and CM.
(3)
In the triangle OBM, we know OB, BM, and the included
angle OBM, from which we can find OM, the moon's distance from the
centre of the earth.
Fig. 30.

Determination of the Moon's Parallax.

96 PARALLAX, DISTANCE, AND VELOCITY.
[150
150. Parallax, Distance, and Velocity of the Moon.

The
moon's equatorial horizontal parallax is found to average
3422".0 (57' 2".0), according to Neison, but varies consider-
ably on account of the eccentricity of the orbit. With this
value of the parallax we find that the moon's average distance
from the earth is about 60.3 times the earth's equatorial
radius, or 238,840 miles, with an uncertainty of perhaps 20
miles.
The maximum and minimum values of the moon's distance are
given by Neison as 252,972 and 221,614. It will be noted that the
average distance is not the mean of the two extreme distances.
Knowing the size and form of the moon's orbit, the velocity
of her motion is easily computed. It averages 2287 miles an
hour, or about 3350 feet per second. Her apparent angular
velocity among the stars is about
33'
an hour on the average,
which is just a little greater than the apparent diameter of the
moon itself.
Fig. 31.

Moon's Path relative to the Sim.

Fig. 32.
Fig. 33.
Erroneous Representations of the Moon's Path.
151. Form of the Moon's Orbit with Reference to the Sun.

While the moon moves in a small oval orbit around the earth,
it also moves around the sun in company with the earth. This

151]
DIAMETER, ETC., OF THE MOON. 97
common motion of the moon and earth, of course, does not
affect their relative motion, but to an observer outside the
system, the moon's motion around the earth would be only a
very small component of the moon's whole motion as seen
by him.
The distance of the moon from the earth is only about
-^-^
part of the distance of the sun. The speed of the earth in its
orbit around the sun is also more than thirty times greater
than that of the moon in its orbit around the earth ; for the
moon, therefore, the resulting path in space is one which is
always concave towards the sun, as shown in Fig.
31,
and not
like Figs. 32 and 33.
If we represent the orbit of the earth by a circle having a radius of
100 inches
(8
feet, 4 inches), the moon would deviate from it by only
one-quarter of an inch on each side, crossing it 25 times in one
revolution, i.e., in a year.
152. Diameter, Area, and Bulk of the Moon.

The mean ap-

parent diameter of the moon is
31' 7".
Knowing its distance,
we easily compute from this by the formula of Art. 12 its real
diameter, which comes out 2163 miles. This is 0.273 of the
earth's diameter.
Since the surfaces of globes vary as the squares of their
diameters, and their volumes as the cubes, this makes the sur-
face area of the moon equal to about
T
x

of the earth's, and the

volume (or bulk) almost exactly
fa
of the earth's.
No other satellite is nearly as large as the moon in comparison with
its primary planet. The earth and moon together, as seen from a
distance, are really in many respects more like a double planet than
like a planet and satellite of ordinary proportions. At a time, for
instance, when Venus happens to be nearest the earth (at a distance
of about twenty-five millions of miles) her inhabitants would see the
earth about twice as brilliant as Yenus herself at her best appears to
us, and the moon would be about as bright as Sirius, oscillating back-
wards and forwards about half a degree each side of the earth.
98 MASS, DENSITY, AND GRAVITY. [
153
153. Mass, Density, and Superficial Gravity of the Moon.

Her mass is about

^
of the earth's mass,
(0.0123).
The accurate determination of the moon's mass is practically an
extremely difficult problem. Though she is the nearest of all the
heavenly bodies, it is far more difficult to
"
weigh
"
her than to weigh
Neptune, the remotest of the planets. For the different methods of
dealing with the problem, we must refer the reader to the
"
General
Astronomy" (Art.
243),
merely saying that one of the methods is
by comparing the relative influences of the moon and of the sun in
raising the tides.
Mass
Since the density of a body is equal to

,
the density
of the moon as compared with that of the earth is found to be
0.613, or about 3.4 the density of water (the earth's density
being 5.58).
This is a little above the average density of the
rocks which compose the crust of the earth. This small density
of the moon is not surprising nor at all inconsistent with the
belief that it once formed a part of the same mass with the
earth, since if such were the case the moon was probably
formed by the separation of the outer portions of that mass,
which would be likely to have a smaller specific gravity than
the rest.
The
superficial
gravity, or the attraction of the moon for
bodies at its surface, is about one-sixth that at the surface of
the earth. That is, a body which weighs six pounds on the
earth's surface would at the surface of the moon weigh only
one pound (by a spring balance). This is a fact that must be
borne in mind in connection with the enormous scale of the
surface structure of the moon. Volcanic forces on the moon
would throw ejected materials to a vastly greater distance
than on the earth.
154. Rotation of the Moon.

The moon rotates on its axis

once a month, in exactly the same time as that occupied by its
revolution around the earth; its day and night are, therefore,

154
] LIBRATIONS.
99
each about a fortnight in length, and in the long run it
keeps the same side always towards the earth: we see to-day
precisely the same aspect of the moon as Galileo did when he
first looked at it with his telescope, and the same will con-
tinue to be the case for thousands of years, if not forever.
It is difficult for some to see why a mo-
tion of this sort should be considered a JX f
j
rotation of the moon, since it is essentially I
j
.
:
\
like the motion of a ball carried on a re-
volving crank (Fig.
34). "Such a ball,"
they say, "revolves around the shaft, but
does not rotate on its own axis." It does
rotate, however : if we mark one side of the
ball, we shall find the marked side presented jr
successively to every point of the compass
FlG. 34>
as the crank turns, so that the ball turns on
its own axis as really as if it were whirling upon a pin fastened
to the table.
By virtue of its connection with the crank, the ball has two distinct
motions,
(1)
the motion of translation, which carries its centre in a circle
around the axis of the shaft;
(2)
an additional motion of rotation
1
around
a line drawn through its centre of gravity parallel to the shaft. But the
pin A (in the figure) and the hole in which the pin fits, both also turn at
the same rate, so that the ball does not turn on the pin ; nor the pin, in
the hole.
155. Librations. While in the
"
long run
"
the moon keeps
the same face towards the earth, it is not so in the "short
run": there is no crank-connection between them. With
reference to the centre of the earth the moon is continually
oscillating a little, and these oscillations constitute what
are called librations, of which, we distinguish three
;

viz., the
1
The motion known as
"
rotation
"
consists essentially in this : That a
line. connecting any two points not in the axis of the rotating body, and
produced to the sky, will sweep out a circle on the celestial sphere.
100 LIBRATIONS. [
155
libration in latitude, the libration in longitude, and the diurnal
libraiion.
The libration in latitude is due to the fact that the moon's equator
does not coincide with the plane of its orbit, but makes with it an
angle of about 6^. This inclination of the moon's equator causes its
north pole at one time in the month to be tipped a little towards the
earth, while a fortnight later the south pole is similarly inclined
towards us.
Moreover, since the moon's angular motion in its oval orbit is
variable, while the motion of rotation is uniform like that of any-
other ball, the two motions do not keep pace exactly during the
month, and we see alternately a few degrees around the eastern and
western edges of the lunar globe. This is the libration in longitude,
and amounts to about 7|.
Then again when the moon is rising we look over its upper, which
is then its western edge, seeing a little more of that part of the moon
than if we were observing it from the centre of the earth. When it
is setting we overlook in the same way its eastern edge. This con-
stitutes the so-called diurnal libration, and amounts to about
1.
Strictly speaking, this diurnal libration is not a libration of the moon
at all, but of the observer. The effect is the same, however, as that
of a true libration.
Altogether, owing to librations, we see considerably more
than half the moon's surface at one time or another. About
41 per cent of it is always visible, 41 per cent never visible,
and a belt at the edge of the moon covering about 18 per cent
is rendered alternately visible and invisible by the librations.
156. The Phases of the Moon.

Since the moon is an opaque

body shining merely by reflected light, we can see only that
hemisphere of her surface which happens to be illuminated,
and of this hemisphere only that portion which happens
to be turned towards the earth. When the moon is between
the earth and the sun (at new moon) the dark side is then
presented directly towards us, and the moon is entirely invisi-
ble. A week later, at the end of the first quarter, half of the
156] PHASES OF THE MOON. 101
illuminated
hemisphere is visible, and we have the half moon
just as we do a week after the full. Between the new moon
and the half moon, during the first and last quarters of the
lunation, we see less than half of the illuminated portion, and
then have the
"
crescent " phase. Between half moon and the
full moon, during the second and third quarters of the luna-
tion, we see more than half of the moon's illuminated side,
and have then what is called the
"
gibbous
"
phase.
Fig. 35. The Moon's Phases.
Fig. 35 (in which the light is supposed to come from a point far
above the circle which represents the moon's orbit) shows the way in
which the phases are distributed through the month.
102 EARTH-SHINE ON THE MOON. [
157
157. The line which separates the dark portion of the disc from
the bright is called the
"
terminator" and is always a semi-ellipse, since
it is a semi-circle viewed obliquely. The illuminated portion of the
moon's disc is, therefore, always a figure which is made up of a semi-
circle plus or minus a semi-ellipse,
1
as shown in Fig. 36.4. It is some-
times incorrectly attempted to represent the crescent form by a con-
struction like 36jB, in which a smaller circle has a portion cut out of
it by an arc of a larger one.
It is to be noticed also that ab, the line
x"7T\
/""TX
whih joins the
"
cusps," or points of the
,
( I
|
';
,, / \ \ crescent, is always perpendicular to a line
'
\\ T
I
V I J
^ rawn from the moon to the sun, so that the
^\L''
^-

LS
horns are always turned away from the sun.
j^
g
The precise position, therefore, in which
Fig. 36.
they will stand at any time is perfectly pre-
dictable, and has nothing whatever to do with
the weather. Artists are sometimes careless in the manner in which
they introduce the moon into landscapes. One occasionally sees the
moon near the horizon with the horns turned downwards, a piece of
perspective fit to go with Hogarth's barrel, which showed both its
heads at once.
158. Earth-Shine on the Moon. Near the time of new
moon the whole disc is easily visible, the portion on which
sunlight does not fall being illuminated by a pale reddish
light. This light is earth-shine, the earth as seen from the
moon being then nearly full.
Seen from the moon, the earth would show all the phases that the
moon does, the earth's phase being in every case exactly supplementary
to that of the moon as seen by us at the time. Taking everything
into account, the earth-shine by which the moon is illuminated near
new moon is probably from 15 to 20 times as strong as the light of
the full moon. The ruddy color is due to the fact that the light sent
to the moon from the earth has passed twice through our atmosphere,
and so has acquired the sunset tinge.
1
At new moon or full moon the semi-ellipse of course becomes a semi
circle.
159]
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MOON. 103
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MOON.
159. The Moon's Atmosphere.

The moon's atmosphere, if

any exists, is extremely rare, probably not producing at the
moon's surface a barometric pressure to exceed -^ of an inch
of mercury, or
yi^-
of the atmospheric pressure at the earth's
surface. The evidence on this point is twofold : First, the
telescopic appearance.
The parts of the moon near the edge of the disc or
"
limb
"
which,
if there were any atmosphere, would be seen through its greatest pos-
sible depth, are visible without the least distortion. There is no haze,
and all the shadows are perfectly black
;
there is no sensible twilight
at the cusps of the moon, and no evidence of clouds or storms, or of
anything like the ordinary phenomena of the terrestrial atmosphere.
Second, the absence
of
refraction, when the moon intervenes
between us and any more distant object.
At an eclipse of the sun there is no distortion of the sun's limb
where the moon cuts it. When the moon
"
occults
"
a star, there is
no distortion or discoloration of the star disc, but both the disappear-
ance and reappearance are practically instantaneous. Moreover, an
atmosphere of even slight density, quite insufficient to produce any
sensible distortion of the image, would notably diminish the time dur-
ing which the star would be concealed behind the moon, since the
refraction would bend the rays from the star around the edge of the
moon so as to render it visible both after it had really passed behind
the limb and before it emerged from it.
160. Water on the Moon's Surface.

Of course, if there is
no atmosphere there can be no liquid water, since the water
would immediately evaporate and form an atmosphere of vapor
if no air were present. It is not impossible, however, nor per-
haps improbable that solid water, i.e., ice and snow, may exist
on the moon's surface at a temperature too low to liberate va-
por in quantity sufficient to make an atmosphere dense enough
to be observable from the earth.
104 THE MOON'S AIK AND WATER. C
161
161. What has become of the Moon's Air and Water?

If the moon ever formed a part of the same mass as the earth, she
must once have had both air and water. There are a number of pos-
sible, and more or less probable, hypotheses to account for their disap-
pearance.
(1)
The air and water may have struck in,

partly
absorbed by porous rocks, and partly disposed of in cavities left by
volcanic action
;
partly also, perhaps, by chemical combinations
and occlusion when the internal temperature became low enough.
(2)
The atmosphere may have
flown
away
;

and this is perhaps the

most probable hypothesis. If the
"
kinetic
"
theory of gases is true,
no body of small mass, not extremely cold, can permanently retain
any considerable atmosphere. A particle leaving the moon with a
speed exceeding a mile and a half a second would never return. If
she was ever warm, the molecules of her atmosphere must have been
continually acquiring velocities greater than this, and deserting her
one by one. See Physics, pages 231, 232.
In whatever way, however, it came about, it is quite certain that at
present no substances that are gaseous or vaporous at low tempera-
tures exist in any considerable quantity on the moon's surface,

at
least not on our side of it.
162. The Moon's Light.

As to quality, it is simply sun-

light, showing a spectrum identical in every detail with that
of light coming directly from the snn itself ; and this may
be noted incidentally as an evidence of the absence of a lunar
atmosphere, which, if it existed, would produce peculiar lines
of its own in the spectrum.
The brightness of full moonlight as compared with sunlight
is about
-g-QWo o"
: according to this, if the whole visible hemi-
sphere were packed with full moons, we should receive from
it about one-eighth part of the light of the sun.
Moonlight is not easy to measure, and different experimenters have
found results for the ratio between the light of the full moon and
sunlight, ranging all the way from
300W
(Bouguer) to
gooVoo (
Wo1
-
laston). The value now generally accepted is that determined by
Zollner, viz.,
in-oWn.

162
] HEAT OF THE MOON. 105
The half moon does not give, even nearly, half as much
light as the full moon : near the full the brightness suddenly
and greatly increases, probably because at any time except at
the full moon, the moon's visible surface is more or less dark-
ened by shadows.
The average albedo or reflecting power of the moon's sur-
face Zollner states as 0.174 ; i.e., the moon's surface reflects
a little more than
i
part of the light that falls upon it.
This corresponds to the reflecting power of a rather light-colored
sandstone, and agrees well with the estimate of Sir John Herschel,
who found the moon to be very exactly of the same brightness as the
rock of Table Mountain when she was setting behind it. There are,
however, great differences in the brightness of the different portions of
the moon's surface. Some spots are nearly as white as snow or salt,
and others as dark as slate.
163. Heat of the Moon. Tor a long time it was impossible
to detect the moon's heat by observation. Even when concen-
trated by a large lens, it is too feeble to be shown by the most
delicate thermometer. The first sensible evidence of it was
obtained by Melloni in 1846,
with the newly invented
"
thermo-
pile" by a series of observations from the summit of Vesuvius.
With modern apparatus it is easy enough to perceive the heat
of lunar radiation, but the measurements are extremely difficult.
A considerable percentage of the lunar heat seems to be heat
simply reflected like light, while the rest, perhaps three-quarters
of the whole, is "obscure heat" ; i.e., heat which has first been
absorbed by the moon's surface and then radiated, like the
heat from a brick surface that has been warmed by sunshine.
This is shown by the fact that a comparatively thin plate of
glass cuts off some 86 per cent of the moon's heat.
The total amount of heat radiated by the full moon to the earth is
estimated by Lord Rosse at about one eighty thousandth part of that
sent us by the sun ; but this estimate is probably too high : Prof.
C. C. Hutchins in 1888 found it
^tW.
106 TEMPERATURE OF THE MOON'S SURFACE. [ 164
164. Temperature of the Moon's Surface.

As to the tem-
perature of the moon's surface, it is difficult to affirm much
with certainty. On the one hand the lunar rocks are exposed
to the sun's rays in a cloudless sky for 14 days at a time, so
that if they were protected by air like the rocks upon the
earth they would certainly become intensely heated. During
the long lunar night of 14 days, the temperature must inev-
itably fall appallingly low, perhaps
200
below zero.
Lord Rosse's observations, some forty years ago, appeared to show
that soon after the full the moon's surface reached a temperature
above that of boiling water. This is confirmed by the conclusive
investigations of Very
(1899)
so far as regards the moon's equator
at points where the sun is nearly overhead. At the poles, on the
other hand, and at the terminator, the temperature is very low
;
indeed, the average temperature of the moon's earthward surface
is probably far below the freezing point of water, as indicated by
Langley's older observations.
Lord Rosse has also found that during a total eclipse of the moon
her heat-radiation practically vanishes, and does not regain its normal
value until some hours after she has left the earth's shadow. This
seems to indicate that she loses heat nearly as fast as it is received,
and so can never get very warm.
165. Lunar Influences on the Earth. The moon's attraction
co-operates with that of the sun in producing the tides, to be
considered later.
There are also certain distinctly ascertained disturbances of
terrestrial magnetism connected with the approach and reces-
sion of the moon at perigee and apogee ; and this ends the
chapter of ascertained lunar influences.
The multitude of current beliefs as to the controlling influ-
ence of the moon's phases and changes npon the weather and
the various conditions of life are mostly unfounded.
It is quite certain that if the moon has any influence at all of the
sort imagined, it is extremely slight; so slight that it has not yet been
demonstrated, though numerous investigations have been made ex

165]
MOON'S TELESCOPIC APPEARANCE. 107
pressly for the purpose of detecting it. We have never been able to
ascertain with certainty, for instance, whether it is warmer or not, or
less cloudy or not, at the time of full moon . Different investigations
lead to contradictory results.
166. The Moon's Telescopic Appearance and Surface.

Even
to the naked eye the moon is a beautiful object, diversified
with, markings which are associated with numerous popular
superstitions. To a powerful telescope these markings mostly
vanish, and are replaced by a countless multitude of smaller
details which make the moon, on the whole, the finest of all
telescopic objects,

especially so to instruments of a moder-

ate size (say from six to ten inches in diameter) which gener-
ally give a more pleasing view of our satellite than instruments
either much larger or much smaller.
An instrument of this size, with magnifying powers between
250 and 500,
virtually brings the moon within a distance rang-
ing from 1000 to 500 miles, and since an object half a mile in
diameter on the moon subtends an angle of about 0".43, it would
be distinctly visible. A long line or streak even less than a
quarter of a mile across can probably be seen. With larger
telescopes the power can now and then be carried at least twice
as high, and correspondingly smaller details made out, when the
air is at its best.
For most purposes the best time to look at the moon is when it is
between six and ten days old. At the time of full moon few objects
on the surface are well seen.
It is evident that while with the telescope we should be able to see
such objects as lakes, rivers, forests, and great cities, if they existed
on the moon, it would be hopeless to expect to distinguish any of the
minor indications of life, such as buildings or roads.
167. The Moon's Surface Structure.

The moon's surface

for the most part is extremely broken. With us the moun-
tains are mostly in long ranges, like the Andes and Himalayas.
On the moon, the ranges are few in number ; but, on the othei
hand, the surface is pitted all over with, great
"
craters" which
108 MOON S SURFACE STRUCTURE.
[167
resemble very closely the volcanic craters on the earth's sur-
face, though on an immensely greater scale. The largest ter-
restrial craters do not exceed six or seven miles in diameter;
many of those on the moon are fifty or sixty miles across, and
some have a diameter of more than 100 miles, while smaller
ones from five to twenty miles in diameter are counted by the
hundred.
The normal lunar crater (Fig.
37)
is nearly circular, sur-
rounded by a ring of mountains which rise anywhere from a
thousand to twenty thousand feet above the surrounding coun-
try. The floor with-
in the ring may be
either above or be-
low the outside lev-
el; some craters are
deep, and some are
filled nearly to the
brim. In a few
cases the surround-
ing mountain ring-
is entirely absent,
and the crater is a
mere hole in the plain. Frequently in the centre of the crater
there rises a group of peaks, which attain about the same ele-
vation as the encircling ring, and these central peaks often
show holes or minute craters in their summits.
Fig. 37.

A Normal Lunar Crater (Nasmyth).

On some portions of the moon these craters stand very thickly
;
older craters have been encroached upon or more or less completely
obliterated by the newer, so that the whole surface is a chaos of
which the counterpart is hardly to be found on the earth, even in the
roughest portions of the Alps. This is especially the case near the
moon's south pole. It is noticeable, also, that, as on the earth
the youngest mountains are generally the highest, so on the moon
the more newly formed craters are generally deeper
and more precip-
itous than the older.
167]
OTHER LUNAR FORMATIONS. 109
The height
of
a lunar mountain or depth, of a crater can be
measured with considerable accuracy by means of its shadow
;
or in the case of a mountain, by the measured distance between
its summit and the
"
terminator
"
(Art.
157)
, at the time when
the top first catches
the light and looks
like a star quite de-
tached from the bright
part of the moon, as
seen in Fig. 38.
168. The striking re-
semblance of these for-
mations to terrestrial
volcanic structures, like
those exemplified by Ve-
suvius and others, makes
it natural to assume that
they had a similar origin
.
This, however, is not ab-
solutely certain, for there
are considerable difficul-
ties in the way, espe-
cially in the case of what are called the great
"
Bulwark Plains."
These are so extensive that a person standing in the centre could not
even see the summit of the surrounding ring at any point; and yet there
is no fine of demarcation between them and the smaller craters,

the
series is continuous. Moreover, on the earth, volcanoes necessarily
require the action of air and water, which do not at present exist on
the moon. It is obvious, therefore, that if these lunar craters are the
result of volcanic eruptions, they must be, so to speak, "fossil" forma-
tions, for it is quite certain that there are no obvious appearances
of
present volcanic activity, though perhaps some suspicious indications.
169. Other Lunar Formations.

The craters and mountains

are not the
only interesting formations on the moon's surface.
Fig. 38. Photograph by Ritchey at
Yerkes Observatory, 1900.
110 OTHER LUNAR FORMATIONS.
[169
There are many deep, narrow, crooked valleys that go by the
name of "rills" some of which may once have been water-
courses. Fig. 39 shows several of them. Then there are
numerous straight
"
clefts"
half a mile or so wide and of un-
known depth, running
in some cases several
hundred miles, straight
through mountain and
valley, without any ap-
parent regard for the
accidents of the sur-
face
;
they seem to be
deep cracks in the crust
of our satellite. Most
curious of all are the
light-colored streaks or
"rays" which radiate
from certain of the cra-
ters, extending in some
cases a distance of
many hundred miles.
These are usually from
five to ten miles wide,
and neither elevated
or depressed to any considerable extent with reference to the
general surface. Like the clefts, they pass across valley and
mountain, and sometimes through craters, without any change
in width or color. No thoroughly satisfactory explanation has
ever been given, though they have been ascribed to a staining of
the surface byvapors ascending from rifts too narrow to be visible.
The most remarkable of these
"
ray systems
"
is the one connected
with the great crater Tycho, not very far from the moon's south
pole. The rays are not very conspicuous until within a few days
of full moon, but at that time they and the crater from which they
diverge constitute by far the most striking
feature of the whole lunar
surface.
.

Archimedes and the Apennines (Nasmyth).

170] LUNAR MAPS. Ill
170. Lunar Maps.

A number of maps of the moon have been

constructed by different observers. The most recent and extensive is
that by Schmidt of Athens, on a scale 7 feet in diameter : it was
published by the Prussian government in 1878. Of the smaller
maps available for ordinary lunar observation, perhaps the best is
that given in Webb's
"
Celestial Objects for Common Telescopes."
Two new photographic, large-scale, lunar maps have lately been
published, from negatives made at the Lick and Paris observatories.
171. Lunar Nomenclature.

The great plains upon the moon's

surface were called by Galileo "oceans" or "seas" (Maria), for he
supposed that these grayish surfaces, which are visible to the naked
eye and conspicuous in a small telescope, though not with a large one,
were covered with water.
The ten mountain ranges on the moon are mostly named after ter-
restrial mountains, as Caucasus, Alps, Apennines, though two or three
bear the names of astronomers, like Leibnitz, Doerfel, etc.
The conspicuous craters bear the names of eminent ancient and
mediaeval astronomers and philosophers, as Plato, Archimedes, Tycho,
Copernicus, Kepler, and Gassendi ; while hundreds of smaller and less
conspicuous formations bear the names of more modern astronomers.
This system of nomenclature seems to have originated with Ricci-
oli, who made a map of the moon in 1651.
172. Changes on the Moon.

It is certain that there are no

conspicuous changes,

there are no such transformations as

would be presented by the earth viewed telescopically,

no
clouds, no storms, no snow of winter, and no spread of vege-
tation in the spring. At the same time, it is confidently main-
tained by some observers that here and there alterations do
take place in the details of the lunar surface, while others
as stoutly dispute it.
The difficulty in settling the question arises from the great changes
in the appearance of a lunar object under varying illumination. To
insure certainty in such delicate observations, comparisons must be
made between the appearance of the object in question, as seen at
precisely the same phase
of
the moon, with telescopes (and eyes too) of
equal power, and under substantially the same conditions in other
112 LUNAR MAPS.
[172
respects, such as the height of the moon above the horizon, and the
clearness and steadiness of the air. It is, of course, very difficult to
secure such identity of conditions. (For an account of certain sup-
posed changes, see Webb's
"
Celestial Objects.")
173. Fig. 40 is reduced from a skeleton map of the moon by
Neison, and though not large enough to exhibit much detail,
will enable a student with a small telescope to identify the
principal objects by the help of the key.
KEY TO THE PRINCIPAL OBJECTS INDICATED IN FIG. 40.
A. Mare Humorum. K. Mare Nubium.
B. Mare Nectaris. L. Mare Frigoris.
C. Oceanus Procellarum. r. Leibnitz Mountains.
D. Mare Fecunditatis u. Doerfel Mountains.
E. Mare Tranquilitatis. v. Rook Mountains.
F. Mare Crisium. w. D'Alembert Mountains.
G. Mare Serenitatis. X. Apennines.
H. Mare Imbrium. Y. Caucasus.
/. Sinus Iridum. z. Alps.
1. Clavius. 14. Alphonsus. 27. Eratosthenes.
2. Schiller. 15. Theophilus. 28. Proclus.
3. Maginus. 16. Ptolemy.
28'.
Pliny.
4. Schickard. 17. Langrenus. 29. Aristarchus.
5. Tycho. 18. Hipparchus. 30. Herodotus.
6. Walther. 19. Grimaldi. 31. Archimedes.
7. Purbach. 20. Flamsteed. 32. Cleomedes.
8. Petavius. 21. Messier. 33. Aristillus.
9.
"
The Railway." 22. Maskelyne. 34. Eudoxus.
10. Arzachel. 23. Triesnecker. 35. Plato.
11. Gassendi. 24. Kepler. 36. Aristotle.
12. Catherina. 25. Copernicus. 37. Endymion.
13. Cyrillus. 26. Stadius.
174. Lunar Photography.

It is probable that the question of

changes upon the moon's surface will soon be authoritatively decided
by means of photography. The earliest success in lunar photography
Was that of Bond of Cambridge (U.S.), in 1850, using the old
174]
LUNAR PHOTOGRAPHY. 113
Daguerreotype process. This was followed by the work of De la Rue
in England, and by Dr. Henry Draper and Mr. Rutherfurd in this
country. Until very recently, Mr. Rutherfurd's pictures have remained
absolutely
unrivalled; but within, the last few years, plates which
Fig. 40. Map of the Moon, reduced from Neison.
have been taken at Cambridge, U. S., and at the Lick and Yerkes
Observatories, as well as by Mr. Common in England and the
Henry brothers at Paris, are far in advance of even the best of
Rutherfurd's
.
114 THE SUN,
[
175
CHAPTER VI.
THE SUN.

ITS DISTANCE, DIMENSIONS, MASS, AND

DENSITY. ITS ROTATION AND EQUATORIAL ACCEL-
ERATION. METHODS OF STUDYING ITS SURFACE.
SUN SPOTS. THEIR NATURE, DIMENSIONS, DEVELOP-
MENT, AND MOTIONS. THEIR DISTRIBUTION AND
PERIODICITY.

SUN-SPOT THEORIES.
The sun is the nearest of the stars; a hot, self-luminous
globe, enormous as compared with the earth and moon, though
probably only of medium size among its peers ; but to the earth
and the other planets which circle around it, it is the grandest
and most important of all the heavenly bodies. Its attraction
controls their motions, and its rays supply the energy which
maintains every form of activity upon their surfaces.
175. The Sun's Distance.

Its distance maybe determined
by
finding its horizontal parallax (Art.
147);
i.e., the semi-
diameter
of
the earth as seen
from the sun. The mean value of
this parallax is very near 8".80, with a probable error certainly
less than 0".01. The distance may also be ascertained by
measuring experimentally the velocity
of
light, and combining
this with the so-called
u
Constant
of
Aberration" (Art.
127),
or with the time required by light to travel
from the sun to the
earth, as deduced from the observation of the eclipses of Ju-
piter's satellites (Art.
355).
We reserve for the Appendix the discussion of the principal
methods by which the parallax has been determined.

175]
DIMENSIONS OF THE SUN. 115
Taking the horizontal parallax at 8".8, the mean distance of
the sun (a being the earth's equatorial radius) equals
a x
20
^.
2
(f
5
= 23439
x
a. (See Art. 148.)
8 .8
With Clark's value of a (Art.
84),
this gives 149,500,000 kilo-
metres, or 92,897,000
miles, which, however, is uncertain by
at least 50,000 miles. The distance is variable, also, to the
extent of about 3,000,000 miles, on account of the eccentricity
Of the*arth's orbit, the earth being nearer the sun in December
than in June.
Knowing the distance of the sun, the orbital velocity
of
the
earth is easily found by dividing the circumference of the orbit
by the number of seconds in a sidereal year. It comes oat
18.495 miles per secoyid. (Compare this with the velocity of a
cannon-ball

seldom exceeding 2000 feet per second.)

This distance is so much greater than any with which we have to
do on the earth, that it is impossible to reach a conception of it except
by illustrations. Perhaps the simplest is that drawn from the motion
of a railway train, which, going a thousand miles a day (nearly 42
miles an hour without stops), would take 254
A-
years to make the
journey. If sound were transmitted through interplanetary space,
and at the same rate as through our own atmosphere, it would make
the passage in about 14 years
;
i.e., an explosion on the sun would be
heard by us 14 years after it actually occurred. Light traverses tha
distance in 499 seconds.
176. Dimensions of the Sun.

The sun's mean apparent

diameter is
32' 4"

2".'
Since at the distance of the sun, one
second equals 450.36 miles, its diameter
1
is 866,500 miles, or
109-i-
times that of the earth.
If we suppose the sun to be hollowed out, and the earth
placed at the centre, the sun's surface would be 433,000 miles
1
It is quite possible that the sun's diameter is variable to the extent of
a few hundred miles, since the sun is not solid.
116 DIMENSIONS OF THE SUN.
[176
away. Now, since the distance of the moon is about 239,000
miles, she would be only a little more than half-way out from
the earth to the inner surface of the hollow globe, which would
thus form a very good background for the study of the lunar
motions. Fig. 41 illustrates the size of the sun and of such
,
g5
,
.s Sur/a^^.
*0^O^6^
tMoon
o
H
Earth
/
fl>
Hill
Fig. 41.

Dimensions of the Sun compared with the Moon's Orbit.

objects upon it as the sun spots and prominences, as compared
with the size of the earth and of the moon's orbit.
If we represent the sun by a globe two feet in diameter, the
earth on that scale would be 0.22 of an inch in diameter, the
size of a very small pea. Its distance from the sun would be
just about 220 feet, and the nearest star, still on the same scale,
would be 8000 miles away at the antipodes.
As a help to the memory, it is worth noticing that the sun's diam-
eter exceeds the earth's just as many times as it is itself exceeded by
the radius of the earth's orbit. Its diameter is nearly 110 times that
of the earth, and it is also, roughly, the 110th part of its distance
from us.

176]
/
THE SUN'S MASS. 117
Since the surfaces of globes are proportional to the squares
of their radii, the surface of the sun exceeds that of the earth
in the ratio of 109.
5
2
:
1
; i.e., the area of its surface is about
12,000 times the surface
of
the earth.
The volumes of spheres are proportional to the cubes of their
radii. Hence, the sun's volume or bulk is 109.5
3
,
or 1,300000
times that
of
the earth.
177. The Sun's Mass.

The mass
of
the sun is very nearly
332,000
times that
of
the earth. There are various ways of
getting at this result. Perhaps for our purpose the most con-
venient is by comparing the earth's attraction for bodies at her
surface {i.e., the value of
g
as determined by pendulum experi-
ments, Physics,
p. 68)
with the attraction
of
the sun for the
earth, or the central force which keeps her in her orbit. Put
/
for this force (measured like gravity by the velocity it gen-
erates in one second),
g
for the force of gravity
(32
feet, 2
inches per second), r the earth's radius, B the sun's distance,
and let E and 8 be the masses of the earth and sun respec-
tively. Then the iaw of gravitation gives us the proportion
f-a-
.*-*.
J
'
y
"
E
2 '
r
2
'
whence, S = E
x
Mr
From the size of the earth's orbit (considered as a circle), and
the length of the year, /is found
1
to be 0.2333 inches.
.Therefore,
-
= 0.0006044 =

?
nearly. But
-
=
23,439,
g
1654 r
the square of which is
549,387,000,
nearly ; whence,
S
=
Ex

!-
x 549,387,000
=
332,000 E.
1654
1
The formula is
f=
, V being the velocity of the earth in its
orbit, 18.495 miles per second. We may also use the equivalent formula,
f
,
T being the length of the year in seconds.
118 THE SUN'S DENSITY. C
177
We note in passing that
\f
expresses the distance which the earth
falls towards the sun every second; just as
\g
(16
feet) is the distance
a body at the earth's surface falls in the first second. This quantity,
\f
or 0.116 inches, is the amount by which the earth's orbit deviates
from a straight line in a second. In travelling
18J
miles the
deflec-
tion is only about one-ninth
of
an inch.
178. The Sun's Density.

Its density as compared with that

of the earth may be found by simply dividing its mass by its
volume (both as compared with the earth) ; i.e., the sun's
density equals
^qVoto
=
-255> a little more than a quarter of
the earth's density.
To get its
specific
gravity (i.e., its density compared with
water) we must multiply this by 5.53, the earth's mean spe-
cific gravity. This gives 1.41. That is, the sun's mean density
is less than
1-J
times that
of
water,

a very significant re-

sult as bearing on its physical condition, especially when we
know that a considerable portion of its mass is composed of
metals.
179. Superficial Gravity, or Gravity at the Sun's Surface.

This is found by dividing the sun's mass by the square of its

radius, which gives 27.6 ; i.e., a body weighing one pound on
the earth's surface would there weigh 27.6 pounds, and a per-
son who weighs 150 pounds here, would there weigh nearly two
tons. A body would fall
444'
feet in a second instead of 16
feet as here, and a pendulum which vibrates seconds on the
earth would vibrate in less than one-fifth of a second there.
180. The Sun's Rotation.

Dark spots are often visible

upon the sun's surface, which pass across the disc from east to
west, and indicate an axial rotation. The average time occu-
pied by a spot in passing around the sun and returning to the
same apparent position as seen from the earth is on the aver-
age 27.25 days. This interval, however, is not the true or
sidereal time of the sun's rotation, but the synodic, as is evi-
180]
THE SUN'S ROTATION. 119
dent from Figs 42. Suppose an observer on the earth at
E sees a spot on the centre of the sun's disc at
#;
while
the sun rotates E will also
move forward in its orbit;
and the observer, the next
time he sees the spot on the
centre of the disc, will be
sf
*
at E', the spot having gone
around the whole circumfer-
ence plus the arc /SS'.
The equation by which the
true period is deduced from the
synodic is the same as in the case
of the moon (Art.
141)
; viz.,
T E
Fig. 42.
Synodic and Sidereal Revolution of the Sun.
T being the true period of the sun's rotation, E the length of the
year, and S the observed synodic rotation. This gives T 25.35.
Different observers, however, get slightly different results. Car-
rington finds 25.38
;
Spoerer, 25.23.
The paths of the spots across the sun's disc are usually
more or less oval, showing that the sun's axis is inclined to the
ecliptic, and so inclined that the north pole is tipped about
1\ towards the position that the earth occupies near the
DEC.. MARCH. JUNE-. SEPT.
Fig. 43.

Path of Sun Spots across the Sun's Disc.

first of September. Twice a year the paths become straight,
when the earth is in the plane of the sun's equator,

on June
3d and December 5th. Fig. 43 illustrates this.
120 PECULIAR LAW OF THE SUN'S ROTATION. [
181
181. Peculiar Law of the Sun's Rotation.

It was noticed
quite early that different spots give different results for the
period of rotation, but the researches of Carrington about 50
years ago first brought out the fact that the differences are
systematic, so that at the solar equator the time of rotation is
less than on either side of it. For spots near the sun's equa-
tor it is about 25 days ; in solar latitude 30, 26.5
;
and in
solar latitude 40,
27 days. Spots are almost never seen
beyond the parallels of
45,
but fortunately by the use of the
spectroscope we may find the rotation period in high as well
as low latitudes ; in this way it has been found that in lati-
tude
80
the time of rotation is 35 days, fully ten days longer
than at the equator.
Clearly the sun's visible surface is not solid, but permits motions
and currents like those of our air and oceans. It might be argued
that the spots misrepresent the sun's real rotation, not being fixed
upon its surface
;
but the
"
faculae
"
(Art.
184)
give the same result,
and so do spectroscopic observations (Art.
200).
Possibly this equatorial acceleration may be, in some way not yet
explained, an effect of the tremendous outpour of heat from the solar
surface ; but more likely, according to the most recent investigations,
it is a long persisting
"
survival
"
from the sun's past history, and
not attributable to causes now acting. If so, it will gradually die
out, but it may be thousands or millions of years before it entirely
disappears.
182. Arrangements for the Study of the Sun's Surface.

The heat and light of the sun are so intense that we cannot
look directly at it with a telescope as we do at the moon.
A very convenient method of exhibiting the sun to a number
of persons at once is simply to attach to a small telescope a
frame carrying a screen of white paper at a distance of a foot
or more from the eye-piece, as shown in Fig. 44. With a
proper adjustment of the focus, a distinct image is formed on
the screen, which shows the main features very fairly ; indeed
with proper precautions, almost as well as the most elaborate
182] PHOTOGRAPHY. 121
apparatus. Still, it is generally more satisfactory to look at
the sun directly with a suitable eye-piece. With a small tele-
scope, not more than
2\
or 3 inches
in diameter, it is usual to intro-
duce a simple shade-glass between
the eye-piece and the eye, but the
dark glass soon becomes very hot
and is apt to crack. With larger
instruments it is necessary to use
eye-pieces specially designed for
the purpose, and known as solar
eye-pieces, or "helioscopes."
Fig. 44.

Telescope and Screen.

Fig. 45.Herschel Eye-Piece.
wider its image of a sharp line.
fore, to sacrifice the definition of delicate details.
The simplest, and a very good one,
is known as Herschel's, in which the
sun's rays are reflected at right angles
by a plane of unsilvered glass (Fig.
45).
With this apparatus, although
the reflected light is still too intense
for the unprotected eye, only a thin
shade glass is required, and it does
not become much heated. It is not
a good plan to
"
cap
"
the object-glass
in order to cut off part of the light.
The smaller the object-lens of the
telescope, the larger the image it
makes of a luminous point, or the
To cut down the aperture is, there-
183. Photography.

In the study of the sun's surface, pho-

tography is for some purposes very advantageous and much
used. The instrument must, however, have lenses specially
constructed for photographic operations, since an object-glass
which would give admirable results for visual purposes would
be worthless photographically, and vice versa (see Appendix,
122 THE PHOTOSPHERE.
[
183
Art.
534).
The disc of the sun on the negatives is usually
from two to ten inches in diameter, but photographs of small
portions of the solar surface are often on a very much larger
scale, as in the remarkable pictures made by Janssen at
Meudon.
Photographs have the great advantage of freedom from preposses-
sion on the part of the observer, and in an instant of time they
secure a picture of the whole surface of the sun such as would require
a skilful draughtsman hours to copy. But, on the other hand, they
take no advantage of the instants of fine seeing ; they represent the
solar surface as it happened to appear at the moment when the plate
was uncovered, affected by all the momentary distortions due to
atmospheric disturbances.
184. The Photosphere.

The sun's visible surface is called

the "Photosphere," i.e., the "light sphere," and when studied
under favorable conditions with rather a low magnifying
power, it appears as a disc considerably darker at the edge
than in the centre, and not smoothly bright but mottled, look-
ing much like rough drawing paper. With a powerful instru-
ment, and the best atmospheric conditions, the surface is seen
to be made up, as shown in Fig.
46,
of a comparatively darkish
background, sprinkled over with grains or
"
nodules" as Her-
schel calls them, of something much more brilliant,

"
like
snow-flakes on gray cloth," according to Langley. These nod-
ules or "rice grains" are from 400 to 600 miles across, and in
the finest seeing, themselves break up into more minute "gran-
ules." For the most part, the nodules are about as broad as
they are long, though of irregular form ; but here and there,
especially in the neighborhood of the spots, they are drawn
out into long streaks, known as
"
filaments,"
"
willow leaves,"
or "thatch straws."
Certain bright streaks called
"
faculce
"
are also usually visi-
ble here and there upon the sun's surface, and though not very
obvious near the centre of the disc, they become conspicuous

184]
SUN SPOTS. 123
near the
"
limb/' especially in the neighborhood of the spots.
Very probably they are of the same material as the rest of
Fig. 46.The Great Sun Spot of September, 1870, and the Structure of the Photosphere.
From a Drawing by Professor Langley. From the
"
New Astronomy," by permission of
the Publishers.
the photosphere, but elevated above the general level, and in-
tensified in brightness.
124 SUN SPOTS.
[184
Fig. 47 shows faculse around a spot near the sun's limb.
The photosphere is probably a sheet of clouds floating in a
less luminous atmosphere, just as a cloud formed by the con-
densation of water-vapor floats in the air. It is intensely
brilliant, for the same reason that the
"
mantle
"
of a Wels-
bach burner outshines the gas-flame which heats it : the radiat-
ing power of the solid and liquid particles which compose the
clouds is extremely high.
Fig. 47.

Faculse at Edge of the Sun. (De La Rue.

)
185. Sun Spots.

Sun spots, whenever visible, are the most

conspicuous and interesting objects upon the solar surface.
The appearance of a normal sun spot, Fig. 48,
fully formed,
and not yet beginning to break up, is that of a dark central
"umbra," more or less nearly circular, with a fringing "pe-
numbra," composed of converging filaments. The umbra itself
is not uniformly dark throughout, but is overlaid with filmy
clouds, which usually require a good telescope and helioscope
to make them visible, but sometimes, though rather infre-
185] SUN SPOTS.
125
quently, are conspicuous,

as in the figure. Usually, also,

within the umbra there are a number of round and very black
spots, sometimes called "nucleoli," but often referred to as
"
Dawes' holes
"
after the name of their first discoverer.
The darkest portions of the umbra, however, are dark only
by contrast. Photometric observations show that even the
Fig. 48.

A Normal Sun Spot. (Secchi; modified.)

nucleus gives about one per cent as much light as a correspond-
ing area of the photosphere : the blackest portion of a sun spot
is really more brilliant than a calcium light.
Very few spots are strictly normal. They are often gathered in
groups with a common penumbra, which is partly covered with bril-
liant "bridges" extending across from the outside photosphere.
Frequently the umbra is out of the centre of the penumbra, or has a
penumbra on one side only, and the penumbral filaments, instead of
converging regularly towards the nucleus, are often distorted in every
conceivable way.
126
THE SUNS SPOTS.
[186
186. Nature of Sun Spots.

Until very recently sun spots

have been believed to be cavities in the photosphere, filled
with gases and vapors cooler and therefore darker than the
surrounding region. This theory is founded on the fact that
Fig. 49.

Hydrogen Flocculi around a Sun Spot.

many spots as they cross the sun's disc look just as if they
were saucer-shaped hollows, with sloping sides colored gray
and the bottom black.
The penumbra is usually composed of
"
thatch straws," or
long-drawn-out filaments of photospheric cloud, and these, as
has been said, converge in a general way towards the centre
of the spot.
At its inner edge the penumbra, from the convergence of these
filaments, is usually brighter than at the outer. The inner ends of the
filaments are ordinarily club-formed, but sometimes they are drawn
out into fine points, which seem to curve downward into the umbra,
like the rushes over a pool of water. The outer edge of the penum-

186]
DIMENSIONS OF SUN SPOTS. 127
bra is usually pretty sharply bounded, and there the penumbra is
darkest. In the neighborhood of the spot the surrounding photo-
sphere is usually much disturbed and elevated into faculae, as shown
in Fig. 47.
Spectroheliograph pictures (Art.
203) show that there is a whirling
motion of the hydrogen and calcium vapors that lie above and around
the spots. Fig. 49, copied from such a photograph made at the Mount
Wilson Solar Observatory, shows the curvature of the hydrogen
filaments in the region surrounding a group of spots.
187. Dimensions of Sun Spots.

The diameter of the wm-

bra of a sun spot varies all the way from 500 miles in the
case of a very small one, to 40,000 or 50,000 miles, in the case
of the largest. The penumbra surrounding a group of spots
is sometimes 150,000 miles across, though that is an excep-
tional size. Not infrequently, sun spots are large enough to
be visible with the naked eye, and can actually be thus seen at
sunset or through a fog, or by the help of a colored glass.
The Chinese have many records of such objects, but the
real discovery of sun spots dates from 1610, as an immediate
consequence of Galileo's invention of the telescope. Fabricius
and Scheiner, however, share the honor with him as being
independent observers.
188. Duration, Development, and Changes of Spots. The
duration of sun spots is very various
;
but they are always
short-lived
phenomena, astronomically speaking, sometimes
lasting only for a few days, though more frequently for a month
or two. In a single instance, the life of a spot group reached
nearly eighteen months.
According to Secchi, the formation of a spot is usually announced
some days in advance by a considerable disturbance of the surface of
the photosphere, and by the formation of faculse with groups of
"
pores," or minute dark points among them. These pores grow larger
and coalesce, and at the same time the surrounding region takes on
the filamentary structure of the penumbra, and the umbra finally
128 MOTIONS OF THE SPOTS. [
188
appears in the centre. The process ordinarily requires several days,
but sometimes a few hours are sufficient. If the originating dis-
turbance is particularly violent, it usually results not in a single
normal spot, but in a group of irregular nuclei scattered within a
common penumbra, and then the spots themselves usually break up
into fragments, and these again into others which separate from each
other with considerable velocity. Moreover, at each new disturbance,
the forward portions of the group show a tendency to wade forward
toward the east through the photosphere, leaving behind them a trail
of smaller spots.
Occasionally a spot shows a distinct cyclonic motion, the filaments
being drawn spirally inward ; and in different members of the same
group of spots, these cyclonic motions are not seldom in opposite
directions, as of wheels gearing into each other.
When a spot vanishes, it is usually by the rapid encroachment of
the photospheric matter, which, as Secchi expresses it, appears to
"
fall
pell-mell into the cavity," completely burying it and leaving its place
covered by a group of faculse.
189. Motions of the Spots.

Spots within
15
or
20
of the
sun's equator usually drift slowly towards it, while those in
the higher latitudes drift away from it ; but the motion is slight
and exceptions are frequent. Spot groups in which the dis-
turbance is violent, as intimated in the preceding section, seem
to move towards the east on the sun's surface more rapidly
than the quiet ones in the same latitude. Within and around
the spot itself, the motion so far as can be observed, is usually
inward towards the centre, and there downward. Not infre-
quently fragments at the inner edge of the penumbral fila-
ments break off, move towards the centre of the spot, and there
disappear as if swallowed up by a vortex.
Occasionally, though seldom, the downward motion at the centre
of a spot is vigorous enough to be detected by the displacement of
lines in the spectrum, while around the outer edge.s of the penumbra
the same instrument in such cases usually shows a violent up-boiling
from beneath (see Art. 200).
190]
DISTRIBUTION OF SPOTS. 129
190. Distribution of Spots and Periodicity of Sun Spots.

It is a significant fact that the spots are confined mostly to

two zones of the sun's surface between
5
and
40
of north and
south latitude. A few are found near the equator about the
time of the spot maximum, and practically none beyond the
latitude of
45.
Fig. 50 shows the distribution of several
thousand spots as observed by Sporer and Carrington.
In 1843, Schwabe of Dessau, by the comparison of an exten-
Fig. 50.

Distribution of Sun Spots in Latitude.

sive series of observations then covering nearly twenty years,
showed that the sun spots are probably periodic, being at some-
times much more numerous than at others, with a roughly reg-
ular recurrence every ten or eleven years. A few years later
he fully established this remarkable result.
Wolf of Zurich has collected all the observations discoverable, and
has obtained a pretty complete record back to 1610, from which he
has constructed the annexed diagram (Fig.
51) in which the ordinates
represent what he calls his
"
relative numbers," which may be taken
as the index of the sun's spottedness.
The average period is 11.1 years, but the maxima are somewhat
irregular, both in time and as to the extent of spottedness. The two
130
THE CAUSE OF SUN SPOTS.
[
190
last maxima occurred in 1906 and 1917. During the maximum,
the
surface of the sun is never free from spots, from 25 to 50 being
fre-
quently visible at once. During the minimum, on the contrary,
weeks
and even months pass without the appearance of a single one. The
cause of this periodicity is not known, but it is probably due to causes
within the sun itself rather than to anything external.
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51. Wolfs Sun-Spot Numbers (see also
p. 132).
190*. Another curious and important fact has been brought out
by Spoerer, though not yet explained. Speaking broadly, the dis-
turbance which produces the spots of a given period first manifests
itself in two belts, about
30
north and south of the sun's equator.
These belts then draw in towards the equator, and the spot-maximum
occurs when their latitude is about
16
;
while the disturbance finally
dies out at a latitude of from
5
to 10, about twelve or fourteen years
after its first outbreak. Two or three years before this disappearance,
however, two new zones of disturbance show themselves. Thus at
the spot-minimum there are usually four well-marked spot-belts : two
near the sun's equator, due to the expiring disturbance, and two in
high latitudes, due to the newly beginning outbreak.
191]
TERRESTRIAL INFLUENCE OF SUN SPOTS. 131
191. The Cause of Sun Spots.

As to this, very little can be

said to be really known. Numerous theories more or less satisfactory
have been proposed.
Professor Young, the author of our text, believed them to be the
effect of eruptions breaking through the photosphere. He did not,
however, consider them to be the holes, or craters, through which
the eruptions break out, as Secchi at one time thought and as Mr.
Proctor maintained to the very last, but rather thought, in accord-
ance with Secchi's later views, that when an eruption takes place, a
hollow, or sink, results in the neighboring cloud-surface, and in this
hollow the cooler gases and vapors collect. It has been generally
supposed that in some way they are due to matter descending from
above upon the photosphere, although recent investigations make it
seem possible that they are due to ascending currents

material flow-
ing outward from the sun's interior, becoming cooler at the higher
level, and therefore appearing dark against the brighter photosphere.
Faye considered them to be solar cyclones somewhat analogous
to terrestrial storms, and interest in this theory has been revived by
the discovery of a vortical structure of spots shown on photographs
made at the Carnegie Solar Observatory at Mount Wilson, using
the spectroheliograph (Art.
203)
and the C line of hydrogen.
Several well-equipped solar observatories are applying new and
ingenious methods of research to the study of sun spots, and we may
confidently hope that in a few years our knowledge of their nature
and cause will be greatly extended.
192. Terrestrial Influence of Sun Spots.

One influence of
sun spots upon the earth is perfectly demonstrated. When the
spots are numerous, magnetic disturbances (magnetic storms)
are most numerous and most violent upon the earth,

a fact
not to be wondered at, since notable disturbances upon the
sun's surface have been in many cases immediately followed by
magnetic storms with brilliant exhibitions of the Aurora Bore-
alis, as in 1859 and 1883. The nature and mechanism of the
connection is as yet unknown, but the fact is beyond doubt.
The dotted lines in the figure of the sun-spot periodicity rep-
resent the magnetic storminess of the earth at the indicated
dates (Fig.
51)
; and the correspondence between these curves
132 TERRESTRIAL INFLUENCE OF SUN SPOTS. [
192
and the curves of the spottedness makes it impossible to
question their relation to some common cause.
It has been attempted, also, to show that the periodical disturb-
ance of the sun's surface is accompanied by effects upon the earth's
meteorology, upon its temperature, barometric pressure, storminess,
and the amount of rainfall. On the whole, it can only be said that
while it is entirely possible that real effects of the sort are produced,
they must be slight and almost entirely masked by the effect of purely
terrestrial disturbances. The results obtained by different investiga-
tions in attempting to co-ordinate sun-spot phenomena with meteor-
ological phenomena are thus far unsatisfactory and even contradictory.
We may add that the spots cannot produce any sensible effects by
their direct action in diminishing the light and heat of the sun.
They do not directly alter the amount of the solar radiation at any
time by as much as one part in a thousand.
H,
3
V ~t
-
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4
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T> 7
*
v i
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1880 1890 lfl 00
Fig.
51.* Continuation of Fig. 51.
[
193 THE SPECTROSCOPE. 133
CHAPTER VII.
THE SPECTROSCOPE, THE SOLAR SPECTRUM, AND THE
CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION OF THE SUN. THE CHROMO-
SPHERE AND PROMINENCES. THE CORONA. THE
SUN'S LIGHT. MEASUREMENT OF THE INTENSITY OF
THE SUN'S HEAT. THEORY OF ITS MAINTENANCE
AND SPECULATIONS REGARDING THE AGE OF THE SUN.
About 1860 the spectroscope appeared in the field as a new
and powerful instrument for astronomical research, resolving
at a glance many problems which before seemed to be inacces-
sible even to investigation. It is not extravagant to say that
its invention has done almost as much for the advancement of
astronomy as that of the telescope.
It enables us to study the light that comes from distant
objects, to read therein a record, more or less complete, of
their chemical composition and physical conditions, to measure
the speed with which they are moving towards or from us
;
and sometimes, as in the case of the solar prominences, to see,
and observe at any time, objects otherwise visible only on
rare occasions.
193. The Spectroscope.

The essential part of the instru-

ment is either a prism or train of prisms, or else a diffraction
"grating,"
x
which is capable of performing the same office of
"dispersing" the rays of different color.
If with such a "dispersion piece," as it may be called
1
The ''grating'''' is merely a piece of glass or speculum metal, ruled
with many thousand straight, equidistant lines, from 5000 to 20,000 in
the inch.
134 THE SPECTROSCOPE.
[
193
(either prism or grating), one looks at a distant point of light,
'he will see instead of a point a long streak of light, red at one
end and violet at the other. If the object looked at is a line
of
light, parallel to the edge of the prism or to the lines of the
grating, then instead of a mere colored streak without width,
one gets a "spectrum,"

a colored band or ribbon of light,

which may show markings that will give the observer most
valuable information (Physics,
p. 323). It is usual to form
this line of light by admitting the light through a narrow
"slit" placed at one end of a tube, which carries at the other
end an achromatic object-glass having the slit in its -principal
focus (Physics,
p. 318).
This tube with slit and lens consti-
tutes the
"
collimator "; so named because it is precisely the
same as an instrument used in connection with the transit
instrument to adjust its "line of collimation."
Instead of looking at the spectrum with the naked eye, it
is better in most cases to use a small "view telescope" (so
called to distinguish it from the large telescope to which the
spectroscope is often attached).
194. Construction of the Spectroscope.

The instrument,
therefore, as usually constructed, and shown in Fig.
52*
con-
sists of three parts,

collimator, dispersion piece, and view

telescope,

although in the "direct-vision" spectroscope,
shown in the figure, the view telescope is omitted.
Fig.
52, from
"
The Sun" by permission of Appleton & Co., repre-
sents a large "tele-spectroscope" as the combination of telescope and
spectroscope is called, arranged for photographic work.
If the slit, S, be illuminated by strictly "homogeneous light,"
say yellow, a yellow image of the slit will appear at Y. If,
at the same time, light of a different wave length, red for in-
stance, be also admitted, a red image will be formed at R, and
the observer will then see a spectrum with two bright lines,
the lines being really nothing more than images
of
the slit. If
violet light be admitted, a violet image will be formed at V,
Fig. 52.
Telespectroscope, fitted for Photography.
194]
CONSTRUCTION OF THE SPECTROSCOPE. 135
and there will be three bright lines. If the light comes from
a luminous solid, like the lime cylinder of a calcium light, or
the filament of an incandescent lamp, or from an ordinary
gas or candle flame (Physics,
p. 318),
there will be an infinite
number of these slit images close together, without interval
or break, and we then get what is called a continuous spectrum.
If it comes, however, from an electric spark or a so-called
G-eissler tube, or from a Bunsen burner flame charged with the
Prism-Spectroscope
Grating
Direct-Vision Spectroscope
Fig. 52.*

Different Forms of Spectroscope.

vapor of some volatile metal, the spectrum will consist of a
series of bright lines, or bands.
194*.
The Solar Spectrum.

If we look at sunlight, either

direct or reflected (as from the moon), we get a spectrum, con-
tinuous in the main, but crossed by a multitude of dark
lines, or missing slit-images. These dark lines are known
as the "Fraunhofer lines," because Fraunhofer was the first
to map them (in
1814). To some of the more conspicuous
136 THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.
[
194*
ones he assigned letters of the alphabet which are still retained
as designations : thns A is a strong line at the extreme red
end of the spectrum
;
C, one in the scarlet
;
D, in the yellow
;
F, in the blue
;
and Hand Kare a pair at its violet extremity.
Rowland's great photographic map of the spectrum contains
several thousands, each as permanent a feature of the spectrum
as rivers and cities are of a geographical chart. Their expla-
nation remained an unsolved problem for nearly fifty years.
195. Principles upon which Spectrum Analysis depends.

These, substantially as announced by Kirchhoff in 1858, are

the three following :

1st. A continuous spectrum is given by luminous bodies,

which are so dense that the molecules interfere with each
other in such a. way as to prevent their free, independent,
luminous vibration ; i.e., by bodies which are either solid or
liquid, or if gaseous are under high pressure.
2d. The spectrum of a luminous gas under low pressure is
discontinuous, and is made up of bright lines or bands : and
these lines are characteristic ; i.e., the same substance under
similar conditions always gives the same set of lines, and
generally does so even under conditions differing quite widely
;
but it may give two or more different spectra when the cir-
cumstances differ too widely.
3d. A gaseous substance absorbs from a beam of white
light passing through it precisely those rays
of
which its own
spectrum consists. The spectrum of white light which has
been transmitted through it then exhibits a
"
reversed
"
spec-
trum of the gas
;
i.e., a spectrum which shows dark lines in
place of the characteristic bright lines.
This principle of reversal is illustrated by Fig. 53. Suppose
that in front of the slit of the spectroscope we place a spirit
lamp with a little carbonate of soda and some salt of thallium
upon the wick. We shall then get a spectrum showing the
two yellow lines of sodium and the green line of thallium, all
bright.
If now the lime light be started behind the flame, we
195]
PRINCIPLES OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS. 137
shall at once have the effect shown in the lower figure,
a con-
tinuous spectrum crossed by black
x
lines which exactly replace
the bright lines. Insert a screen between the lamp flame and
the lime, and the dark lines instantly turn bright again. The
explanation
of
the Fraunhofer lines, therefore, is that they are
mainly due to the action
of
the gases and vapors
of
the solar
atmosphere upon the light that comes from the liquid or solid
particles composing the photospherie clouds. Some of them, how-
Reversal
of
Spectrum
Fig. 53.
Reversal of the Spectrum.
ever, known as "Telluric lines," are due to the gases and vapors of
the earth's atmosphere,

to water-vapor and oxygen especially.

196. Chemical Constituents of the Sun.
Numerous lines
of the solar spectrum can be identified as due to the pres-
1
Their darkening, however, when the light from the lime is trans-
mitted through the flame, is only relative and apparent, not real. Their
brightness is actually a little increased ; but that of the background is in-
creased immensely, making it so much brighter than the lines that, con-
trasted with it, they look black.
138 CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF THE SUN.
[196
ence in the sun's atmosphere of known terrestrial elements
in the state of vapor. To effect the comparison necessary for
this purpose, the spectroscope must be so arranged that the
observer can confront the
spectrum of sunlight with
that of the substance to be
tested. In order to do this,
half of the slit is covered by
a little
"
comparison prism
"
(Fig.
54),
which reflects into
it the light from the sun,
while the other half of the
slit receives directly the light of some flame or electric spark.
On looking into the eye-piece of the spectroscope, the observer
will then see a spectrum, the lower half of which, for instance,
is made by sunlight, while the upper half is made by light com-
ing from an electric arc containing the vapor, say of iron.
In such comparisons photography may be most effectively used
instead of the eye. Fig. 55 is a reproduction of a negative made in
investigating the presence of iron in the sun. The lower half is the
violet portion of the sun's spectrum and the upper half that of an
Fig. 54. The Comparison Prism.
Fig. 55. Comparison of the Spectrum of Iron with the Solar Spectrum. From
a Negative by Professor Trowbridge.
electric arc charged with the vapor of iron. In the original every
line of the iron spectrum coincides exactly with its correlative in
the solar spectrum, though in the engraving many of the coinci-
dences fail to be obvious. There are, of course, on the other hand,
certain lines in the solar spectrum which do not find any correlative
in that of iron, being due to other elements.
197]
ELEMENTS KNOWN TO EXIST IN THE SUN. 139
197. Elements known to exist in the Sun.

As the result
of such comparisons, first made by Kirchhoff, but since repeated
and greatly extended by late investigators, a large number
of the chemical elements have been ascertained to exist in the
solar atmosphere in the form of vapor.
Professor Rowland in 1890 gave the following preliminary
list of thirty-six whose presence he regarded as certainly
established, and it is probable that the completion of his
research will add a number of others.
1
The elements are
arranged in the list according to the intensity of the dark lines
by which they are represented in the solar spectrum : the
appended figures denote the rank which each element would
hold if the arrangement had been based on the number instead
of the intensity of the lines. In the case of iron the number
exceeds 2000.
*
Calcium, u.
*Iron, i.
*
Hydrogen, 22.
*
Sodium, 20.
*
Nickel, 2.
*
Magnesium, 19.
*
Cobalt, 6.
Silicon, 21.
Aluminium, 25.
*
Titanium,
3.
*
Chromium,
5.
*
Manganese,
4.
*
Strontium,
23.
Vanadium, 8.
*
Barium,
24.
Carbon,
7.
Scandium, 12.
Yttrium,
15.
Zirconium,
9.
Molybdenum,
17.
Lanthanum,
14.
Niobium, 16.
Palladium, 18.
Neodymium,
13.
Copper,
30.
Zinc,
29.
Cadmium, 26.
*
Cerium, 10.
Glucinum,
33.
Germanium,
32.
Rhodium,
27.
Silver,
31.
Tin,
34.
Lead,
35.
Erbium, 28.
Potassium,
36.
An asterisk denotes that the lines of the element indicated appear
often or always as bright lines in the spectrum of the chromo-
sphere.
It will be noticed that all the bodies named in the list, carbon
and hydrogen alone excepted, are metals (chemically hydrogen
1
Helium (see Art. 202*) was added in 1895, oxygen more recently.
140 THE REVERSING LAYER.
[
197
acts much like a metal), and that many important terrestrial
elements fail to appear ; selenium, nitrogen, chlorine, bro-
mine, iodine, sulphur, phosphorus, and boron are all missing.
We must be cautious, however, in drawing negative conclusions. It
is quite conceivable that the spectra of these bodies under solar con-
ditions may be so different from their spectra as presented in our
laboratories that we cannot recognize them ; for it is now unquestion-
able that many substances under different conditions give two or
more widely different spectra,

nitrogen, for instance.

Mr. Lockyer thinks it more probable that the missing substances are
not truly "elementary," but are decomposed or "dissociated" by the
intense heat, and so cannot exist on the sun, but are replaced by their
components. He maintains, in fact, that none of our so-called
"
ele-
ments
"
are really elementary, but that all are decomposable, and are
to some extent actually decomposed in the sun and stars, and some of
them by the electric spark in our own laboratories. Granting this,
many interesting and remarkable spectroscopic facts find easy expla-
nation. At the same time the hypothesis is encumbered with serious
difficulties, and has not yet been finally accepted by physicists and
chemists.
198. The Reversing Layer.According to Kirchhoff's theory
the dark lines are formed by the passing of light emitted by
the minute solid or liquid particles of which the photospheric
clouds are supposed to be formed, through somewhat cooler
vapors containing the substances which we recognize in the
solar spectrum. If this be so, the spectrum of the gaseous
envelope, which by its absorption forms the dark lines, should
by itself show a spectrum of corresponding bright lines.
The opportunities are rare when it is possible to obtain the
spectrum of this gas stratum separate from that of the photo-
sphere
;
but at the time of a total eclipse, at the moment when
the sun's disc has just been obscured by the moon, and the
sun's atmosphere is still visible beyond the moon's limb, the
observer ought to see this bright-line spectrum, if the slit of
the spectroscope be carefully directed to the proper point.

198
] THE REVERSING LAYER. 141
The author succeeded in making this very observation at the Span-
ish eclipse of 1870.
The lines of the solar spectrum, which up to the time of the final
obscuration of the sun had remained dark as usual (with the excep-
tion of a few belonging to the spectrum of the chromosphere) were
suddenly
"
reversed," and the whole length of the spectrum was filled
with brilliant colored lines, which flashed out quickly and then gradu-
ally faded away, disappearing in about two seconds,

a most beauti-
ful thing to see.
The natural interpretation of this phenomenon is that the forma-
tion of the dark lines in the solar spectrum is, mainly at least, pro-
duced by a very thin stratum close down upon the photosphere, since the
moon's motion in two seconds would cover a thickness of only about
500 miles. It was not possible, however, to be certain that all the dark
lines of the solar spectrum were reversed, and in this uncertainty lies
the possibility of a different interpretation.
Several partial confirmations have been obtained by various eclipse
observers since 1870, but at the eclipse of August, 1896,^1^ Shackle-
ton succeeded in photographing the phenomenon with a so-called
"prismatic camera," or "objective prism spectroscope" (Arts. 458-9).
He caught the critical moment exactly, with an exposure of only half
a second, and his negative is apparently conclusive in favor of the
inference stated above. A photograph taken only five seconds later
shows merely some 20 bright lines belonging to the spectrum of the
chromosphere (Art.
201),
in place of the hundreds shown upon the
earlier one.
Mr. Lockyer, however, still continues to dispute the existence of
any such thin stratum, or "reversing layer." According to his view,
the solar atmosphere is very extensive, and those lines of the iron
spectrum, which, as he holds, correspond to the more complex
combinations of its constituents, are formed only in the regions of
lower temperature, high up in the sun's atmosphere.
199. Sun-Spot Spectrum.

The spectrum of a sun spot

differs from the general solar spectrum not only in its dimin-
ished brilliancy, but in the great widening of certain lines,
and the thinning and even "reversing" of others, especially
those of hydrogen. The majority of the Fraunhofer lines,
however, are not sensibly affected either way, a fact which Mr.
Lockyer quotes as evidence that they originate high up in the
J
See note a
4
end
of chapter, page 160.
142 doppler's principle.
[199
solar atmosphere rather than in the region of the reversing
layer close to the photosphere.
The general darkness of the spot spectrum appears to be due to the
presence of myriads of extremely fine dark lines, so closely packed as
to be resolvable only by spectroscopes of great power. This indicates
that the darkness is caused by the absorption
of
light by transmission
through vapors, and is not simply due to the diminished brightness of
the surface from which the light is emitted.
200. Distortion of Lines; Doppler's Principle.

Sometimes
certain lines of the spectrum are bent and broken, as shown in
Fig. 56. These distortions are explained by the swift motion
towards or from the observer of the gaseous matter, which by
its absorption produces the
line in question. In the
case illustrated, hydrogen
was the substance, and its
motion was towards the ob-
server, at one point at the
rate of nearly 300 miles a
second.
X
2h43m 2h46m 2h51m
Fig. 56. The C line in the Spectrum of a Sun
Spot, Sept. 22, 1870.
The principle upon which
the explanation of this displacement and distortion of lines depends
was first enunciated by Doppler in 1842. It is this : When the dis-
tance between us and a body which is emitting regular vibrations
(either of sound or of light) is decreasing, then the number of vibra-
tions received by us in each second is increased, and their wave-length,
real or virtual, is correspondingly diminished.
Thus the pitch of a musical tone rises in the case supposed, and in
the same way the refrangibility of a light wave, which depends upon
its wave-length (Physics,
p. 326) is increased, so that it will fall
nearer the violet end of the spectrum (see Appendix, Art.
500).
201. The Chromosphere.

Outside the photosphere lies the

chromosphere, of which the lower atmosphere, or "reversing lay-
er," is only the densest and hottest portion. This chromosphere,
201]
THE CHROMOSPHERE. 1 43
or
"
color sphere/
7
is so called because it is brilliantly scarlet,
owing the color to hydrogen, which is its main, or at least its
most conspicuous, constituent. In structure it is like a sheet
of flame overlying the surface of the photosphere to a depth
of from 5000 to 10,000 miles, and as seen through the tele-
scope at a total eclipse has been aptly described as like
u
a
prairie on fire."
There is, however, no real
"
burning
"
in the case ; i.e., no chemical
combination going on between the hydrogen and some other element like
oxygen. The hydrogen is too hot to burn in this sense, the tempera-
ture of the solar surface being above that of
"
dissociation
"
; so high
that any compound containing hydrogen would there be decomposed.
202. The Prominences. At a solar eclipse, after the sun is
fairly hidden by the moon, a number of scarlet, star-like ob-
jects are usually seen blazing like rubies upon the contour of
the moon's disc. In the telescope they look like fiery clouds
of varying form and size, and as we now know, they are only
projections from the chromosphere, or isolated clouds of the
same material. They were called Prominences and Protuber-
ances, as a sort of non-committal name, while it was still uncer-
tain whether they were appendages of the sun or of the moon.
They were first proved to be solar during the eclipse of 1860,
by means of photographs which showed that the moon's disc
moved over them as it passed across the sun. Their real
nature as clouds of incandescent gas was first revealed by the
spectroscope in 1868, during the Indian eclipse of that year.
On that occasion numerous observers recognized in their spec-
trum the bright lines of hydrogen along with another conspic-
uous yellow line, at first wrongly attributed to sodium, but
afterwards, to a hypothetical element unknown in our labora-
tories and provisionally named
"
Helium," its yellow line be-
ing known as D
3 (A
and D
2
being the sodium lines).
202*. Helium was discovered as a terrestrial element (or perhaps
a mixture of two or more elements) in April, 1895, by Dr. Ramsay,
of London, one of the discoverers of Argon. In examining the spec-
144 HELIUM. [
202*
trum of the gas extracted from a specimen of cleveite, a species of
pitch-blende, he found the characteristic D
3
line along with certain
other unidentified lines which appear in the spectrum of the chromo-
sphere and prominences. The same gas has since been found in a
number of other minerals and in meteoric iron. Its density turns out
to be about double that of hydrogen, but less than that of any
other known element. Chemically it is extremely inert, refusing to
enter into combination with other elements (as hydrogen does so
freely), and therefore exists on the earth only in minute quantities.
It seems, however, to be abundant in certain stars and nebulas, where
Fig. 57.
Qiiiescent Prominences.
its lines are conspicuous along with those of hydrogen. The D
3
line
is not the only helium line, but the chromosphere spectrum contains
at least three others that are always observable, besides several that
occasionally make their appearance. The H and K lines of calcium
are also, like those of hydrogen and helium, always present as bright
lines in the chromosphere ; and several hundred lines of the spectra
of iron, strontium, magnesium, sodium, &c, have been observed in
it now and then.
203. The Prominences and Chromosphere observable with
the Spectroscope.

Janssen was so struck with the brightness

of the hydrogen lines that he believed it possible to observe
them in full daylight, and the next day he found it to be so
;
and not only this, but he found also that by proper manage-
ment of his spectroscope he could study the forms and struc-
ture of the prominences nearly as well as during the eclipse.

203]
THE PROMINENCES. 145
Lockyer in England, a few days later, and qnite independ-
ently, made the same discovery, and his name is always justly
associated with Janssen's. See Appendix, Art. 501.
It is possible to photograph prominences by means of the
spectroscope, using the Hand K lines of calcium, but the best
results are secured with the spectroheUograph. This is an in-
strument devised to allow light of one wave length only to fall
upon the plate, so that the photograph is taken with light from
a single element. A spectroscope is adjusted as described in
Art. 501, but the spectrum falls upon an opaque screen which
has a narrow slit so placed that the single line of light to be
used in the photograph may pass through to the sensitive
plate. If this plate is moved at the same rate as the image
drifts across the slit of the spectroscope (or if the two slits are
moved together), the entire image will be photographed upon
the plate. In this way the chromosphere and prominences
around the whole circumference of the sun may be photographed
at a single exposure.
Photographs of the sun's disc may be taken with either the
H or K lines of calcium and show that there are bright
clouds of calcium vapor known as calcium
flocculi] hydrogen
lines may be used in the same way, and Fig. 49 shows
hydrogen flocculi.
204. Different Kinds of Prominences.

The prominences
may be broadly divided into two classes,

the
"
quiescent
"
or "diffuse," and the "eruptive," or, as Secchi calls them," the
metallic" because they show in their spectrum the lines of
many of the metals in addition to the lines of hydrogen.
The prominences of the former class, illustrated by Fig.
57,
are immense clouds, often 50,000 or 60,000 miles in height
and of corresponding horizontal dimensions. Ordinarily they
either rest directly upon the chromosphere as a base or are
connected with it by stems and columns, though in some
cases they appear to be entirely detached from it. They are
not very brilliant, and ordinarily show no lines in their spec-
146 THE PROMINENCES.
[204
trum except those of hydrogen and helium ; nor are their
changes usually rapid, but they continue sensibly unaltered,
sometimes for days together ; i.e., as long as they remain in
sight in passing around the limb of the sun. All their forms
and behavior indicate that, like the clouds in our own atmos-
phere, they exist and float, not in a vacuum, but in a medium
which must have a density comparable with their own, though
for some reason not visible in the spectroscope. They are
found on all portions of the sun's disc, not being confined to
the sun-spot zones.
Prominences Sept. 7, 1871, 12.30 p.m. (a)
JpW
Same at 1.15 p.m.
(6)
Fig. 58.
The eruptive prominences, on the other hand, appear only in
the spot zones, and as a rule in connection with active spots.
They usually seem to originate not within the spots them-
selves but in the surrounding region of disturbed faculse.
Ordinarily they are not so large as the quiescent prominences,
but at times they become enormous, reaching elevations of
several hundred thousand miles. They commonly take the
form of "spikes," "flames," or "jets," and sometimes they
are bright enough to be visible with the spectroscope on the
disc of the sun itself.

204] THE CORONA.

147
They are most fascinating objects to watch, on account of
the rapidity of their changes.
Sometimes their actual motion
can be perceived directly, like that of the minute hand of a
clock, and this implies a velocity of at least 250 miles a second
in the moving mass. In such cases the lines of the spectrum
are also, of course, greatly displaced and distorted.
Fig. 58 represents a prominence of this sort at two times, separated
by an interval of three quarters of an hour. The large quiescent promi-
nence of Fig. (a) was completely blown to pieces by the
"
explosion,"
as it may be fairly called, which occurred beneath it. Such occur-
rences, of course, are not every-day affairs, but are by no means very
uncommon.
The number of prominences of both kinds visible at one time on
the circumference of the sun's disc ranges from one or two to twenty-
five or thirty
;
the eruptive prominences being numerous only near the
times of sun-spot maximum.
205. The Corona.

The corona is a halo or glory of light

which surrounds the sun at the time of a total eclipse, and
has been known from remote antiquity as one of the most
beautiful and impressive of all natural phenomena. The por-
tion of the corona near the sun is dazzlingly bright and of a
pearly tinge, which contrasts finely with the scarlet promi-
nences. It is made up of filaments and rays which, roughly
speaking, diverge radially, but are strangely curved and inter-
twined. At a little distance from the edge of the sun the
light becomes more diffuse, and the outer boundary of the
corona is not Very well defined, though certain dark rifts
extend through it clear to the sun's surface. Often the fila-
ments are longest in the sun-spot zones, giving the corona a
roughly quadrangular form. This seems to be specially the
case in eclipses which occur near the time of a sun-spot maxi-
mum. In eclipses which occur near the sun-spot minimum, on
the other hand, the equatorial rays predominate

diffuse and
rather faint, but of great extent. Near the poles of the sun
there are often tufts of sharply defined threads of light,
which curve both ways from the pole.
148 THE CORONA.
I
205
The corona varies greatly in brightness at different eclipses,
according to the apparent diameter of the moon at the time.
The total light of the corona is certainly always at least two
or three times as great as that of the full moon.
206. Drawings and Photographs of the Corona.

There is
very great difficulty in getting accurate representations of this phe-
nomenon. The two or three minutes during which only it is visi-
ble at any given eclipse, do not allow time for trustworthy hand-
work
;
at any rate, drawings of the same corona made even by good
artists, sitting side by side differ very much, sometimes ridiculously.
Photographs are better, so far as they go, but hitherto they have not
succeeded in bringing out many details of the phenomenon which are
easily visible to the eye ; nor do the pictures which show well the
outer portions of the corona generally bring out the details near the
sun's limb. The best results are obtained by making a sort of com-
posite picture after the eclipse, combining in one representation all
the features which appear with certainty in any of a series of photo-
graphs made with varying exposures. Fig. 59 is such a picture, en-
graved from a drawing by Wesley, combining sketches and photo-
graphs of the eclipse of 1900. It shows a corona of the minimum type.
207. Spectrum of the Corona.

The characteristic feature

of the visual spectrum is a bright line in the green, generally
known as the
"
1474
"
line,
1
because it coincides with a dark
line which on KirchhofPs map of the solar spectrum, is found
at that point on his scale. This dark line had been previously
identified by Angstrom, as due to iron, and the coincidence
was for a long time puzzling (since the vapor of iron is a very
improbable substance to be found at such an elevation above
the photosphere) until it was discovered that the line is really a
close double, one of its two components being due to iron, while
the other is due to some unknown gaseous element, which
has been called
"
Coronium
"
after the analogy of Helium.
Besides this conspicuous green line there are several others in the
violet (faintly shown in spectroscopic photographs) which are prob-
ably due to the same substance. The hydrogen and helium lines,
1
See second note on page 160.
207]
NATURE OF THE CORONA. 149
and H and K of calcium, have also been photographed as bright
lines in the corona spectrum ; but observations made in 1893 and
1896 prove that they are caused by reflection (in our atmosphere)
of light from the chromosphere and prominences and are not truly
coronal.
The light of the corona is distinctly polarized ; on one or two
occasions observers have also reported in its visual spectrum the
Fig. 59.

Corona of Eclipse of 1900, Wadesboro, N.C.

presence of dark Fraunhofer lines, and these have now been photo-
graphed. The corona therefore unquestionably contains some matter
which reflects sunlight. The faint continuous spectrum which forms
the background for the bright and dark lines suggests the presence
of incandescent solid or liquid particles.
208. Nature of the Corona.

The corona is proved to be a

true solar appendage and not a mere optical phenomenon, nor
due to either the atmosphere of the earth or moon, by two
unquestionable facts : first, its spectrum as described above
is not that of mere reflected sunlight, but of a glowing gas
;
and second, photographs of the corona made at widely differ-
150 INTENSITY OF SUNLIGHT. [
208
ent stations on the track of an eclipse show identical details/
and exhibit the motion of the moon across the coronal fila-
ments. In a sense, then, the corona is a phenomenon of the
sun's atmosphere, though the solar
"
atmosphere
"
is very far
from bearing to the sun the same relations that are borne
towards the earth by the air. The corona is not a simple
spherical envelope of gas comparatively at rest, and held in
equilibrium by gravity, but other forces than gravity are prev-
alent in it, and matter that is not gaseous probably abounds.
The phenomena of the corona are not yet satisfactorily ex-
plained, and remind us far more of auroral streamers and
comets' tails than of anything that occurs in the lower regions
of our terrestrial atmosphere.
That the corona is composed of matter excessively rarified
is shown by the fact that in a number of cases comets are
known to have passed directly through it (as for instance in
1882) without the slightest perceptible disturbance or retarda-
tion of their motion. Its density must, therefore, be almost
inconceivably less than that of the best vacuum we are able to
make by artificial means.
THE SUN'S LIGHT AND HEAT.
209. The Sun's Light.
By
photometric methods, which we
will not stop to explain (see
"
General Astronomy
")
it is found
that the sun gives us about 1575 billions of billions (1575
fol-
lowed by 24 ciphers) times as much light as a standard candle
2
would do at that distance.
1
There are, however, unquestionable changes in the corona in the
course of the half-hour or so which may elapse between the pictures when
the stations are as much as 1000 miles apart; but the changes are not of
such a sort as to affect the argument.
2
For definition of standard candle, see Physics,
p.
277.
209]
INTENSITY OF SUNLIGHT.
151
The light received from the sun is about 600,000 times that
of the moon (Art.
162),
about 7,000,000000 times that of
Sinus, the brightest of the fixed stars, about 50,000,000000
times that of Vega or Arcturus, and fully 200,000,000000 times
that of the Pole-star.
The
"
intensity " of sunlight, or the
"
intrinsic brightness
n
of the sun's surface, is quite a different matter from the total
quantity of its light expressed in candle power. By intensity
we mean the amount
of
light per square unit
of
luminous
surface.
From the best data we can get (only roughish approximations
being possible) we find that the sun's surface is about 190,000
times as bright as that of a candle flame ; and about 150 times
as bright as the lime of a calcium light ; even the darkest part
of
a sun spot outshines the lime light.
The brightest part of an electric arc comes nearer sunlight
in intensity than anything else we know of, being from one-
half to one-quarter as bright as the solar surface itself.
210. Comparative Brightness of Different Portions of the
Sun's Disc.

The sun's disc is brightest near the centre, but the

variation is slight until we get pretty near the edge ; there the light
falls off rapidly, so that just at the sun's limb the intensity is not
much more than one-third as great as at the centre. The color is mod-
ified also, becoming a sort of orange red, the blue and violet rays
having lost much more of their brightness than the red and yellow.
This darkening is unquestionably due to the general absorption of
light by the lower parts of the sun's atmosphere. Just how much
the sun's brightness is diminished for us by this absorption, it is diffi-
cult to say. According to Langley, if the sun's atmosphere were sud-
denly removed, the surface would shine out somewhere from two to
five times as brightly, and its tint would become strongly blue like the
color of an electric arc.
211. The Quantity of Solar Heat: The Solar Constant.

The Solar Constant is the number

of
heat units which a square
unit
of
the earth's- surface, unprotected by any atmosphere, and
152 QUANTITY OF SOLAR HEAT.
[211
exposed perpendicularly to the sim's rays would receive
from the
sun in a unit
of
time. The heat unit most used at present is
the
"
Calory,"
1
which is the quantity of heat required to raise
the temperature of one kilogram of water
1
C. ; and as the
result of the best observations thus far made, it appears that
the solar constant
2
is between 19 and 22
of
these "calories"
to a square metre in a minute, under a vertical sun, and after
allowing for the absorption of a large percentage of heat by
the air. At the earth's surface a square metre would seldom
actually receive more than from 10 to 15 calories in a minute.
212. Method of Determining the Solar Constant.

The
principle is simple, though the practical difficulties are seri-
ous, and so far have made it impossible to obtain the accuracy
desirable. The determination is made by allowing a beam
of
sunlight
of
known cross section to fall
upon a known quantity
of
water for a known time and measuring the rise
of
temperature.
The difficulty lies partly in measuring and allowing for the heat
received by the water from other sources than the sun, and for its
own loss of heat by radiation
;
but especially and mainly in deter-
mining the proper allowance to be made for the absorption of the
sun's heat in passing through the air. This atmospheric absorption
changes continually with every change in the transparency of the air
or of the sun's altitude. (For a description of the Pyrheliometer, see
Appendix, Art. 556.)
1
Many writers use a unit of heat a thousand times smaller, i.e., the
quantity of heat which raises the temperature of one gram of water
1
C.
;
and they give as the "solar constant " the number of these units received
per square centimeter in a minute. Since there are 10,000 square centi-
meters in a square meter, this makes the number expressing the solar
constant a number just one-tenth as large as that stated above. Thus
Langley puts it at 2.1 "small calories."
There would be some advantage in expressing this
"
constant" on the
"
c. g. s. system
"
(Physics, p. 3).
To do this, we should have to divide
the
"
number
"
last given by 60 to reduce the minutes to seconds, so that,
according to Langley, we should have the solar constant (c. o.
s.) 0.035
"small calories" per square centimeter per second.
2
Eecent observations indicate that the so-called "constant" is really
subject to slight variations.

215]
SOLAR HEAT AS ENERGY. 153
213. The Solar Heat at the Earth's Surface expressed in
Terms of Melting Ice.

Since it requires
79i
calories of heat
to melt a kilogram of ice with a specific gravity of 0.92, it
follows that, taking the solar constant at 21,
the heat received
from a vertical sun would melt in an hour a sheet of ice 17.3
millimeters, or seven-tenths of an inch thick. From this it
is easily computed that the amount of heat received by the
earth from the sun in a year is sufficient to melt a shell of ice
124.2 feet thick all over the earth's surface.
214. Solar Heat expressed as Energy.

Since, according to
the known value of the " mechanical equivalent of heat"
(Physics,
p. 260),
a horse-power
(33,000
foot pounds per
minute) can easily be shown to be equivalent to about 10.7
calories per minute, it follows that each square meter of the
earth's surface perpendicular to the sun's rays ought to re-
ceive about 2.0 horse-power continuously. Atmospheric ab-
sorption cuts this down to about
1\
horse-power, of which
about
i
can be realized by a suitable machine, such as Erics-
son's solar engine.
The energy annually received from, the sun by the whole of the
earth's surface aggregates nearly 70 mile-tons to each square foot.
That is, the average amount of heat annually received by each square
foot of the earth's surface, if utilized in a theoretically perfect heat
engine, would hoist nearly 70 tons to the height of a mile.
215. Solar Radiation at the Sun's Surface.

If now we
estimate the amount of radiation at the sun's surface itself, we
come to results which are simply amazing. We must multiply
the solar constant observed at the earth by the square of the
ratio between 93,000,000 miles (the earth's distance from the
sun) and 433,250 (the radius of the sun). This square is about
46,000. In other words, the amount of heat emitted in a
minute by a square meter of the sun's surface is about 46,000
times as great as that received by a square meter at the earth.
Carrying out the figures, we find that this heat radiation at the
sun's surface amounts to 1,000,000 calories per square meter
154 TEMPERATURE OE THE SUN.
[
216
per minute; that if the sun were frozen over completely, to a
depth
of
45 feet, the heat emitted would melt the shell in one
minute
; that if a bridge of ice could be formed from the earth
to the sun by a column of ice 2.1 miles square and
93,000,000
long, and if in some way the entire solar radiation could be
concentrated upon it, it would be melted in one second, and in
seven more would be dissipated in vapor.
Expressing it as energy, we find that the solar radiation is
nearly 100,000 horsepower continuously
for
each square meter of
the sun's surface.
These figures are based, of course, on the assumption that the sun
radiates heat in all directions alike, and there is no reason known to
science why it should not.
So far as we can see, only a minute fraction of the whole radiation
ever reaches a resting place. The earth intercepts about
2 200 oVoooo?
and the other planets of the solar system receive in all perhaps from
ten to twenty times as much. Something like
To o"o^o^fo-
seems to be
utilized within the limits of the solar system. As for the rest, science
cannot yet give any certain account of it.
216. The Sun's Temperature.

As to the temperature of
the sun's surface, we have no sure knowledge, except that it
must be higher than that of any artificial heat. While we
can measure with some accuracy the quantity of heat which
the sun sends us, our laboratory experiments do not yet fur-
nish the necessary data from which we can determine with
certainty what must be the temperature of the sun's surface
in order to enable it to send out heat at the observed rate.
The estimates of the temperature of the photosphere run all the
way from the very low ones of some of the French physicists (who set
it about 2500
C.

higher, but not vastly higher than that of an electric

arc) to those of Secchi and Ericsson, who put the figure among the
millions. Theprevailing opinion sets it between 5,000 and 10,000 C.
;
i.e., from 9,000 to 20,000 F. Schemer
(1899)
adopts 7,000 C.
(about 12,000 F.) as the most probable value.
218]
INTENSITY OF SOLAR HEAT. 155
217. The Burning Lens. A most impressive demonstra-
tion of the intensity of the sun's heat lies in the fact that in
the focus of a powerful burning lens all known substances
melt and vaporize. Now at the focus of a lens the temperature
can never more than equal that
of
the source from which the heat
comes. Theoretically, the limit of temperature is that which
would be produced by the sun's direct radiation at a distance
such that the sun's apparent diameter would just equal that
of the lens viewed from its focus.
The temperature
produced at F, Fig.
60, would, if there
were no losses, be
just the same as that
of a body placed so
near the sun that the
sun's angular diame-
ter equals LFL'. Now, in the case of the most powerful lenses thus
far made, a body at the focus was thus virtually carried to within about
240,000 miles from the sun's surface (about the same distance as that
of the moon from the earth), and here, as has been said, the most
refractory substances succumb immediately.
218. Constancy of the Sun's Heat.
By
means of observa-
tions made at the same time in California, Washington, and
Algiers, it has been proved beyond question that the quantity
of heat radiated by the sun is not absolutely constant but may
vary within a few days by as much as ten per cent. Such
fluctuations would have no evident effect on climate.
As to any steady, progressive increase or decrease of solar
heat, it is quite certain that no considerable change of that
kind has been going on for the past 2000 years, because the
distribution of plants and animals on the earth's surface is
practically the same as in the days of Pliny ; it is, however,
rather probable than otherwise that the general climatic
changes which Geology indicates as having formerly taken
156 MAINTENANCE OF SOLAR HEAT.
[219
place on the earth,

the glacial and carboniferous epochs, for

instance,

may ultimately be traced to changes in the sun's

condition.
219. Maintenance of Solar Heat.

One of the most inter-

esting and important problems of modern science relates to
the explanation of the method by which the sun's heat is
maintained. We cannot here discuss the subject fully, but
must content ourselves with saying first, negatively, that the
phenomenon cannot be accounted for on the supposition that
the sun is a hot, solid or liquid body simply cooling ; nor by
combustion, nor (adequately) by the fall
of
meteoric matter on
the sun's surface, though this cause undoubtedly operates to a
limited extent : second, positively, the solar radiation can be
accounted for on the hypothesis first proposed by Helmholtz,
that the sun is shrinking slowly but continuously. It is a matter
of demonstration that an annual shrinkage of about 250 feet
in the sun's diameter would liberate heat sufficient to keep up
its radiation without any fall in its temperature. If the
shrinkage were more than 250 feet, the sun would be hotter
at the end of a year than it Avas at the beginning.
It is not possible to exhibit this hypothetical shrinkage as a fact
of observation, since this diminution of the sun's diameter would
not amount to a mile in 20 years, and nearly 10,000 years would be
spent in reducing it by a single second of arc. No change much
smaller than
1"
could be certainly detected even by our most modern
instruments.
We can only say that while no other theory yet proposed meets the
conditions of the problem, this appears to do so perfectly, and there-
fore has high probability in its favor.
220. Age and Duration of the Sun.

If Helmholtz's theory
is correct, it follows that in time the sun's heat must come to
an end, and, looking backward, that it must have had a begin-
ning. We have not the data for an accurate calculation of the
sun's future duration, but if it keeps up its present rate of

221]
CONSTITUTION OF THE SUN. 157
radiation it must, on this hypothesis, shrink to about half its
diameter in some 5,000,000 years at longest. Since its mean
density will then be eight times as great as now, it can hardly
continue to be mainly gaseous (as it probably is at present),
and its temperature must begin to fall quite sensibly. It is
not, therefore, likely that the sun will continue to give heat
enough to support such life on the earth as we are now famil-
iar with, for much more than 10,000,000 years, if it does it so
long.
As to the past, we can be a little more definite. ~No conclu-
sion of Geometry is more certain than this,

that the shrink-

age of the sun to its present dimensions from a diameter
larger than that of the orbit of ^Neptune, the remotest of the
planets, would generate about 18,000,000 times as much heat
as the sun now radiates in a year. Hence, if the sun's
heat has been and still is ivholly due to the contraction of
its mass, it cannot have been radiating heat at the present
rate, on the shrinkage hypothesis, for more than 18,000,000
years ; and on that hypothesis the solar system in anything
like its present condition cannot be much more than as old as
that.
But notice the
"
if."
It is quite conceivable that the solar system
may have received in the past other supplies of heat than that due to
contraction. Radium and its congeners may have played a part.
221. Constitution of the Sun. The received opinion as to
the constitution of the sun is substantially as follows :

(a) As to the condition of the central mass or nucleus of

the sun, we cannot be said to have definite knowledge. It
is probably gaseous, this being indicated by the sun's low
mean density and high temperature
;
but at the same time
this gaseous matter must be in a very different condition from
gases as we know them in our laboratories, on account of the
intense heat and the enormous pressure due to the force of
solar gravity. The central mass, while, still possessing the
characteristic properties of gas (that is, characteristic from
158
CONSTITUTION OF THE SUN. [
223
the scientific point of view), must be denser than water, and
viscous, with a consistency something like pitch or tar.
While this doctrine as to the gaseous nature of the solar nucleus is
generally assented to, there are, however, some authorities who still
maintain that it is liquid.
222.
(6)
The Photosphere is in all probability a sheet
of
lumi-
nous clouds, constituted mechanically like terrestrial clouds,
i.e., of minute solid or liquid particles floating in gas.
The photospheric clouds of the sun are supposed to be formed (just
as snow and rain clouds are in our own atmosphere) by the cooling
and condensation of vapors, and they float in the permanent gases of
the solar atmosphere in the same way that our own clouds do in our
own atmosphere. We do not know just what materials constitute
these solar clouds, but naturally suppose them to be those indicated
by the Fraunhofer lines, i.e., chiefly the metals, with carbon and its
chemical congeners.
223. (c) The Reversing Layer.

The photospheric clouds

float in an atmosphere containing a considerable quantity of
the same vapors out of which they themselves have been
formed, just as in our own atmosphere the air immediately
surrounding a cloud is saturated with vapor of water. This
vapor-laden atmosphere, probably comparatively shallow, con-
stitutes the reversing layer, and by its selective absorption
produces the dark lines of the solar spectrum, while by its
general absorption it produces the peculiar darkening at the
limb of the sun.
It will be remembered that Mr. Lockyer and others have been
disposed to question the existence of any such shallow absorbing-
Stratum, considering that the absorption takes place in all regions of
the solar atmosphere up to a great elevation, but that the photographs
made at the eclipse of 1896 (Art. 198)
seem to establish its reality.
224. (d) The Chromosphere and Prominences are composed
of permanent gases, mainly hydrogen, helium, and calcium,, which
224]
THE CORONA. 159
are mingled witli the vapors of the reversing stratum in the
region of the photosphere, but rise to far greater elevations
than do the vapors. The appearances are for the most part
as if the chromosphere were formed of jets of heated gases,
ascending through the interspaces between the photospheric
clouds, like flames playing over a coal fire.
225. (e) The Corona also rests on the photosphere, and the
characteristic green line of its spectrum (Art.
207)
is brightest
just at the surface of the photosphere in the reversing stratum
and in the chromosphere itself ; but the corona extends to a far
greater elevation than even the prominences ever reach, and it
seems to be not entirely gaseous, but to contain, in addition
the mysterious "coronium," dust and fog of some sort, per-
haps meteoric. Many of the phenomena of the corona are
still unexplained, and since thus far it has been observed only
during the brief moments of total solar eclipses, progress in
its study has been necessarily slow.
225*. Numerous attempts have been made to discover some
method of observing the corona at other times than during an
eclipse, but thus far without success. The corona line is not bright
enough to render feasible the spectroscopic method, which
succeeds
with the prominences
;
and if it were, the fact that the
streamers of
the corona are probably in the main, not gaseous, but of dust-like
constitution (giving therefore only the spectrum of reflected sunlight),
would make the spectroscopic image, even if it could be obtained,
extremely incomplete : the streamers would not appear in it at all.
Dr. Huggins, and others under his direction or following his sug-
gestion, worked very hard for several years, beginning with 1883,
in the endeavor to photograph the corona without an eclipse. Some
of the plates showed, around the image of the sun, halo-forms which
certainly looked very coronal. But it was soon found that plates
exposed in rapid succession did not agree as to details, and there can
be no doubt that the apparent
"
coronas
"
were not images of the
real one. The illumination of our own atmosphere near the disc of
the sun is far too brilliant to allow us, working through it, either to
see, or to photograph, the much fainter corona behind it.
160 THE CORONA.
[225*
Various other methods have been vainly tried, and others have
been planned and will be executed. The problem is by no means
even yet given up as absolutely hopeless, though the prospect of
success is not very promising.
As has been already said, the real nature of the corona is still
problematical. In many ways it strongly resembles our terrestrial
Aurora Borealis and the phenomena which, under certain circum-
stances, accompany electrical discharges in a partial vacuum. By
many, therefore, it is regarded as something of the same sort on the
solar scale of magnitude. Professor Schaberle, of the Lick Obser-
vatory, on the other hand, urges a purely
"
mechanical theory
"
which
regards the corona as formed by streams or jets of some rare
material ejected mainly from the sun-spot zones, repelled to planetary
distances, and then falling back upon the solar surface. Many of
the peculiar features of the visible corona are then easily explained
as mere perspective effects due to the apparent superposition and
interlacing of these ascending and descending streams.
Note to Art. 198.

At the eclipse of Jan. 22d, 1898, the results of

Mr. Shackleton were fully confirmed, and even surpassed. The "flash
spectrum," as it is called, was photographed by several different observ-
ers, with more powerful apparatus than his, and with complete success.
It should be noted, however, that this bright line spectrum is not, and
ought not to be, a mere negative of the dark line Fraunhofer spectrum.
Its brightest lines do not always correspond to the darkest lines of the
other, but there are great and significant differences of relative intensity
:

as might be expected, since, for instance, the brilliant lines of Helium

do not show at all as dark lines in the Fraunhofer spectrum, except under
unusual conditions. A similar result was again obtained during the
eclipses of May 28th, 1900, May 17th, 1901, and Aug. 31st, 1905.
Note to Art. 207.

It was discovered in 1898 from the photographs

of the corona spectrum that the identification of the green line with
Kirchhoff's
" 1474
" is erroneous, and the later eclipses confirm the
correction. The corona line is slightly more refrangible than
"1474"
(\ 5316),
having a wave-length of 5303, and coincides with no dark line
of the solar spectrum. The photographs also show that the spectrum of
coronium, in addition to this green line, has at least six or eight others
in the violet and ultra-violet region.
ECLIPSES. 161
CHAPTER VIII.
ECLIPSES.
FORM. AND DIMENSIONS OF SHADOWS-

ECLIPSES OE THE MOON.

SOLAR ECLIPSES.

TOTAL,
ANNULAR, AND PARTIAL.

ECLIPTIC LIMITS AND
NUMBER OF ECLIPSES IN A YEAR.

RECURRENCE OF
ECLIPSES AND THE SAROS.

OCCULTATIONS.
226. The word
"
Eclipse

(literally a
"
faint " or
"
swoon
")
is a term applied to the darkening of a heavenly body, espe-
cially of the sun or moon, though some of the satellites of
other planets besides the earth are also "eclipsed." An eclipse
of the moon is caused by its passage through the shadow of
the earth; eclipses of the sun, by the interposition of the
moon between the sun and the observer, or, what comes to the
same thing, by the passage of the moon's shadow over the
observer.
The shadow (Physics,
p. 274) is the space from which sun-
light is excluded by an intervening body : geometrically speak-
ing it is a solid, not a surface. If we regard the sun and the
other heavenly bodies as spherical, these shadows are cones
with their axes in the line joining the centres of the sun
and the shadow-casting body, the point being always directed
away from the sun.
227. Dimensions of the Earth's Shadow. The length of
the earth's shadow is easily found. In Fig. 61 we have, from
the similar triangles OED and ECa,
162 THE EARTH'S SHADOW.
L2*7
OD:Eai:OE: EC, or L.
OD is the difference between the radii of the sun and the
earth, =
R

r. Ea = r, and OE is the distance of the earth
from the sun
=
D. Hence
D
R
108.5
D.
(The fraction 108.5 is found by simply substituting for R and
r their values.) This gives 857,000
miles for the length of
the earth's shadow when D has its mean value of 93,000000
miles. The length varies about 14,000
miles on each side of
the mean, in consequence of the variation of the earth's dis-
tance from the sun at different times of the year.
Fig. 61. The Earth's Shadow.
From the cone aCb all sunlight is excluded, or would be were it
not for the fact that the atmosphere of the earth by its refraction
bends some of the rays into this shadow. The effect of this atmos-
pheric refraction is to increase the diameter of the shadow about two
per cent, but to make it less perfectly dark.
228. Penumbra.

If we draw the lines Ba and Ab (Fig.

61),
crossing at P, between the earth and the sun, they will
bound the "penumbra
"
within which a part, but not the whole,
of the sunlight is cut off: an observer outside of the shadow but
within this cone-frustum, which tapers towards the sun, would
see the earth as a black body encroaching on the sun's disc.
228]
ECLIPSES OF THE MOON.
163
While the boundaries of the shadow and penumbra are perfectly
definite geometrically, they are not so optically. If a screen were
placed at M, perpendicular to the axis of the shadow, no sharply
denned lines would mark the boundaries of either shadow or penum-
bra. Near the edge of the shadow the penumbra would be very
nearly as dark as the shadow itself, only a mere speck of the sun
being there visible ; and at the outer edge of the penumbra the shad-
ing would be still more gradual.
229. Eclipses of the Moon.

The axis or central line of the

earth's shadow is always directed to a point directly opposite
the sun. If, then, at the time of the full moon, the moon
happens to be near the ecliptic (i.e., not far from one of the
nodes of her orbit), she will pass through the shadow and be
eclipsed. Since, however, the moon's orbit is inclined to the
ecliptic, lunar eclipses do not happen very frequently, sel-
dom more than twice a year. Ordinarily the full moon passes
north or south of the shadow without touching it.
Lunar eclipses are of two kinds,

partial and total: total

when she passes completely into the shadow, partial when she
only partly enters it, going so far to the north or south of the
centre of the shadow that only a portion of her disc is obscured.
230. Size of the Earth's Shadow at the Point where the
Moon crosses it.

Since EC, in Fig. 61, is 857,000 miles, and

the distance of the moon from the earth is on the average
about 239,000 miles, CM must average 618,000 miles, so that
MN, the semi-diameter of the shadow at this point, will be
fjf
the earth's radius. This gives MN= 2854 miles, and makes
the whole diameter of the shadow a little over 5700 miles,

about two and two-thirds times the diameter of the moon.

But this quantity varies considerably ; the shadow where it is
crossed by the moon is sometimes more than three times her
diameter, sometimes hardly more than twice.
An eclipse of the moon, when central, i.e., when the moon
crosses the centre of the shadow, may continue total for about
164
LUNAR ECLIPTIC LIMIT. [
230
two hours, the interval from the first contact to the last being
about two hours more. This depends upon the fact that the
moon's hourly motion is nearly equal to its own diameter.
The duration of a non-central eclipse varies, of course,
according to the part of the shadow traversed by the moon.
231. Lunar Ecliptic Limit.

The lunar ecliptic limit is the

greatest distance from the node of the moon's orbit at ' which
the sun can be at the time of a lunar eclipse. This limit
depends upon the inclination of the moon's orbit, which is
somewhat variable, and also upon the distance of the moon
from the earth at the time of the eclipse, which is still more
variable. Hence we recognize two limits, the major and
minor. If the distance of the sun from the node at the time
of full moon exceeds the major limit, an eclipse is impossible :
if it is less than the minor, an eclipse is inevitable. The
major limit is found to be
12
15' ; the minor,
9
30'.
Since
the sun, in its annual motion along the ecliptic, travels
12 .15'
in less than 13 days, it follows that every eclipse of the moon
must take place within 13 days from the time when the sun
crosses the node.
232. Phenomena of a Total Lunar Eclipse.

Half an hour
or so before the moon reaches the shadow, its limb begins to
be sensibly darkened by the penumbra, and the edge of the
shadow itself when it is first reached appears nearly black by
contrast with the bright parts of the moon's surface. To the
naked eye the outline of the shadow looks reasonably sharp;
but even with a small telescope it is found to be indefinite,
and with a large telescope and high magnifying power it
becomes entirely indistinguishable, so that it is impossible to
determine within half a minute or so the time when the
boundary of the shadow reaches any particular point on the
moon. After the moon has wholly entered the shadow, her
disc is usually distinctly visible, illuminated with' a dull, cop-
232
J
COMPUTATION OF A LUNAR ECLIPSE.
165
per-colored light, which is sunlight, deflected around the earth
into the shadow by the refraction of our atmosphere, as illus-
trated by Eig. 62.
Even when the moon is exactly central in the largest possible
shadow, an observer on the moon would see the disc of the earth
surrounded by a narrow ring of brilliant light, colored with sunset
hues by the same vapors which tinge terrestrial sunsets, but acting
with double power because the light has traversed a double thickness
of our air. If the weather happens to be clear at this portion of the
earth (upon its rim, as seen from the moon), the quantity of light
transmitted through our atmosphere is very considerable, and the
Fig. 62.

Light bent into Earth's Shadow by Refraction.

moon is strongly illuminated. If, on the other hand, the weather hap-
pens to be stormy in this region of the earth, the clouds cut off nearly
all the light. In the lunar eclipse of 1884, the moon was absolutely
invisible for a time to the naked eye,

a very unusual circumstance

on such an occasion. During the eclipse of Jan. 28th, 1888, although
the moon was pretty bright to the eye, Pickering found that its pho-
tographic power, when centrally eclipsed, was only about
t-^oooo
of
what it was when uneclipsed.
233. Computation of a Lunar Eclipse.

Since all the phases

of a lunar eclipse are seen everywhere at the same absolute
instant wherever the moon is above the horizon, it follows
that a single computation giving the Greenwich times of the
different phenomena is all that is needed. Such computations
are made and published in the Nautical Almanac. Each
observer has only to correct the predicted time by simply
adding or subtracting his longitude from Greenwich, in order
to get the true local time. The computation of a lunar eclipse
is" not at all complicated, but lies rather beyond the scope of
this work.
166 ECLIPSES OF THE SUN.
[234
ECLIPSES OF THE SUN.
234. Dimensions of the Moon's Shadow.

By the same
method as that used for the shadow of the earth (Art.
227)
we find that the length of the moon's shadow at any time is
very nearly -^ of its distance from the sun, and averages
232,150 miles. It varies not quite 4000 miles each way, rang-
ing from 236,050 to 228,300 miles.
Since the mean length of the shadow is less than the mean
distance of the moon from the earth
(238,800
miles), it is evi-
dent that on the average the shadow will fall short of the
earth. On account of the eccentricity of the moon's orbit,
however, she is much of the time considerably nearer than at
others, and may come within 221,600 miles from the earth's
centre, or about 217,650 miles from its surface. If at the
> To
Sun
Fig. 63. The Moon's Shadow on the Earth.
same time the shadow happens to have its greatest possible
length, its point may reach nearly 18,400 miles beyond the
earth's surface. In this case the cross-section of the shadow
where the earth's surface cuts it (at O in Fig.
63)
will be
about 168 miles in diameter, which is the largest value possible.
If, however, the shadow strikes the earth's surface obliquely,
the shadow spot will be oval instead of circular, and the
extreme length of the oval may much exceed the 168 miles.
Since the distance of the moon may be as great as 252,970
miles from the earth's centre, or nearly 249,000 miles from its
surface, while the shadow may be as short as 228,300 miles, we
may have the state of things indicated by placing the earth at
B, in Fig. 63. The vertex of the shadow,
V,
will then fall

234]
TOTAL AND ANNULAR ECLIPSES. 167
20,700 miles short of the surface, and the cross-section of the
"
shadow produced
"
will have a diameter of 196 miles at 0',
where the earth's surface cuts it. When the shadow falls near
the edge of the earth, this cross-section may, however, be as
great as 230 miles.
235. Total and Annular Eclipses.

To an observer within
the true shadow cone {i.e., between
V
and the moon, in Fig.
63)
the sun will be totally eclipsed. An observer in the
"
pro-
duced" cone beyond Fwill see the moon smaller than the sun,
leaving an uneclipsed ring around it, and will have what is
called an annular eclipse. These annular eclipses are consid-
erably more frequent than the total, and now and then an
eclipse is annular in part of its course across the earth and
total in part. (The point of the moon's shadow extends in
this case beyond the surface of the earth, but does not reach
as far as its centre.)
236. The Penumbra and Partial Eclipses.

The penumbra
can easily be shown to have a diameter on the line CD (Fig.
63)
of a trifle more than twice the moon's diameter. An
observer situated within the penumbra has a partial eclipse.
If he is near the cone of the shadow, the sun will be mostly
covered by the moon, but if near the outer edge of the penum-
bra, the moon will only slightly encroach on the sun's disc.
While, therefore, total and annular eclipses are visible as such
only by an observer within the narrow path traversed by the
shadow spot, the same eclipse will be visible as a partial one
everywhere within 2,000 miles on each side of the path ; and
the 2,000 miles is to be reckoned perpendicularly to the axis
of the shadow, and may correspond to a much greater distance
on the spherical surface of the earth.
237. Velocity of the Shadow and Duration of Eclipses.

Were it not for the earth's rotation, the moon's shadow would
pass an observer at the rate of nearly 2100 miles an hour.
168
VELOCITY OF THE SHADOW. [
237
The earth, however, is rotating towards the east in the same
general direction as that in which the shadow moves, and at
the equator its surface moves at the rate of about 1040 miles
an hour. An observer, therefore, on the earth's equator with
the moon near the zenith would be passed by the shadow with
a speed of about 1060 miles an hour (2100

1040), and this is
the shadow's lowest velocity,

about equal to that of a can-

non-ball. In higher latitudes, where the surface velocity due
to the earth's rotation is less, the relative speed of the shadow
is higher ; and where the shadow falls very obliquely, as it
does when an eclipse occurs near sunrise or sunset, the advance
of the shadow on the earth's surface may become very swift,
as great as 4000 or 5000 miles an hour.
A total eclipse of the sun observed at a station near the
equator, under the most favorable conditions possible, may
continue total for 7
m
58
s
. In latitude 40, the duration can
barely equal
6J
m
. The greatest possible excess of the radius
of the moon over that of the sun is only
1' 19".
At the equator an annular eclipse may last for 12
m
24
s
,
the
maximum width of the ring of the sun visible around the
moon being
1' 37".
In the observation of an eclipse four contacts are recognized : the
first
when the edge of the moon first touches the edge of the sun,
the second when the eclipse becomes total or annular, the third at the
cessation of the total or annular phase, and the fourth when the moon
finally leaves the solar disc. From the first contact to the fourth the
time may be a little over four hours.
238. The Solar Ecliptic Limits.

It is necessary, in order to
have an eclipse of the sun, that the moon should encroach on the cone
ACBD (Fig.
64),
which envelopes the earth and sun. In this case
the true angular distance between the centres of the sun and moon,
i.e., their distance as seen from the centre of the earth, would be the
angle MES. This angle may range from
1 34' 13"
to
1 24' 19",
according to the changing distance of the sun and moon from the
earth. The corresponding distances of the sun from the node, taking
238]
PHENOMENA OF A SOLAR ECLIPSE.
169
into account the variations in the inclination of the moon's orbit, give
18 31'
and
15 21'
for the major and minor ecliptic limits.
In order that an eclipse may be central (total or annular) at any
part of the earth, it is necessary that the moon should lie wholly
inside the cone A CBD, as M', and the corresponding major and minor
central ecliptic limits come out
11 50'
and
9 55'.
Fig. 64.

Solar Ecliptic Limits.

239. Phenomena of a Solar Eclipse. There is nothing of
special interest until the sun is mostly covered, though before
that time the shadows cast by the foliage begin to be peculiar.
The light shining through every small interstice among the leaves,
instead of forming as usual a circle on the ground, makes a little cres-
cent

an image of the partly covered sun.

About ten minutes before totality the darkness begins to be
felt, and the remaining light, coming, as it does, from the edge
of the sun alone, is much altered in quality, producing an
effect very like that of a calcium light, rather than sunshine.
Animals are perplexed and birds go to roost. The tempera-
ture falls, and sometimes dew appears. In a few moments, if
the observer is so situated that his view commands the distant
horizon, the moon's shadow is seen coming, much like a heavy
thunder-storm, and advancing with almost terrifying
swift-
ness. As soon as the shadow arrives, and sometimes a little
before, the corona and prominences become visible, while the
brighter planets and the stars of the first three magnitudes
170 OBSERVATION OF AN ECLIPSE. [
239
make their appearance. The suddenness with which the dark-
ness pounces upon the observer is startling. The sun is so
brilliant that even the small portion which remains visible
up to within a very few seconds of the total obscuration so
dazzles the eye that it is unprepared for the sudden transition.
In a few moments, however, vision adjusts itself, and it is
then found that the darkness is not really very intense.
.If the totality is of short duration (that is, if the diameter of the
moon exceeds that of the sun by less than a minute of arc), the corona
and chromosphere, the lower parts of which are very brilliant, give a
-light at least three or four times that of the full moon. Since, more-
over, in such a case the shadow is of small diameter, a large quantity
of light is also sent in from the surrounding air, where, 30 or 40 miles
away, the sun is still shining ; and what may seem remarkable, this
intrusion of outside light is greatest under a cloudy sky. In such an
eclipse there is not much difficulty in reading an ordinary watch-face.
In an eclipse of long duration, say five or six minutes, it is much
darker, and lanterns become necessary.
240. Observation of an Eclipse.

A total solar eclipse offers

opportunities for numerous observations of great importance which
are possible at no other time, besides certain others which can also be
made during a partial eclipse. We mention
(a) Times of the four contacts, and direction of the line joining
the "cusps" of the partially eclipsed sun. These observations
determine with extreme accuracy the relative positions of the sun and
moon at the moment.
(6)
The search for intra-Mercurial planets,
(c) Observations of certain peculiar dark fringes which appear upon
the surface of the earth at the moment of totality, (d) Photometric
measurement of the intensity of light at different stages of the
eclipse, (e) Telescopic observations of the details of the prominences
and of the corona.
(/)
Spectroscopic observations (both visual and
photographic) upon the spectra of the lower atmosphere of the
sun, of the prominences, and of the corona,
(g)
Observations
with the polariscope upon the polarization of the light of the
eorona. (h) Drawings and photographic pictures of the corona
and prominences.

241]
CALCULATION OF A SOLAR ECLIPSE. 171
241. Calculation of a Solar Eclipse.

The calculation of a
solar eclipse cannot be dealt with in any such summary way
as that of a lunar eclipse, because the times of contact and
other phenomena are different at every different station.
Moreover, since the phenomena of a solar eclipse admit of
extremely accurate observation, it is necessary to take account
of numerous little details which are of no importance in lunar
eclipses. The Nautical Almanacs give, three years in advance,
a chart of the track of every solar eclipse, and with it data for
the accurate calculation of the phenomena at any given place.
Oppolzer, a Viennese astronomer, lately deceased, published a few
years ago a remarkable book, entitled
"
The Canon of Eclipses," con-
taining the elements of all eclipses
(8,000 solar and 5,200 lunar)
occurring between the year 1207 B.C. and 2162 a.d., with maps show-
ing the approximate track of the moon's shadow on the earth. It in-
dicates total eclipses visible in the United States in 1900, 1918, 1923,
1925, 1945, 1979, 1984, and 1994 (Philippines not included).
242. Number of Eclipses in a Year.

The least possible

number is two, both of the sun ; the largest, seven, five solar
and two lunar, or four solar and three lunar.
The eclipses of a given year always take place at two op-
posite seasons (which may be called the
"
eclipse months
"
of
the year), near the times when the sun crosses the nodes of
the moon's orbit. Since the nodes move westward around the
ecliptic once in about 19 years (Art.
142),
the time occupied
by the sun in passing from a node to the same node again is
only 346.62 days, which is sometimes called the
"
eclipse year."
In an eclipse year there can be but two lunar eclipses, since twice the
maximum lunar ecliptic limit
(2 X
12 15') is less than the distance the
sun moves along the ecliptic in a synodic month (29
6')
;
the sun there-
fore cannot possibly be near enough the node at both of two successive
full moons
;
on the other hand, it is possible for a year to pass without
any lunar eclipse, the sun being too far from the node at all four of the
full
moons
which
occur nearest to the time of its node-passage.
172 FREQUENCY OF ECLIPSES.
[242
In & calendar year (of 365^ days) it is, however, possible to have
three lunar eclipses. If one of the moon's nodes is passed by the sun
in January, it will be reached again in December, the other node hav-
ing been passed in the latter part of June, and there may be a lunar
eclipse at or near each of these three node-passages. This actually
occurred in 1898 and 1917.
As to solar eclipses, the solar ecliptic' limits are so much larger
than the lunar, that there must be at least one solar eclipse at each
node-passage of the year ; and there may be two, thus making four
in the eclipse year. (When there are two solar eclipses at the same
node, there will always be a lunar eclipse at the full moon between
them.) In the calendar year, a fifth solar eclipse may come in if the
first eclipse month falls in January. Since a year with five solar
eclipses in it is sure to have two lunar eclipses in addition, they will
make up seven in the calendar year. This will happen next in 1935.
In 1917 there were seven eclipses, four solar and three lunar.
243. Frequency of Solar and Lunar Eclipses.

Taking the
whole earth into account, the solar eclipses are the more
numerous, nearly in the ratio of three to two. It is not so, how-
ever, with those which are visible at a given place. A solar
eclipse can be seen only from a limited portion of the globe,
while a lunar eclipse is visible over considerably more than
half the earth,

either at the beginning or the end, if not

throughout its whole duration ; and this more than reverses
the proportion between lunar and solar eclipses for any given
station.
Solar eclipses that are total somewhere or other on the
earth's surface are not very rare, averaging one for about every
year and a half. But at any given place the case is very dif-
ferent : since the track of a solar eclipse is a very narrow path
over the earth's surface, averaging only 60 or 70 miles in
width, we find that in the long run a total eclipse happens at
any given station only once in about 360 years.
During the 19th century seven shadow tracks have traversed the
United States, the last on May 28th, 1900. A total eclipse was seen
in the West in 1918, and there will be one in New
England in 1925.

244]
RECURRENCE OF ECLIPSES.
173
244. Recurrence of Eclipses; the Saros. It was known
to the Chaldeans, even in prehistoric times, that eclipses occur
at a regular interval of 18 years and
11J-
days
(10-J-
days if
there happen to be
Jive
leap years in the interval). They
named this period the
"
Saros." It consists of 223 synodic
months, containing 6585.32 days, while 19
"
eclipse years
"
contain 6585.78. The difference is only about 11 hours, in
which time the sun moves on the ecliptic abont 28'. If, there-
fore, a solar eclipse should occur to-day with the sun exactly
at one of the moon's nodes, at the end of 223 months the new
moon will find the sun again close to the node (28' west of it),
and a very similar eclipse will occur again ; but the track of
this new eclipse will lie about 8 hours of longitude further
west on the earth, because the 223 months exceed the even
6585 days by
^fa
of a day, or 7 hours, 42 minutes. The usual
number of eclipses in a Saros is about 71,
varying two or three
one way or the other.
In the Saros closing Dec. 22d, 1889, the total number was 72,

29
lunar and 43 solar. Of the latter, 29 were central (13 total, 16 annu-
lar), and 14 were only partial. The following may be given as an
example of the recurrence of eclipses at the end of a Saros : The
four eclipses of 1878 occurred
(1)
on Feb. 2d, solar, annular
;
(2)
Feb. 17th, lunar, partial
; (3)
July 29th, solar, total
;
(4)
Aug.
12th, lunar, partial. In 1896 the corresponding eclipses were Feb.
13th, solar, annular
;
Feb. 28th, lunar, partial ; Aug. 9th, solar, total
;
Aug. 23d, lunar, partial. It is usual to speak of the eclipse of Aug.
9th, 1896, for instance, as a recurrence of the eclipse of July 29, 1878,
one Saros period earlier.
245. Occupations of the Stars. In theory and computation,
the occultation of a star is identical with an eclipse, except
that the shadow of the moon cast by the star is sensibly a
cylinder, instead of a cone, and has no penumbra. Since the
moon always moves eastward, the star disappears at the moon's
eastern limb, and reappears on the western. Under all ordi-
nary circumstances, both disappearance and reappearance are
174
ANOMALOUS PHENOMENA. [
26
instantaneous, indicating not only that the moon has no
sensible atmosphere, but also that the (angular) diameter of
even a very bright star is less than 0".02. Observations of
occultations determine the place of the moon in the sky with
great accuracy, and when made at a number of widely separ-
ated stations they furnish a very precise determination of the
moon's parallax and also of the difference of longitude be-
tween the stations.
246. Anomalous Phenomena.

Occasionally, the star, instead

of disappearing suddenly when struck by the moon's limb (faintly
visible by
"
earth-shine "), appears to cling to the limb for a second or
two before vanishing. In a few instances it has been reported as
having reappeared and disappeared a second time, as if it had been
for a moment visible through a rift in the moon's crust. In some
cases the anomalous phenomena have been explained by the subse-
quent discovery that the star was double, but many of them still
remain mysterious, though it is quite likely that they were often
illusions due to physiological causes in the observer.
247] CELESTIAL MECHANICS.
175
CHAPTER IX.
celestial mechanics.
the laws of central force.

circular motion.
kepler's laws, and newton's verification of
the theory of gravitation.

the conic sec-
tions.

the problem of two bodies.

the prob-
lem of three bodies and perturbations. the
TIDES.
It is, of course, out of the question to attempt in the pres-
ent work any extended treatment of the theory of the motion
of the heavenly bodies ; but quite within the reach of those
for whom this volume is designed there are certain funda-
mental facts and principles, so important, and in fact, essen-
tial to an intelligent understanding of the mechanism of the
solar system, that we cannot pass them in silence.
247. Motion of a Body Free from the Action of any Force.

According to the first law of motion (Physics,

p. 55) a moving
body left
to itself describes a straight line with a uniform velocity.
If we find a body so moving, we may infer, therefore, that it
is either acted on by no force whatever, or, if forces are acting
upon it, that they exactly balance each other.
It is usual with some writers to speak of a body thus moving uni-
formly in a straight line as actuated by a "projectile force
"
; a most
unfortunate expression, against which we wish to protest vigorously.
It is a survival of the old Aristotelian idea that rest is more
"
natu-
ral" to matter than motion, and that when a body moves, force must
operate to keep it moving. This is not true. Not motion, but the
change of motion, either in speed or in direction,

this alone implies

the action of
"
force."
176
MOTION UNDER ACTION OF FORCE.
[248
Fig. 65. Curvature of an Orbit.
248. Motion under the Action of a Force. If the motion
of a body is in a straight line but with varying speed, we infer
a force acting exactly in the line
of
motion. If the body moves
in a curve, we know that some force is acting across the line
of motion: if the' velocity keeps
increasing, we know that the di-
rection of the force that acts is
forward, like a & in Fig.
65, mak-
ing an angle of less than
90
with
the
"
line of motion
"
* at; and
vice versa, if the motion of the
body is retarded. If the speed is
constant, we know that the force must continually act on the
line a c exactly perpendicular to the line of motion.
Here, also, we find many writers, the older ones especially, bringing
in the "projectile
force"
and saying that when a body moves in a
curve, it does so "under the action of two forces; one the force that
draws it sideways, the other the 'projectile force' directed along its
path." We repeat, this "projectile
force" has no present existence nor
meaning in the problem
of
a body's motion. Such a force may have put
the body in motion long ago, but its function has ceased, and now we
have only to do with the action of one single' force,

the deflecting
force, which alters the direction and velocity of the body's motion.
From a curved orbit we can only infer the necessary existence of one
force. We do not mean to say that this force may not be the
"
result-
ant" of several; it often is; but a single force is all that is necessary
to produce motion in a curve.
249. Law of Equal Areas in the Case of a Body moving
under the Action of a Force directed towards a Fixed Point.

In this case it is easy to prove that the path of the body

will be a curve (not necessarily a circle)
,
"
concave
"
towards
the centre
of
force; that it will all lie in one plane, and that the
1
The
"
line of motion
"
of a body at any instant is the tangent drawn
to the curve in which the body travels, at the point occupied by the body.
249]
CIRCULAR MOTION.
177
body will move in such, a way that its
"
radius vector
"
(the
line that joins the body to the centre of force) will describe
areas proportional to the time.
Thus in Fig. 66, the areas aSb, cSd,
and
eSf,
are all equal ; the arcs ab, cd,
and
ef,
being each described in a unit of
time, under the action of a "central"
force, always directed towards S.
We have already seen that as a
matter of fact the earth obeys this
law in moving around the sun (Art.
118),
and the moon in her orbit
around the earth. Newton showed
that if the force which keeps them
in their orbits acts always along the radius vector, they must
do so of necessity. See Appendix, Art. 502.
Fig. 66. The Law of Equal Areas.
250. Circular Motion.

In the special case when the path of a

body is a circle described under the action of a force directed to its
centre, its velocity is constant. The force, moreover, is constant, and
in works upon Mechanics (see Physics,
p. 63; but in the Physics
the letter a replaces our
/)
is easily proved to be given by the formula
r
<)
In this formula, V is the velocity in feet per second, while r is the
radius of the circle, and
f
is the central force measured by the
"
accel-
eration
"
of
the body towards the centre,
1

just as the force of gravity

is expressed by the quantity
g
(32
feet, or 386 inches)
.
For many purposes it is desirable to have a formula which shall
substitute for V (which is not given directly by observation) the time
1
If we want the central force in pounds, the formula becomes
V'
2
^lbs. = W
X , W being the weight of the body in pounds.
gr
178
kepler's laws. [
250
of
revolution, t, which is so given. Since V equals the circumference
of the circle divided by t, or
-EI.,
we have at once, by substituting
this value for V in equation (a),
an expression to which we shall frequently refer.
KEPLER'S LAWS.
251 . Early in the 17th century Kepler discovered, as unex-
plained facts, three laws which govern the motions of the plan-
ets,

laws which still bear his name. He worked them out

from a discussion of the observations which Tycho Brahe had
made through many preceding years. They are as follows :

I. The orbit of each planet is an ellipse with the sun in one

of
its
foci. See Ar.t. 117.
II. The radius vector
of
each planet describes equal areas in
equal times.
III. The squares
of
the periods
of
the planets are propor-
tional to the cubes
of
their mean distances
from
the sun; i.e.,
ti
:t
2
2
:: a? : a
2
3
. This is the so-called
"
Harmonic law."
252. To make sure that the student apprehends the meaning and
scope of this third law, we append a few simple examples of its appli-
cation.
1. What would be the period of a planet having a mean distance
from the sun of one hundred astronomical units ; i.e., a distance a
hundred times that of the earth ?
l
3
:100
3
=l
2
(year):X
2
;
whence, X (in years) = VlOO
3
= 1000 years.
2. What would be the distance from the sun of a planet having a
period of 125 years ?
l
2
(year) : 125
2
= l
3
: X
s
;
whence X
=
\Zl25
2
= 25 astron. units

252]
INFERENCES FROM KEPLER'S LAWS. 179
3. What would be the period of a satellite revolving close to the
earth's surface?
(Moon's Dist.)
3
: (Dist. of Satellite)
3
=
(27.3 days)
2
: X\
or, 60
3
: l
3
= 27.3
2
: X
2
;
whence, X=
27' B
^?
S
=V>
24".
V60
3
253. Many surmises were early made as to the physical
meaning of these laws. More than one person guessed that a
force directed towards the sun might be the explanation.
Newton proved it. He demonstrated the law of equal areas
and its converse as necessary consequences of the laws of
motion under a central force. He also demonstrated that if a
body moves in an ellipse, having the centre of force at its
focus, then the force at different points in the orbit must vary
inversely as the square
of
the radius vector at those points : and
finally, he proved that, granting the
"
harmonic law," the force
from planet to planet must also vary according to the same
law of inverse squares. See Appendix, Art. 503.
254. Inferences from Kepler's Laws. From Kepler's laws
we are therefore entitled to infer, as Newton proved, First
(from the second law), that the force which retains the planets
in their orbits is directed towards the sun.
Second (from the
first
law), that the force which acts on
any given planet varies inversely as the square
of
its distance
from the sun.
Third (from the "harmonic law"), that the force is the
same for one planet as it would be for another in the same
place ; or, in other words, the attracting force depends only on
the mass and distance of the bodies concerned, and is sensibly
independent
of
their physical conditions (such as temperature,
chemical constitution, etc.). It makes no sensible difference in
the motion of a planet around the sun whether it is large or
180 GRAVITATION AND THE MOON'S MOTION. [ 254
small, hot or cold, made of hydrogen or iron
;
so far at least as we
are yet able to detect.
255. Verification of the Theory of Gravitation by the Moon's
Motion.

When Newton first conceived the idea of

"
univer-
sal gravitation" (Art.
99),
he at once saw that the moon's
motion around the earth ought to furnish a test of the theory.
Since the moon's distance (as was even then well known) is
about sixty times the earth's radius, the force with which it is
"attracted" by the earth, on the hypothesis of gravitation, ought
to be , or
,
of what it would be if the moon were at the
60
2'
3600'
surface of the earth. Now, at the earth's surface, a body falls
193 inches in the first second. The moon, then, ought to fall
towards the earth of 193 inches, or 0.0535 inches per
3600
' *
second. Calculation shows that it really does
1
(see Appen-
dix, Art.
505).
The reader will notice, however, that the agreement between
193
the moon's
"
fall per second
"
and the of an inch does
*
3600
not establish the idea of gravitation ; it only makes it probable.
It is quite conceivable that the coincidence in this one case
might be accidental. On the other hand, discordance would be
absolute disproof. The complete demonstration of the law of
gravitation lies in its entire accordance, not with one fact, but
with a countless multitude of them, and in its freedom from a
single contradiction shown by the most refined observations.
1
At the time when Newton first made the calculation, he assumed the
length of a degree to be 60 miles, while as we now know, it is more than
69 ; this made his result 16 per cent too small so far out of the way that
he loyally abandoned his theory as contradicted .by facts. Some years
later when Picard's measurement of a degree in France gave a near
approximation to its real length, Newton at once resumed his work where
he had dropped it, and soon completed his theory.
256]
ELLIPSE, PARABOLA, AND HYPERBOLA. 181
256. Newton did not rest with merely showing that the
motion of the planets and of the moon conld be explained by
the law of gravitation, bnt he also solved the more general in-
verse problem, and determined what kind of motion is required
by that law. He found that the orbit of a body moving
around a central mass under the law of gravitation, is not, of
necessity a circle, nor even an ellipse of slight eccentricity
like the planetary orbits. But it must be a
"
conic." Whether
it will be circle, ellipse, parabola, or hyperbola, depends on
circumstances.
For a brief description of these "conies," or
"
conic sections
"
and
the way in which they are formed by the cutting of a cone, see Appen-
dix, Art. 506.
257. The Ellipse, Parabola, and Hyperbola.

Fig. 67 shows
the appearance and relation of these curves as drawn upon a
plane. The ellipse is a
"
closed curve
"
returning into itself,
Fig. 67.

The Relation of the Conies to each other.

and in it the sum of the distances of any point, N, from the
two foci equals the major axis; i.e., FN+F'N=PA. The
hyperbola does not return into itself, but the two branches PJSP
182 THE PROBLEM OF TWO BODIES. [
257
and Pn" go off into infinity, becoming nearly straight and
diverging
from each other at a definite angle. In the hyperbola
it is the difference of two lines drawn from any point on
the curve to the two foci which equals the- major axis: i.e.,
F"]Sr
-
FN' = PA'.
The parabola, like the hyperbola, fails to return into itself,
but its two branches, instead of diverging, become more and
more nearly parallel. It has but one focus and no major axis
;
or rather, to speak more mathematically, it may be regarded
either as an ellipse with its second focus F' removed to an in-
finite distance, and therefore, having an
infinite
major axis;
or with equal truth it may be considered as an hyperbola, of
which the second focus F" is pushed indefinitely far in the
opposite direction, so that it has an infinite negative major
axis.
In the ellipse, the eccentricity I

) is less than unity. In

the hyperbola it is greater than unity (
J.
In the parabola
it is exactly unity ; in the circle, zero.
The eccentricity of a conic determines its
form. All circles there-
fore have the same shape, and so do all parabolas : parabolas (when
complete) differ from each other only in size.
258. The Problem of Two Bodies.

This problem, proposed

and completely solved by Newton, may be thus stated :

Given the masses

of
two spheres, and their positions and mo-
tions at any moment; given also the law
of
gravitation : required
the motion
of
the bodies ever afterwards, and the data necessary
to compute their place at any future time.
The mathematical methods by which the problem is solved
require the use of the Calculus, and must be sought in works
on analytical mechanics and theoretical astronomy, but the
general results are easily understood and entirely within the
grasp of our readers.

258]
THE PROBLEM OF TWO BODIES. 183
In the
first
place the motion of the centre
of
gravity of the
two bodies is not in the least affected by their mutual attraction.
In the next place, the two bodies will describe as orbits
around their common centre of gravity two curves precisely
similar in form, but
of
size inversely proportional to their masses,
the form and dimensions of the two orbits being determined
by the masses and velocities of the two bodies.
If, as is generally the case, the two bodies differ greatly in mass, it
is convenient to ignore the centre of gravity entirely, and to consider
simply the relative motion of the smaller one around the centre of the
other. It will move with reference to that point precisely as if its
own mass, m, had been added to the principal mass, M, while it had
become itself a mere particle. This relative orbit will be precisely
like the orbit which m actually describes around the centre of gravity,
except that it will be magnified in the ratio of (M+ m) to M; i.e., if
the mass of the smaller body is
T^o
of the larger one, its relative orbit
around Mwill be just one per cent larger than its actual orbit around
the common centre of gravity of the two.
259. Filially, the orbit will always be a
"
conic" i.e., an
ellipse or an hyperbola; but which of the two it will be, de-
pends on three things, viz., the united mass of the two bodies
(M
+
m), the distayice r between m and M at the initial mo-
ment, and the velocity, V,
of m relative to M. If this velocity,
V,
be less than a certain critical value (which depends only on
(M
+
m) and r)
,
the orbit will be an ellipse ; if greater,
1
it
will be an hyperbola. (See Appendix, Art. 507*.)
The direction of the motion of m with respect to M, while it
has influence upon the form
and position of the orbit (its
"eccentricity") has nothing to do with determining its species,
and semi-major axis
;
nor its period in case the orbit is elliptic :
these are all independent of the direction of m's motion.
1
If precisely equal, the path will be a parabola, which may be regarded
as either an ellipse or an hyperbola of infinite major axis (Art.
257). It
is the boundary line, so to speak, between ellipses and hyperbolas.
184 INTENSITY OF SOLAR ATTRACTION. [
2&
The problem is completely solved. From the necessary
initial data corresponding to a given moment we can determine
the position of the two bodies for any instant in the eternal
past or future, provided only that no force except their mutual
attraction acts upon them in the time covered by the calculation.
260. Intensity of Solar Attraction.

The attraction be-
tween the sun and the earth from some points of view appears
like a very feeble action. It is only able to deflect the earth
from a rectilinear course about
i
of an inch in a second, dur-
ing which time she travels more than 18 miles : and yet if it
were attempted to replace by bands of steel the invisible grav-
itation which draws or pushes the earth towards the sun, it
would be necessary to cover the whole surface of the earth
with steel wires as large as telegraph wires, and only about
half an inch apart from each other, in order to get a connec-
tion that could stand the strain. Such a ligament of wires
would be stretched almost to the breaking point. The attrac-
tion between the sun and the earth, expressed as tons of force
(not tons of mass, of course) is 3,600,000
millions of millions
of tons
(36
with 17 ciphers). Similar stresses are acting
through apparently empty space in all directions.
We renew, also, the caution that the student must not think
that the word
"
attraction
"
implies any explanation whatever,
or any understanding of the
"
force
"
that tends to make two
masses approach each other (see Art. 100). But this does not
at all affect the proof and certainty of its existence.
THE PROBLEM OF THREE BODIES: PERTURBATIONS AND
THE TIDES.
261. As has been said, the problem of two bodies is com-
pletely solved ; but if instead of two spheres attracting each
other we have three or more, the general problem of determin-
ing their motions and predicting their positions transcends
the present power of human mathematics.

261]
THE PROBLEM OF THREE BODIES. 185
"
The problem of three bodies
"
is in itself as determinate
and capable of solution as that of two. Given the initial data,
i.e., the masses, positions, and motions
of
the three bodies at a
given instant; then, assuming the law of gravitation, their
motions for all the future, and the positions they will occupy
at any given date are absolutely predetermined. Our present
resources of calculation are, however, inadequate.
But while the general problem of three bodies is intractable,
all the particular cases of it which arise in the consideration
of the motions of the moon and of the planets, have already
been practically solved by special devices, Newton himself
leading the way ; and the strongest proof of the truth of his
theory of gravitation lies in the fact that it not only accounts
for the regular elliptic motions of the heavenly bodies, but
also for their apparent irregularities.
262. It is quite beyond the scope of this work to discuss
the methods by which we can determine the so-called "dis-
turbing
"
forces and the effects they produce upon the other-
wise elliptical motion of the moon or of a planet. We wish
here to make only two or three remarks.
First, that the
"
disturbing force
"
of a third body upon two
which are revolving around their common centre of gravity is
not the whole attraction of the third body upon either of the
two ; but is generally only a small component of that attraction.
It depends upon the difference
of
the two attractions exerted
by the third body upon each
of
the pair whose relative motions it
disturbs,

a difference either in intensity, or in direction, or in

both. If, for instance, the sun attracted the moon and earth
alike and in parallel lines, it would not disturb the moon's
motion around the earth in the slightest degree, however pow-
erful its attraction might be. The sun always attracts the
moon more than twice as powerfully as the earth does
;
but
the sun's disturbing force upon the moon when at its very
maximum is only
-fa
of the earth's attraction.
186
PERTURBATIONS. [
262
The tyro is apt to be puzzled by thinking of the earth as
fixed
while the moon revolves around it ; he reasons, therefore, that at the
time of new moon, when the moon is between the earth and sun, the
sun would necessarily pull her away from us if its attraction were
really double that of the earth : and it would do so if the earth were
fixed. We must think of the earth and moon as both
free to move, like
chips floating on water, and of the sun as attracting them both with
nearly equal power,

the nearer of the two a little more strongly, of

course.
263. Second, it is only by a mathematical fiction that the
"
disturbed body
"
is spoken of as
"
moving in an ellipse
"
: it
does not really do so. The path of the moon, for instance,
never returns into itself. But it is a great convenience for the
purposes of computation to treat the subject as if the orbit
were a material ivire always of truly elliptical form, having the
moving body strung upon it like a bead, this orbit being con-
tinually pulled about and changed in form and size by the
action of the disturbing forces, taking the body with it of
course in all these changes. This imaginary orbit at any
moment is a true ellipse of determinable form and position,
but is constantly changing. It is in this sense that we speak
of the eccentricity of the moon's orbit as continually varying,
and its lines of apsides and nodes as revolving.
The student must be careful, however, not to let this wire theory of
orbits get so strong a hold upon the imagination that he begins to
think of the orbits as material things, liable to collision and destruc-
tion. An orbit is simply, of course, the path of a body, like the track
of a ship upon the ocean.
264. Third, the
"
disturbances
"
and
"
perturbations
"
are
such only in a technical sense. Elliptical motion is no more
natural or proper to the moon or to a planet than its actual
motion is ; nor in a philosophical sense is the pure elliptical
motion any more regular (i.e., "rule-following") than the so-
called disturbed motion.
26*1
LUNAR PERTURBATIONS.
187
We make the remark because we frequently meet the notion that
the so-called "perturbations" of the heavenly bodies are imperfections
and blemishes in the system. One good old theologian of our
acquaintance used to maintain that they were a consequence of the
fall of Adam.
265. Lunar Perturbations.

The sun is the only body
which sensibly disturbs the motion of the moon. The dis-
turbing force due to the solar attraction is continually chang-
ing its direction and intensity, and to attempt to trace out its
effects would take us far beyond our purpose. We may say,
however, that on the whole the sun's action upon the moon
slightly diminishes the effect of the earth's attraction (by
about
3^0)
and so makes the month very nearly an hour longer
than it otherwise would be.
Moreover, the continual variations in the disturbing force
are answered by a correspondingly continual writhing and
squirming of the lunar orbit, which introduces into the lunar
motions an almost countless number of so-called "inequali-
ties."
One or two of the largest of them, those especially which affect the
time of eclipses, were discovered before the time of Newton ; but it is
only within the last hundred years that the
"
lunar theory
"
has been
brought to anything like perfection, and it is by no means
"
finished
"
yet : the actual place of the moon still sometimes differs from the
almanac place by as much as 5", or say about five miles. In the
calculation of this almanac place, over a hundred separate
"
inequali-
ties
"
are now taken account of.
THE TIDES.
266. Just as the disturbing force of the sun modifies the
intensity
and direction of the earth's attraction on the moon,
so the
ai^turbing forces due to the attractions of the sun and
moon
act |
-^on the liquid portions of the earth to modify the
intensity
a^
1
direction of gravity and generate the Tides.
188
DEFINITIONS.
[J
6
These consist in a regular rise and fall of the ocean surface,
generally twice a day, the average interval between corre-
sponding high waters on successive days at any given place
being 24 hours, 51 minutes. This is precisely the same as the
average interval between two successive passages of the moon
across the meridian, and the coincidence, maintained indefi-
nitely, of itself makes it certain that there must be some
causal connection between the moon and the tides : as some
one has said, the odd 51 minutes is
"
the moon's ear-mark."
That the moon is largely responsible for the tides is also
shown by the fact that when the moon is in perigee, i.e., at the
nearest point to the earth, they are nearly 20 per cent higher
than when she is in apogee. The highest tides of all happen
when the new or full
moon occurs at the time when the moon
is in perigee, especially if this perigeal new or full moon oc-
curs about the first of January, when the earth is also nearest
to the sun.
267. Definitions. While the water is rising it is
"Jlood"
tide ; when falling, it is
"
ebb." It is
"
high water
"
at the
moment when the water level is highest, and
"
low water
"
when it is lowest. The
"
spring tides " are the largest tides
of the month, which occur near the times of new and full
moon, while the
"
neap tides
"
are the smallest, and occur at
half moon, the relative heights of spring and neap tides being
about as 8 to 3. At the time of the spring tides, the interval
between the corresponding tides of successive days is less
than the average, being only about 24 hours, 38 minutes (in-
stead of 24 hours, 51 minutes) and then the tides are said to
"prime." At the neap tides, the interval is greater than the
mean

about 25 hours, 6 minutes, and the tide

"
lags." The
"establishment" of a port is the mean interval between the
time of high water at that port and the next preceding pas-
sage of the moon across the meridian. The
"
establishment "
of
New York, for instance, is 8 hours, 13 minutes
;
but
the actual
/

267]
THE TIDE-RAISING FORCE. 189
interval between the moon's transit and high, water varies
nearly half an hour on each side of this mean value at differ-
ent times of the month, and under varying conditions of the
weather.
268. The Tide-Raising Force.

If we consider the moon

alone, it appears that the effect of her attraction upon the
earth, regarded as a liquid globe, is to distort the sphere into
a slightly lemon-shaped form, with its long diameter pointing
to the moon, raising the level of the water about two
feet, both
directly under the moon and on the opposite side of the earth
(at A and B, Fig.
68),
and very slightly depressing it on the
whole great circle which lies
half way between A and B. D
and E are two points on this
circle of depression.
Students seldom find any
difficulty in seeing that the
moon's attraction ought to
raise the level at A; but they
Fre.~68.-The Tides,
often do find it very hard to
understand why the level should also be raised at B. It seems
to them that it ought to be more depressed just there than
anywhere else. The mystery to them is how the moon, when
directly under foot, can exert a lifting force such as would
diminish one's weight. The trouble is that the student thinks
of the solid part of the earth as fixed
with reference to the
moon, and the water alone as free to move. If this were
the case, he would be entirely right in supposing that at B
gravity would be increased by the earth's attraction, instead
of diminished ; the earth, however, is not fixed, but perfectly
free to move.
269. Explanation and Calculation of the Diminution of
Gravity at the Point opposite the Moon.

Consider three par-

E
190
AMOUNT OF MOON'S TIDE-RAISING FORCE. [
269
tides, Fig.
69,
at B, G and A
9
moving with equal velocities,
Aa, Bb, and Cc, but under the action of the moon, which
at-
tracts A more powerfully than G, and
B less
so. Then if the particles have no bond of
connection, at the end of a unit of time they
will be at B', O,
and A', having followed the
curved paths indicated. But since A is near-
est the moon, its path will be the most curved
of the three, and that of B the least curved.
^
It is obvious, therefore, that the distances
of
?
both B and A
from G
tuill have been increased;
and if they were connected to G by an elastic
cord, the cord would be stretched, both A and B
being relatively pulled away from G, by prac-
tically the same amount. We say relatively,
Fig. 69. The Tide-

J
.
J
j"
Raising Force.
because G is really pulled away from B,
rather than B from G,

G being more at-

tracted by the moon than B is; but the two are separated
all the same, and that is the point.
270. The Amount of the Moon's Tide-Raising Force, When
the moon is either in the zenith or nadir, the weight of a body
at the earth's surface is diminished by about one part in eight
and a half millions, or one pound in four thousand tons.
At a point which has the moon on its horizon, it can be
shown that gravity is increased by just half as much, or about
one seventeen-millionth.
The computation of the moon's lifting force at A and B (Fig.
68)
is as follows : The distance of the moon from the earth's centre is
60 earth radii, so that the distances from A and B are 59 and 61 re-
spectively. The moon's mass is about
-gL
of the earth's. Taking
g
for the force of gravity at the surface of the earth, we have, therefore,
attraction of moon on A =
,
attraction on C = ~,
,
and
oO
X OfcH oU
X
oO
attraction on B
=
. From this we find,
oO
X
ol
270]
THE SUN'S TIDE-PRODUCING FORCE.
191
^-C
>
=
80'
and
(
C
-

)
=
883l000-
Several attempts have been made within the last twenty years to
detect this variation of weight by direct experiment, but so far un-
successfully. The variations are too small.
The moon's attraction also produces everywhere except at
A, B, D, and E (Fig.
68)
a tangential force
which urges the
particles along the surface towards the line AB, and this
force actually preponderates in the tide-making.
271. The Sun's Tide-Producing Force.

The sun acts pre-

cisely as the moon does, but being nearly four hundred times
as far away,
1
its tidal action, notwithstanding its enormous
mass, is less than that of the moon in the proportion (nearly)
of 5 to 11. At new and full moon, the tidal forces of the sun
and moon conspire, and we then have the spring tides
;
while
at quadrature they are opposed and we get the neap tides.
The relative height of the spring and neap tides has already
been stated as about 8 to 3 (i.e.,
11-f
5 : 11

5).
272. The Motion of the Tides. If the earth were wholly
composed of water, and if it kept always the same face
towards the moon (as the moon does towards the earth) so
that every particle on the earth's surface were always sub-
jected to the same disturbing force from the moon; then, leav-
ing out of account the sun's action for the present, a permanent
tide would be raised upon the earth as indicated in Fig. 68.
The difference between the level at A and D would in this
case be a little less than two feet.
1
The
"
tide-producing force
"
of a heavenly body varies inversely as
the cube of its distance, and directly as its mass.
192 THE MOTION OF THE TIDES.
[
272
Suppose, now, the earth to be put in rotation. It is easy
to see that the two tidal waves A and B would move over the
earth's surface, following the moon at a certain angle depend-
ent on the inertia of the water, and tending to move with a
westward velocity precisely equal to that of the earth's east-
ward rotation, about 1000 miles an hour at the equator.
The sun's action would produce similar tides superposed upon
the lunar tides, and about five-elevenths as large, and at dif-
ferent times of the month these two pairs of tides would be
differently related, as has already been explained, sometimes
conspiring, and sometimes opposed.
If the earth were entirely covered with water, the tide waves
would run around the earth regularly ; and if the water were
more than 14 miles deep, the two wave crests would still lie
one under the moon, the other at its antipodes.
If the depth of the water were (as it really is) much less
than 14 miles, the crests of the tide waves would, in the
equatorial regions, follow the moon at an angle of 90, while
in the polar regions they would still move as in the case of
the deeper ocean. In some intermediate latitude there would
be a belt of eddying currents without rise or fall. We do not,
however, undertake to prove these results.
These results are, of course, enormously complicated by
the existence of the great continental barriers, running
more or less north and south. Consider also the vary-
ing depth of the water of the different oceans and the
irregular contours of the shores, and it is evident that
the whole combination of circumstances makes it quite
impossible to determine by theory what the course and
character of the tide waves must be. We are obliged
to depend upon observations, and observations are more
or less inadequate because, with the exception of a few
islands, our only possible tide-stations are on the shores
of continents where local circumstances largely control the
phenomena.

273] FREE AND FORCED OSCILLATIONS. 193

273. Free and Forced Oscillations. If the water of the
ocean is suddenly disturbed, as for instance by an earthquake,
and then left to itself, a
"
free wave
"
is formed, which, if the
horizontal dimensions of the wave are large as compared with
the depth of the water, will travel at a rate depending solely on
the depth.
Its velocity is equal, as can be proved, to the velocity acquired by a
body in falling through half
the depth
of
the ocean;
i.e.,
v
= Vgh, where h is the depth of the water.
Observations upon waves caused by certain earthquakes in South
America and Japan have thus informed us, that between the coasts of
those countries the Pacific averages between
2\
and 3 miles in depth.
Now, as the moon in its apparent diurnal motion passes
across the American continent each day, and comes over the
Pacific Ocean, it starts such a
"
parent
"
wave in the Pacific,
and a second one twelve hours later. These waves, once
started, move on nearly (but not exactly) like a free earth-
quake wave : not exactly, because the velocity of the earth's
rotation being about 1050 miles an hour at the equator, the
moon moves (relatively) westward faster than the wave can
naturally follow it ; and so for a while the moon slightly ac-
celerates the wave. The tidal wave is thus, in its origin, a
"
forced oscillation
"
: in its subsequent travel it is very nearly,
but not entirely,
"
free."
274. Co-Tidal Lines.

Co-tidal lines are lines drawn upon

the surface of the ocean connecting points which have their
high water at the same moment
of
Greenwich time. They mark
the crest of the tide wave for every hour, and if we could map
them with certainty, we should have all necessary information
as to the actual motion of the tide wave. Unfortunately
we
can get no direct knowledge as to the position of these lines
in mid-ocean : we can only determine a few points here and
194 COURSE OF TRAVEL OF THE TIDAL WAVE. [
274
there on the coasts and on the islands, so that much neces-
sarily is left to conjecture. Fig. 70 is a reduced copy of a
co-tidal map, borrowed by permission, with some modifications,
from Guyot's "Physical Geography."
275. Course of Travel of the Tidal Wave.

In studying this
map, we find that the main or
"
parent " wave starts twice a day in
the Pacific, off Callao, on the coast of South America. This is shown
on the chart by a sort of oval
"
eye
"
in the co-tidal lines, just as on a
topographical chart the summit of a mountain is indicated by an
"
eye
"
in the contour lines. From this point the wave travels north-
west through the deep water of the Pacific, at the rate of about 850
miles an hour, reaching Kamtchatka in ten hours. Through the shal-
lower water to the west and southwest, the velocity is only from 400
to 600 miles an hour, so that the wave arrives at New Zealand about
12 hours old. Passing on by Australia, and combining with the
small wave which the moon raises directly in the Indian Ocean, the
resultant tide crest reaches the Cape of Good Hope in about 29
hours, and enters the Atlantic. Here it combines with a smaller
tide wave, 12 hours younger, which has
"
backed
"
into the Atlantic
around Cape Horn, and it is also modified by the direct tide produced
by the moon's action upon the Atlantic. The tide resulting from the
combination of these three then travels northward through the Atlantic
at the rate of nearly 700 miles an hour. It is about
forty
hours old
when it first reaches the coast of the United States in Florida ; and
our coast is so situated that it arrives at all the principal ports within
two or three hours of that time. It is 41 or 42 hours old when it
reaches New York and Boston. To reach London, it has to travel
around the northern end of Scotland and through the North Sea, and
is nearly 60 hours old when it arrives at that port, and at the ports of
the German Ocean.
In the great oceans, there are thus three or four tide crests travel-
ling simultaneously, following each other nearly in the same track,
but with continual minor changes. If we take into account the tides
in rivers and sounds, the number of simultaneous tide crests must be
at least six or seven ; i.e., the tidal wave at the extremity of its travel
(up the Amazon River for instance) must be at least three or four
days old, reckoned from its birth in the Pacific.
196 TIDES IN RIVERS. [
276
276. Tides in Rivers.

The tide wave ascends a river at a rate

which depends upon the depth of the water, the amount of friction,
and the swiftness of the stream. It may, and generally does, ascend
until it comes to a rapid where the velocity of the current is greater
than that of the wave. In shallow streams, however, it dies out ear-
lier. Contrary to what is usually supposed, it often ascends to an eleva-
tion
far
above that
of
the highest crest
of
the tide wave at the river's mouth.
In the La Plata and Amazon, it goes up to an elevation of at least 100
feet above the sea level. The velocity of the tide wave in a river
seldom exceeds 10 or 20 miles an hour, and is usually much less.
277. Height of Tides.

In mid-ocean, the difference be-
tween high and low water is usually between two and three
feet, as observed on isolated islands in deep water ; but on
continental shores the height is ordinarily much greater. As
soon as the tide wave "touches bottom," so to speak, the ve-
Fig. 71.

Increase in Height of Tide on approaching the Shore.

locity is diminished, the tide crests are crowded more closely
together, and the height of tne wave is increased somewhat as
indicated in Fig. 71. Theoretically, it varies inversely as the
fourth root
of
the depth; i.e., where the water is 100 feet deep,
the tide wave should be twice as high as at the depth of 1600
feet.
Where the configuration of the shore forces the tide into a
corner, it sometimes rises very high. At the head of the Bay
of Fundy tides of 70 feet are said to be not uncommon, and
some of nearly 100 feet have been reported.
278. Effect of the Wind, and Changes in Barometric Pressure.

When the wind blows into the mouth of a harbor, it drives in the
water by its surface friction, and may raise the level several feet. In
such cases the time of high water, contrary to what might at first be

278]
TIDES IN LAKES AND INLAND SEAS.
197
supposed, is delayed, sometimes as much as 15 or 20 minutes. This
depends upon the fact that the water runs into the harbor for a longer
time than it would do if the wind were not blowing.
When the wind blows out of the harbor, of course there is a corre-
sponding effect in the opposite direction.
When the barometer at a given port is lower than usual, the level of
the water is usually higher than it otherwise would be, at the rate of
about one foot for every inch of difference between the average and
actual heights of the barometer.
279. Tides in Lakes and Inland Seas.

These are small and

difficult to detect. Theoretically, the range between high and low
water in a land-locked sea should bear about the same ratio to the rise
and fall of tide in mid-ocean that the length of the sea does to the
diameter of the earth. On the coasts of the Mediterranean the tide
averages less than 18 inches, but it reaches the height of three or
four feet at the head of some of the gulfs. In Lake Michigan, at
Chicago, a tide of about
If
inches has been detected, the
"
establish-
ment
"
of Chicago being about 30 minutes.
280. Effects of the Tides on the Rotation of the Earth.

If the tidal motion consisted merely in the rising and falling of the
particles of the ocean to the extent of some two feet twice daily, it
would involve a very trifling expenditure of energy ; and this is the
case with the mid-ocean tide. But near the land this slight oscillatory
motion is transformed into the bodily travelling of immense masses
of water, which flow in upon the shallows and then out again to sea
with a great amount of fluid friction
;
and this involves the expendi-
ture of a very considerable amount of energy. From what source
does this energy come ?
The answer is that it must be derived mainly from the earth's
energy of rotation, and the necessary effect is to lessen the speed of
rotation, and to lengthen the day. Compared with the earth's whole
stock of rotational energy, however, the loss by tidal friction even in
a century is very small, and the theoretical effect on the length of the
day extremely slight. Moreover, while it is certain that the tidal
friction, by itself considered, lengthens the day, it does not follow that
the day grow
T
s longer. There are counteracting causes,

for in-
stance, the earth's radiation of heat into space and the consequent
198 EFFECT OF TIDE ON MOON'S MOTION.
[280
shrinkage of her volume. At present we do not know as a
fact
whether the day is really longer or shorter than it was a thousand
years ago
second.
The change, if real, cannot well be as great as
j^
of a
M
281. Effect of the Tide on the Moon's Motion.

Not only
does the tide diminish the earth's energy of rotation directly by the
tidal friction, but theoretically it also communicates a minute portion
of that energy to the moon. It will be seen that
a tidal wave situated as in Fig. 72 would slightly
accelerate the moon's motion, the attraction of
the moon by the tidal protuberance, F, being
slightly greater than that of the opposite wave
at F'. This difference would tend to draw it
along in its orbit, thus slightly increasing its
velocity, and so indirectly increasing the major
axis of the moon's orbit, as well as its pe-
riod. The tendency is, therefore, to make the
moon recede from the earth and to lengthen the
month.
Upon this interaction between the tides and
the motions of the earth and moon, Prof. George
Darwin has founded his theory of "tidal evolu-
tion" viz., that the satellites of a planet, having
separated from it millions of years ago, have
been made to recede to their present distances
by just such an action. An excellent popular
statement of this theory will be found in the
closing chapter of Sir Robert Ball's
"
Story of the Heavens," and a
fuller one in Darwin's book,
"
The Tides," Chapters XVI and XVII.
Fig. 72.
Effect of the Tide on
the Moon's Motion.
282]
THE PLANETS IN GENERAL. 199
CHAPTER X.
THE PLANETS IN GENERAL.
BODE'S LAW.

THE APPARENT MOTIONS OF THE PLAN-

ETS.

THE ELEMENTS OF THEIR ORBITS.

DETERMI-
NATION OF PERIODS AND DISTANCES.

STABILITY OF
THE SYSTEM.

DETERMINATION OF THE DATA RELAT-

ING TO THE PLANETS THEMSELVES.

DIAMETER, MASS,
ROTATION, SURFACE-CHARACTER, ATMOSPHERE, ETC.

herschel's ILLUSTRATION OF THE SCALE OF THE

SYSTEM.
282. The stars preserve their relative configurations, how-
ever much they alter their positions in the sky from hour to
hour. The Dipper remains always a
"
Dipper
"
in every part
of its diurnal circuit. But certain of the heavenly bodies,
and among them the most conspicuous, behave differently.
The sun and moon continually change their places, moving
always eastward among the constellations ; and a few others,
which to the eye appear as very brilliant stars (really not
stars at all), also move,
1
though not in quite so simple a way.
These moving bodies were called by the Greeks "planets"
;
i.e., "wanderers." The ancient astronomers counted seven of
them, the sun and the moon, and in addition Mercury,
Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. At present, the sun and
1
When we speak of the
"
motion
"
of the planets, the reader will un-
derstand that the apparent diurnal motion is not meant. We refer to
their motions among the stars; i.e., their change of right ascension and
declination.
200 DISTANCES OF THE PLANETS FROM THE SUN. [
282
moon are not reckoned as planets, but the roll includes, in addi-
tion to the five other bodies known to the ancients, the earth
itself, which Copernicus showed should be counted among
them, and also two new bodies (Uranus and Neptune) of great
magnitude, though inconspicuous because of their distance.
Then there is, in addition, the host of the so-called asteroids.
283. The list of the planets in the order of their distance
from the sun stands thus at present,

Mercury, Venus, the

Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune ; and between
Mars and Jupiter, where another planet would naturally be ex-
pected, there have already been found more than eight hundred
little planets, or
"
asteroids" which probably represent a single
planet somehow either
"
spoiled in the making/' so to speak,
or else subsequently burst into fragments. These planets are
all (probably) dark bodies, shining only by reflected light,

globes which, like the earth, revolve around the sun in orbits
nearly circular, moving all of them in the same direction, and
(with some exceptions among the asteroids) nearly in the
common plane of the ecliptic. All but the inner two and the
asteroids are attended by
"
satellites." Of these the earth has
one (the moon), Mars two, Jupiter nine, Saturn nine, Uranus
four, and Neptune one.
284. Relative Distances of the Planets from the Sun ; Bode's
Law.

There is a curious approximate relation between the

distances of the planets from the sun, usually known as
"
Bode's Law."
It is this : Write a series of 4's. To the second 4 add
3,
to
the third, add 3 x 2,
or
6
; to the fourth, 4
x 3,
or
12
; and so on,
doubling the added number each time, as in the following scheme.
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
3 6 12 24 48 96 192 384
4 7 10 16
[28]
52 100 196 388
2 9
$

% k
W
284]
TABLE OF NAMES, DISTANCES, ETC. 201
The resulting numbers (divided by 10)
are approximately
equal to the true mean distances of the planets from the sun,
expressed in radii of the earth's orbit (astronomical units)
;

excepting Neptune however; in his case the law breaks down

utterly. For the present, at least, it is to be regarded as a
mere coincidence, rather than a real
"
law." No satisfactory
explanation of it has yet been found.
285. Table of Names, Distances, and Periods.
Name. Symbol. Distance. Bode. DlFF. Sid. Period.
Syn.
Period.
Mercury ....
Venus
Earth
Mars
e
0.387
0.723
1.000
1.523
0.4
0.7
1.0
1.6
-0.013
+
0.023
0.000
-0.077
88
d
or 3
mo-
224.7
d
or 7|
mo-
3651
d
or U
687
d
orlyl0
mo-
116
d
584
d
780*
Mean Asteroid 2.650 2.8 -0.150 3r.l
to 8^.0 various
Jupiter ....
Saturn
Uranus ....
Neptune ....
5.202
9.539
19.183
30.054
5.2
10.0
19.6
38.8
+
0.002
-
0.461
-0.417
-
8.746 !
113.9 *
29?.5
84^.0
164-.8
399
d
378
d
370
d
367J
d
The column headed "Bode" gives the distance according to Bode's
law ; the column headed
"
Diff
.,"
the difference between the true distance
and that given by Bode's law.
Fig. 73 shows the smaller orbits of the system (including
the orbit of Jupiter), drawn to scale, the radius of the earth's
orbit being taken as one centimetre. On this scale the di-
ameter of Saturn's orbit would be 19
cm
.08, that of Uranus
would be 38
cm
.36, and that of Neptune 60
cm
.ll, or about 2
feet. The nearest fixed star, on the same scale, would be
about a mile and a quarter away. It will be seen that the
orbits of Mercury, Mars, Jupiter, and several of the asteroids
are quite distinctly
"
out of centre " with respect to the
sun.
202 PERIODS.
[286
286. Periods.

The Sidereal Period of a planet is the time

of its revolution around the sun, from a star to the same star
again, as seen from the sun. The Synodic Period is the time
between two successive conjunctions of the planet with the
sun, as seen from
the earth.
Fig. 73. Plan of the Smaller Planetary Orbits.
The sidereal and synodic periods are connected by the same
relation as the sidereal and synodic months (Art.
141),
namely,
1
_
1
__1
~s~p~e'
286]
APPAKENT MOTIONS.
203
in which E, P,
and S are respectively the periods of the earth and of
the planet, and the planet's synodic period, and the numerical differ-
ence between

and

is to be taken without regard to sign

;
i.e., for
an inferior planet,
- =
;
for a superior one, =

. The
S P E SEP
two last columns of the table of Art. 285 give the approximate
periods, both sidereal and synodic, for the different planets.
287. Apparent Motions.

If we imagine a line drawn
through the sun perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic, the
planets, from a distant point on this line, would be seen to
travel in their nearly circular orbits with a steady, forward
motion; but viewed from the earth, the apparent motion is
complicated, being made up of their own real motion around
the sun, combined with an apparent motion due to the earth's
own movement.
The apparent motion of a body relative to the earth can be
very simply stated. Every body which is really at rest will
appear, as seen from the earth, to move in an orbit identically
like the earth's orbit, and parallel to it, but keeping in such a
part of this apparent orbit as alivays to have its motion precisely
equal and opposite the earth's own real motion at the moment.
If a body is really moving, its apparent motion with respect
to the earth will be found by combining its motion with an-
other motion equal to that of the earth, but reversed. It is not
difficult to prove this, but our space will not permit.
288. Effect of the Combination of the Earth's Motion with
that of a Planet.

The apparent or
"
geocentric" motion of a
planet is therefore made up of two motions, and appears to be
that of a body moving once a year around the circumference
of a circle equal to the earth's orbit, while the centre of
this circle itself goes around the sun upon the real orbit
of the planet, and with a periodic time equal to that of the
planet.
204
EXPLANATION OF TERMS.
[288
Jupiter, for instance, appears to move as in Fig. 74,
making 11
loops in each revolution, the smaller circle having a diameter of about
one-fifth of the larger one, upon
which its centre moves, since
the diameter of Jupiter's orbit
is about five times that of the
earth.
As a consequence, we
have an apparent back-and-
forth movement of the
planets among the stars.
They move eastward (tech-
nically
"
advance ")
part of
the time, and part of the
time they move westward
(technically "retrograde "),
the arc of retrogression be-
ing, however, always less than that of advance.
Fig. 74.
Apparent Geocentric Motion of Jupiter.
289. Explanation of Terms. Fig. 75 illustrates the mean-
ing of a number of terms which are used in describing a
planet's position with reference to the sun, viz., Opposition,
Quadrature, Inferior and Superior Conjunction, and Greatest
Elongation. E is the position of the earth, the inner circle
being the orbit of an
"
inferior
"
planet, while the outer circle
is the orbit of a "superior" planet. In general, the angle
PES (the angle at the earth between lines drawn from the
earth to the planet and the sun) is the planet's elongation.
For a superior planet, it can have any value from zero to 180
;
for an inferior, it has a maximum value that the planet can-
not exceed, depending upon the diameter of its orbit.
290. Motion of a Planet in Eight Ascension and Longitude.

Starting from the line of superior conjunction, the planet whether

superior or inferior, moves eastward or
"
direct
"
for a time, but at a
290]
MOTION OF THE PLANETS. 205
rate continually slackening until the planet becomes "stationary";
then it reverses its course and moves westward, the middle
of
the arc
of
retrogression nearly coinciding with the point where it comes to
opposition or inferior conjunction. After a time it becomes once
more stationary, and then resumes its eastward motion until it again
arrives at superior conjunction, having completed a synodic period.
In time, as well as in degrees, the
"
advance " always exceeds the
"retrogression."
As observed with a sidereal clock, all the planets come later to the
meridian each night when moving direct, since their right ascension is
then increasing
;
vice versa, of course, when they are retrograding.
Conjunction
Opposition
Fig. 75.

Planetary Configurations and Aspects.
291. Motion of the Planets with respect to the Sun's Place in
the Sky ; Change of Elongation.

The visibility of a planet

depends mainly on its
"
elongation" (i.e., its angular distance
from the sun), because when near the sun, the planet will be
above
the horizon only by day. As regards their motion, con-
206
MOTION OF THE PLANETS.
[
291
sidered from this point of view, there is a marked difference
between the inferior planets and the superior.
I. The superior planets drop always steadily westward with
respect to the sun's place in the heavens, continually increasing
their western elongation or decreasing their eastern. As ob-
served by an ordinary time-piece (keeping solar time), they
therefore invariably come earlier to the meridian every succes-
sive night, never moving eastward among the stars as rapidly
as the sun does.
Beginning at conjunction, the planet is then behind the sun, at its
greatest distance from the earth, and invisible. It soon, however,
reappears in the morning, rising before the sun, and passes on to
western quadrature, when it rises at midnight. Thence it moves on
to opposition, when it is nearest and brightest, and rises at sunset.
Still dropping westward and receding, it by and by reaches eastern
quadrature and is on the meridian at sunset. Thence it still crawls
sluggishly westward until it is lost in the evening twilight and com-
pletes its synodic period by again reaching conjunction.
292. II. The inferior planets, on the other hand, apparently
oscillate across the sun, moving out equal distances on each side
of it, but making the westward swing much more quickly than
the eastward.
At superior conjunction an inferior planet is moving eastwardfaster
than the sun. Accordingly it creeps out into the twilight as an even-
ing star, and continues to increase its apparent distance from the sun
until it reaches its
"
greatest eastern elongation
"
(47 for Venus
;
for
Mercury, from
18
to 28). Then the sun begins to gain upon it, and
as the planet itself soon begins to retrograde, the elongation diminishes
rapidly, and the planet rushes back towards inferior conjunction, passes
it, and, as a morning star, moves swiftly out to its western elongation.
Then it turns and climbs slowly back to superior conjunction again.
293. Motions in Latitude.
If the planets' orbits lay precisely
in the same plane with the earth's orbit, they would always keep
exactly in the ecliptic; but while the orbits of the larger planets
never go far from that circle, they do, in fact, deviate a few degrees, so
293] MOTIONS IN LATITUDE. 207
that their paths in the heavens form more or less complicated loops and
kinks. Fig. 75*
shows the loops made by Saturn and Uranus in 1897.
Fig. 75*. Motion of Saturn and Uranus in 1897.
294. Ptolemaic System.
Assuming the fixity and central posi-
tion of the earth and the actual revolution of the heavens, Ptolemy,
who flourished at Alexandria about 140 a.d., worked out the system
which bears his name. In his great work, the Almagest, which for
14 centuries was the authoritative "Scripture of Astronomy," he
showed that all the apparent motions of the planets, so far as then
observed, could be accounted for by supposing each planet to move
around the circumference of a circle called the
"
epicycle" while the
centre of this circle, sometimes called the fictitious planet," itself
moved around the earth on the circumference of another and larger
circle called the "deferent." To account for some of the irregularities
of the planets, however, it was necessary to suppose that both the
deferent and epicycle, though circular, are eccentric.
295. The Copernican System.

Copernicus
(1473-1543) as-
serted the diurnal rotation of the earth on its axis, and showed
that this would fully account for the apparent diurnal revo-
lution of the heavens. He also showed that nearly all the
208
known motions of the planets could be accounted for by sup-
posing them to revolve around the sun (with the earth as *one
of them) in orbits circular, but slightly out of centre. His
system, as he left it, was very nearly that which is accepted
to-day, and Fig. 73 may be taken as representing it. He was
obliged, however, to retain a few small epicycles to account
for certain of the irregularities.
So far, no one had dared to doubt the exact circularity of the
celestial orbits. It was considered metaphysically improper
that heavenly bodies should move in any but perfect curves,
and no curve but the circle was recognized as such. It was
left for Kepler, some 65 years later than Copernicus, to show
that the planetary orbits are elliptical, and to bring the system
substantially into the form in which we know it now.
296. The Elements of a Planet's Orbit are a set of numer-
ical quantities, seven in number, which embody a complete
description of the orbit, and supply the data for the prediction
(perturbations excepted) of the planet's exact place at any
time in the past or future.
An explanation of them will be found in the Appendix,
Art. 507.
There is a general method, the discussion of which lies quite beyond
our reach, by which all the seven elements of a planet's orbit can be
deduced from any three perfectly accurate observations of the right
ascension and declination of the body, separated by a few weeks' inter-
val (excepting, however, one or two special cases where the observed
places are so peculiarly situated that a fourth observation becomes
necessary). Of course, if the observations are not perfect, and they
never are, the orbit deduced will be only approximate ; but in ordinary
cases three observations such as are now usually made at our standard
observatories, with an interval of a month or so between the extremes,
will give a very fair approximation to the orbit, which can then be
corrected by further observation. This general method of computing
the orbit from three observations was invented in 1801, by Gauss,
then a young man of 23, in connection with the discovery of Ceres,
planet's period.
209
the first of the asteroids, which, after its discovery by Piazzi, was soon
lost to observation in the rays of the sun.
Since, however, the planetary orbits are for the most part
approximately circular, and nearly in the plane of the ecliptic,
they are described with sufficient accuracy for many purposes
by giving simply the planet's mean distance from the sun with
the corresponding period.
297. Determination of a Planet's Sidereal Period.
This
may be effected by determining the mean synodic period, of
the planet from a comparison of the dates of two conjunctions
or oppositions, widely separated in time. The exact instant of
opposition is found from a series of right ascensions and dec-
linations observed about the proper date ; and by comparing
the deduced longitudes with the corresponding longitudes of
the sun, we easily find the precise moment when the difference
was
180.
When the synodic period is found, the sidereal is
given by the equations of Art. 286, viz.,
=
for an
S P E
inferior planet and
- =
for a superior one. In the first
case, P
=
; in the second, . It will not answer for
'
S+E* ' S-E
m
this purpose to deduce the synodic period from two successive
oppositions, because, on account of the eccentricity of the
orbits, both of the planet and of the earth, the synodic peri-
ods are somewhat variable. The observations must be suffi-
ciently separated in time to give a good determination of the
mean synodic period.
298. Geometrical Method of Determining a Planet's Distance
in Astronomical Units.

When we have found the planet's

sidereal period, we can easily ascertain its distance from the
sun in astronomical units by means of two observations of
its elongation
from the sun, made at two dates separated by an
interval
of
exactly one
of
its periods.
210 planet's distance from sun.
[298
The
"
elongation," it will be remembered, is the difference between
the longitude of the planet and that of the sun as seen from the earth,
and is determined for any given instant by means of a series of
meridian-circle observations of both sun and planet covering the
desired date.
299. To find the distance of Mars, for instance, we must
have two elongations ooserved at an interval of 687 (686.95)
days, so that the planet at the second observation will be at
the same point, M, (Fig.
76)
which it occupied at first. If the
Fig. 76.

Determination of the Distance of a Planet from the Sun.

earth was at A at the first observation, then at the second she
will be at a point, C, so situated that the angle ASC will be
that which the earth will describe in the next
43^ days (the
difference between 687 days and two complete years) and is
299]
planet's distance from sun. 211
therefore known. The two angles SAM and SCMare the two
elongations of the planet, given directly by the observations.
The two sides SA and SC are also known, being the earth's
distance from the sun at the two times of observation.
Hence,
knowing two adjacent sides of the quadrilateral and its angles,
we can easily solve it (as in Art.
149),
and find SM, and also
the angle ASMor CSM, which determines the direction of M
from S at that point in its orbit.
The student can follow out for himself the process by which, from
two elongations of Venus, SA V and SBV, observed at an interval of
225 days, SV can be determined.
300. Prom a sufficient number of such pairs of observations
distributed around the planet's orbit, it will evidently be pos-
sible to work out completely the magnitude and form of the
orbit, and it was actually in just this way that Kepler, from
the observations of Tycho, showed that the planetary orbits
are ellipses, and deduced their relative distances from the sun
as compared with that of the earth. His harmonic law was
then discovered by simply comparing the periods with the dis-
tances. Now that we have
the "harmonic law," a plan-
et's approximate mean dis-
tance can, of course, be much
more easily found by apply-
ing the law (the period being
given) than by the geometri-
cal method.
301. Simple Method of find
ing the Distance of an Infe
rior Planet.

In the case of
Distan
Venus, which has a practically
circular orbit, the method illus-
trated by Fig. 77 may be used. "When the planet is at its greatest
elongation, the angle SVE is sensibly a right angle, so that we need
Fig. 77.
ce of an Inferior Planet determined by
Observations of its Greatest Elongation.
212 PLANETARY PELlTURBATIOtfS. [
301
only to know SE and the angle of greatest elongation, ESV, in order
to compute SV. Mercury's orbit is so eccentric that the method in
his case will give only rough approximations.
302. Planetary Perturbations.

The attractions of the plan-

ets for each other disturb their otherwise elliptical motion
around the sun, somewhat as the sun disturbs the motion of
the moon around the earth ; but the disturbing forces are in
nearly all cases small, and the resulting perturbations, as a
rule, are much less than in the case of the moon. They are
divided into two great classes,

the periodic and the secular.

303. Periodic Perturbations.

The periodic are such as de-

pend upon the relative positions of the planets in their orbits,
and generally run through their course in less than a century,
though there are some with periods exceeding a thousand
years. For the most part they are trifling in amount.
Those of Mercury never exceed 15", as seen from the sun. Those
of Venus may reach 30" ; those of the earth about 1' ; and those of
Mars a little over
2'. The mutual disturbances of Jupiter and Saturn
are much larger, reaching
28'
and
48'
respectively. Those of Uranus
never exceed 3', and those of Neptune are smaller yet. In the case
of asteroids, however, disturbed by Jupiter, the displacement is some-
times enormous, as much as
8
or
10.
304. Secular Perturbations.

These are such as depend
not on the positions of the planets in their orbits, but on the
relative positions
of
the orbits themselves. Since these positions
change very slowly, these perturbations, though in the strict
sense periodic also, are extremely slow in their develop-
ment, running along, as the name implies,
"from
age to age,"
in periods to be reckoned only by myriads and millions of
years.
La Place and La Grange a century ago supposed that they
had proved that the major axes and periods of the orbits will
304]
STABILITY OF THE PLANETARY SYSTEM. 213
never be changed by these secular perturbations, but will
remain, in. the long run, absolutely constant. Poincare has
recently shown, however, that their proof is not conclusive.
"Never" and "absolutely" are words too strong.
The nodes
x
and perihelia, on the other hand, move around continu-
ously. All the nodes regress, and all the lines of apsides advance (that
of Venus alone excepted). The shortest of their periods of revolu-
tion is 37,000 years, the longest over half a million.
The inclinations of the orbits to the plane of the ecliptic oscillate
back and forth,
in periods (not regular, however) of many thousand
years, but the oscillations are confined within a very few degrees.
The eccentricities also oscillate back and forth in a similar way, alter-
nately increasing and decreasing, but only within narrow limits.
305. Stability of the System.

The solar system, therefore,

will not for millions of years, perhaps never, suffer serious
derangement from perturbations due to the mutual attraction
of the planets. The mean distances and periods of the orbits
will long remain practically unchanged; the changes in the
position of node and perihelion are of no consequence, and
the alterations in the inclination and eccentricity, which
would be serious if they were extensive, are confined within
narrow limits.
It does not follow, however, that because the mutual attrac-
tions of its members cannot seriously derange the system,
there may not be other causes which can do so. There are
many conceivable actions which would necessarily terminate
in its destruction, such as the retardation of planetary motions
which would be caused by a resisting medium, or by the en-
counter with a sufficiently dense swarm of meteoric matter.
We add also that the asteroids have not the same guarantees
of safety as the larger planets. The changes of their inclina-
tions and eccentricities are not narrowly limited.'
1
The nodes of a planet's orbit are the points where their orbits cut the
ecliptic, like the nodes of the moon's orbit (Art. 142). The perihelia are
the points nearest the sun.
214 THE PLANETS THEMSELVES.
[306
THE PLANETS THEMSELVES.
306. In studying the planetary system, we meet a number
of subjects of inquiry which, refer to the individual planet,
and not at all to its orbit,

such, for instance, as its magni-

tude; its mass, density, and surface gravity ; its axial rotation
and ellipticity ; its brightness, phases, and
reflecting power or
"albedo" and the spectroscopic qualities
of
its light ; its atmos-
phere; its surface-markings and topography ; and, finally, its
satellite system.
307. Magnitude.

The size of a planet is found by measur-

ing its angular diameter with some form of micrometer (see
Appendix, Art. 542). Since we can find the distance of a
planet from the earth at any moment when we know the ele-
ments of its orbit, this will give us the means of finding at
once the planet's linear diameter. It will come out in astro-
nomical units (i.e., in terms of the earth's mean distance from
the sun) if the planet's distance is expressed in such units : if
we know the value of that unit (about 93,000000 miles), which
depends upon our knowledge of the solar parallax, then we
can also find the planet's diameter in miles.
The equation is simply
d"
Linear diameter =D x
206265
in which D is the distance of the planet from the earth, and d" the
number of seconds of arc in its measured diameter.
308. It is customary to divide the real semi-diameter or
radius of the planet by that of the earth, and call the quotient
r (i.e., r is the number of times the planet's semi-diameter
exceeds that of the earth). The area of the planet's surface
(compared with that of the earth) then equals r
2
,
and its
volume or bulk equals r
3
.

308]
MASS, DENSITY, AND SURFACE GRAVITY.
215
If, as is nearly the case with Jupiter, the diameter is eleven times
that of the earth, r=ll; the surface of Jupiter = r
2
=
121, and the
volume
=
r
3
= 1331 times that of the earth.
The nearer the planet, other things being equal, the more
accurately r and the quantities derived from it can be deter-
mined. An error of 0".l in measuring the apparent diameter
of Venus when nearest counts for less than 13 miles, while
in Neptune's case it would correspond to more than 1300.
309. Mass, Density, and Surface Gravity.

If the planet
has a satellite, its mass is very easily and accurately found
from the proportion
1
A
s
a?
Mass of sun : mass of planet : :

- :
,
in which A is the mean distance of the planet from the sun
and T its sidereal period of revolution ; while a is the distance
of the satellite from the planet, and t its sidereal period.
Substantially the same proportion may be used to compare
the planet with the earth, viz.,
o a
Earth
-f
moon : planet
-f-
satellite : :
-^
:
-^,
t
x
t
2
a and t being here the distance and period of the moon, and
a
2
and t
2
those of the planet's satellite.
For a demonstration of these proportions, see Appendix, Art. 508.
When a planet has no satellite its mass can be determined only by
means of the perturbations which it produces in the motion of othei
planets, or of comets.
1
The proportion given is not absolutely correct. Strictly the first
ratio of the proportion should be
Mass
of
sun
-f
planet : mass
of
planet + satellite;
and moreover, the T and t used must be, not exactly the actual periods,
but the periods cleared
of
perturbations ; the difference in the result is,
however, insignificant, except in cases involving the earth and moon.
216
DATA RELATING TO THE PLANET'S LIGHT. [
309
Having the planet's mass compared with the earth, we get
its density by dividing the mass by the volume ; i.e.,
Density =
-.
The superficial
gravity, i.e., the force of gravity on the plan-
et's surface compared with that of the earth (neglecting the
centrifugal force due to its rotation) is simply
^.
310. The Rotation Period and Data connected with it.

The length of the planet's day, when it can be determined at

all, is ascertained by observing some spot upon the planet's
disc, and noting the interval between its returns to the same
apparent position. The spectroscope may also be used.
In reducing the observations, account has to be taken of the con-
tinual change in the direction of the planet from the earth, and also
of the variations of its distance, which alter the time taken by light
in reaching us.
The inclination of the planet's equator to the plane of its
orbit, and the position of its equinoxes, are deduced from the
same observations that give the planet's rotation period
;
we
have to observe the path pursued by a spot in its motion
across the disc. Only Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn permit us to
find these elements of their rotation with any considerable
accuracy.
The
"
elliptitity,"
"
oblateness," (Art.
90)
or
"
polar compres-
sion
"
of the planet, due to its rotation, is found by micromet-
ric measures of its polar and equatorial diameters.
311. Data relating to the Planet's Light.

The planet's
brightness, and its reflecting power or
"
albedo," are deter-
mined by photometric observations
;
and the spectroscopic
peculiarities of its light are, of course, studied with the spec-
troscope. The question of its atmosphere is investigated also
311
J
SATELLITE SYSTEM. 217
by means of various effects upon the planet's appearance and
light. The planet's surface-markings and topography are stud-
ied directly with the telescope, by making careful drawings
of the appearances noted at different times. If the planet has
any
well marked and characteristic spots upon it, by which
the time of rotation can be found, then it soon becomes easy
to identify such as are really permanent, and after a time to
chart them more or less perfectly ; but we add immediately,
that Mars is the only planet of which, so far, we have been
able to make anything which can be called a map.
312. Satellite System.

The principal data to be ascer-

tained are the distances and the periods of the satellites.
These are obtained by micrometric measures of the apparent
distance and direction of each satellite from the planet, but the
reduction of the observations is rather complicated on account
of the continual change in the planet's distance and direction
from the earth.
In a few cases, also, it is possible to make observations by which
we can determine the diameter of the satellites; and where there are
a number together, their masses may sometimes be ascertained from
their mutual perturbations.
With the exception of our moon and the outer satellites of
Jupiter and Saturn, all the satellites of the solar system
move almost exactly in the plane of the equator of the planet
to which they belong
;
at least, so
far
as known, for we do not
know with certainty the position of the equatorial planes of
Uranus and Neptune. Moreover, all the satellites but the
moon, Hyperion, and those recently discovered, move in orbits
that are practically circles.
313.
Classification of Planets.

Humboldt has classified

the planets in two groups, the
"
terrestrial planets,"
as he
calls them, and the "major planets" The terrestrial group
218 CLASSIFICATION OF PLANETS.
[313
contains the four planets nearest the sun, Mercury, Venus,
the Earth, and Mars. They are all bodies "of similar magni-
tude, ranging from 3000 to 8000 miles in diameter ; not very
different in density and probably roughly alike in physical
constitution, though probably also differing very much in the
extent, density, and character of their atmospheres.
The four major planets, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Nep-
tune are much larger bodies, ranging from 32,000 to 90,000
miles in diameter ; are much less dense ; and, so far as we can
Fig. 78.

Relative Sizes of the Planets.

make out, present only cloud-covered surfaces to our inspec-
tion. There are strong reasons for supposing that they are at
a high temperature, and that Jupiter especially is a sort of
"
semi-sun
"
;
but this is not certain.
As to the asteroids, the probability is that they represent a
fifth planet of the terrestrial group, which, as has been already
intimated, failed somehow in its evolution, or else has been
broken to pieces.

313]
herschel's illustration.
219
Fig. 78 gives an idea of the relative sizes of the planets. The
sun on the scale of the figure would be about a foot in diameter.
314. Tables of Planetary Data.

In the Appendix we present

tables of the different numerical data of the solar system, derived
from the best authorities and calculated for a solar parallax of
8''.80
:
the sun's mean distance being, therefore, taken as 92,897,000 miles.
These tabulated numbers, however, differ widely in accuracy. The
periods of the planets and their distances in astronomical units are very
precisely known : probably the last decimal place in the table may
be trusted. Next in certainty come the masses of such planets as have
satellites, expressed in terms of the sun's mass. The masses of Venus
and Mercury, however, are much more uncertain. The distances of
the planets in miles, their masses in terms
of
the earth's mass, and their
diameters in miles, all involve the solar parallax, and are affected by
the slight uncertainty in its amount. For the remoter planets, more-
over, diameters, volumes, and densities are subject to a very consider-
able percentage of error, as explained above. The student need not
be surprised, therefore, at finding serious discrepancies between the
values given in these tables and those given by others, amounting in
some cases to 10 per cent or 20 per cent, or even more. Such differ-
ences merely indicate the actual uncertainties of our knowledge.
315. Sir John Herschel's Illustration of the Dimensions of
the Solar System.

In his
"
Outlines of Astronomy," Herschel
gives the following illustration of the relative magnitudes and dis-
tances of the members of our system :

"
Choose any well-levelled field. On it place a globe two feet in diameter.
This will represent the sun. Mercury will be represented by a grain of mus-
tard seed on the circumference of a circle 164 feet in diameter for its orbit
;
Venus, a pea, on a circle of 284 feet in diameter ; the Earth, also a pea, on a
circle of 430 feet; Mars, a rather large pin's head, on a circle of 654 feet; the
asteroids, grains of sand, on orbits having a diameter of 1000 to 1200 feet;
Jupiter, a moderate-sized orange, on a circle nearly half a mile across ; Sat-
urn, a small orange, on a circle of four-fifths of a mile; Uranus, a full-sized
cherry or small plum, upon a circumference of a circle more than a mile in
diameter ; and, finally, Neptune, a good-sized plum, on a circle about 2| miles
in diameter."
We may add that on this scale, the nearest star would be on the
opposite side of the earth, 8000 miles away.
220
THE INDIVIDUAL PLANETS. [
316
CHAPTER XI.
THE TERRESTRIAL AND MINOR PLANETS.
316. Mercury lias been known from the remotest anti-
quity. At first, astronomers failed to recognize it as the same
body on the eastern and western side of the sun, and among
the Greeks it had for a time two names,

Apollo, when it
was morning star, and Mercury, when it was evening star. It
is so near the sun that it is comparatively seldom seen with
the naked eye, but when near its greatest elongation it is
easily enough visible as a brilliant star of the first magnitude,
low down in the twilight. It is best seen in the evening at
such eastern elongations as occur in March and April. When
it is morning star, it is best seen in September and October.
It is exceptional in the solar system in various ways. It is
the nearest planet to the sun, receives the most light and heat, is
the swiftest in its movement, and (excepting some of the aste-
roids) has the most eccentric orbit, with the greatest inclination
to the ecliptic. It is also the smallest in diameter (again ex-
cepting the asteroids), and has the least mass of all the
planets.
317. Its Orbit. Its mean distance from the sun is 36,000-
000 miles, but the eccentricity of its orbit is so great
(0.205)
that the sun is 7,500000 miles out of the centre, and the radius
vector ranges all the way from
28-J-
millions to
43J,
while the
velocity in its orbit varies from 36 miles a second at perihe-
lion to only 23 at aphelion. A given area upon its surface
receives on the average nearly 7 times as much light and heat
as it would on the earth ; but the heat received at perihelion

317]
THE PLANET'S MAGNITUDE, MASS, ETC. 221
is greater than that at aphelion in the ratio of 9:4. For this
reason there must be at least two seasons in its year due to
the changing distance, even if the equator of the planet should
be parallel to the plane of its orbit ; and if the planet's equa-
tor is inclined nearly at the same angle as the Earth's, the
seasons must be extremely complicated.
The sidereal period is 88 days, and the synodic period, (or
the time from conjunction to conjunction,) 116. The greatest
elongation ranges from
18
to 28, and occurs about 22 days
before and after the inferior conjunction. The inclination of
the orbit to the ecliptic is about
7.
318. The Planet's Magnitude, Mass, Etc.

The apparent
diameter of Mercury ranges from
5"
to about 13", according
to its distance from us
;
and the real diameter is very near
3000 miles. This makes its surface about a seventh that of
the earth, and its bulk or volume, one-eighteenth. The planet's
mass is not accurately known
;
it is very difficult to determine,
since it has no satellite, and the values obtained from pertur-
bations range very widely : it is probably between
J^
and
J-
of the mass of the earth. Its mass is, however, unquestion-
ably smaller than that of any other planet, asteroids excepted.
Our uncertainty as to its mass of course prevents us from
assigning any certain values to its density, though probably it
is not quite so dense as the earth.
319. Telescopic Appearances, Phases, Etc. As seen through
the telescope, the planet looks like a little moon, showing
phases precisely similar to those of our satellite. At inferior
conjunction the dark side is towards us ; at superior conjunc-
tion, the illuminated surface. At greatest elongation the
planet appears as a half moon. It is gibbous between superior
conjunction and greatest elongation, while between inferior
conjunction and elongation it shows the crescent phase.
Fig. 79 illustrates the phases of Mercury (and equally of Venus).
222 MERCURY. [
318
The atmosphere of the planet cannot be as dense as that of
Venus, because at a
"
transit " it shows no encircling ring oi
light, as Venus does (Art.
324) ;
both Huggins and Vogel,
however, report spectroscopic
1
observations which imply the
presence of an atmosphere containing the vapor of water.
Generally, the planet is so near the sun that it can be ob-
served only by day, but when the proper precautions are
Fig. 79.

Phases of Mercury and Venus.

taken to screen the object-glass of the telescope from direct
sunlight, the observation is not specially difficult. The sur-
face presents very little of interest. It is brighter at the edge
than at the centre, but until recently no markings have been
observed well enough defined to give us any trustworthy in-
formation as to its geography or even its rotation.
Schroter, a German astronomer, the contemporary of the elder
Herschel, and, to speak mildly, an imaginative man, early in the cen-
tury reported certain observations which would seem to indicate the
existence of high mountains upon the planet, and he deduced from
his observations a rotation period of 24 hours, 5 minutes. Later ob-
servers, with instruments certainly far more perfect, have not been
able to verify his results, and they are now considered as of little
weight.
1
The planet's spectrum, in addition to the ordinary dark lines belong-
ing to the spectrum of reflected sunlight, shows certain bands known to
be due to water vapor, but it is not yet quite certain whether the vapor is
in the planet's atmosphere or in our own.
319]
TRANSITS OF MERCURY. 223
In 1889 the Italian astronomer, Schiaparelli, announced
that he had discovered certain permanent markings upon
the surface of Mercury, and that from them he had ascer-
tained that the planet rotates on its axis only once during its
orbital period
of
88 days ; i.e., it keeps the same
face
always
turned towards the sun, behaving in this respect just as the
moon does towards the earth. Owing, however, to the great
eccentricity of its orbit, the planet has a large "libration"
(Art.
155),
amounting to nearly
23-J-
on each side of the
mean position
;
i.e., seen from a favorable position on the
planet's surface, the sun, instead of rising and setting daily
as with us, would appear to oscillate back and forth in the
sky to the extent of
47
every 88 days.
This important discovery waited long for verification, the
necessary observations being extremely difficult, but in 1896
Mr. Lowell reported that his observations at Flagstaff fur-
nish a complete confirmation of Schiaparelli's result.
The
"
albedo," or reflecting power, of the planet is very low,
only
0.13 ; somewhat inferior to that of the moon, and very
much below that of any other of the planets. In the propor-
tion of light given out at its different phases, it behaves like
the moon, flashing out strongly near the full.
No satellite is known, and there is no reason to suppose that
it has any.
320. Transits of Mercury.

At the time of inferior con-

junction, the planet usually passes north or south of the sun,
the inclination of its orbit being 7; but if the conjunction
occurs when the planet is very near its node, it crosses the
disc of the sun, and becomes visible upon it as a small, black
spot,

not, however, large enough to be seen without a tele-

scope, like Venus under similar circumstances. Since the
earth passes the planet's node on May 7th and Nov. 9th, tran-
sits can occur only near those dates.
If the planet's orbit were truly circular, the conditions of transit
would be the same at each node
;
but at the May transits, the planet
224 VENUS.
[
320
is near its aphelion, and, as a consequence, they are only about half
as numerous as the others. For the November transits, the interval
is usually 7 or 13 years
;
for the May transits, 13 or 46. 22 synodic
periods of Mercury are pretty nearly equal to 7 years
;
41 still more
nearly equal to 13 years
;
and 145 are almost exactly equal to 46 years.
Hence, 46 years after a given transit another one at the same node is
almost certain. During the first half of the twentieth century transits
will occur as follows :

May 7th, 1924, and May 10th, 1937

;
Nov. 14 th, 1907* ; Nov. 7th,
1914*
;
Nov. 8th, 1927; and Nov. 12th, 1940. Only the two marked
with an asterisk were (partially) visible in the United States.
Transits of Mercury are of no particular astronomical importance,
except as furnishing accurate determinations of the planet's place.
VENUS.
321. The next planet in the order from the sun is Venus,
the brightest and most conspicuous of all. It is so brilliant
that at times it casts a distinct shadow, and is easily seen by
the naked eye in the daytime. Like Mercury, the Greeks
had two names for it,

Phosphorus as morning star, and

Hesperus as evening star.
Its mean distance from the sun is 67,200000 miles, and its
distance from the earth ranges from 26,000000 miles
(9367)
to 160,000000
(93+67).
No other body ever comes so near
the earth, except Eros, the moon, and occasionally a comet.
The eccentricity of its orbit is the smallest in the solar system
(only
0.007),
so that the greatest and least distances of the
planet from the sun differ from the mean only 470,000 miles.
Its orbital velocity is about 22 miles per second. Its sidereal
period is 225 days, or
1\
months ; and its synodic period, 584
days,

a year and 7 months. From superior conjunction to

elongation on either side is 220 days, while from inferior con-
junction to elongation is only 71 or 72 days. The greatest
elongation is
47
or
48.
The inclination
of
its orbit is about
3^-.
322. Magnitude, Mass, Density, Etc.

The apparent diam-

eter of the planet ranges from 67", at the time of inferior
322] TELESCOPIC APPEARANCE, ETC. 225
conjunction, to only 11"
at superior, the great difference de-
pending upon the enormous variation in the distance of the
planet from the earth. The real diameter of the planet in
miles is about 7700. Its surface, compared with that of the
earth, is
y
9
-^
; its volume,
-f^.
By means of the perturbations
she produces upon the earth, the mass of Venus is found to be
a little less than four-fifths of the earth's mass. Hence her
density is about 86 per cent, and her superficial gravity 83 per
cent of the earth's. A man who weighs 160 pounds here
would weigh only about 133 pounds on Venus.
Fig. 80. Telescopic Appearances of Venus.
323. General Telescopic Appearance, Phases, Etc.

The tele-
scopic appearance of Venus is striking on account of her great
brilliance, but exceedingly unsatisfactory because nothing is
distinctly outlined upon the disc. When about midway be-
tween greatest elongation and inferior conjunction the planet
nas an apparent diameter of 40", so that with a magnifying
226 VENUS.
323]
power of only 45 she looks exactly like the moon four days
old, and of the same apparent size. (Very few persons, how-
ever, would think so on the first view through the .telescope :
the novice always underrates the apparent size of a telescopic
object.)
The phases of Venus were first discovered by Galileo in 1610, and
afforded important evidence as to the truth of the Copernican System
as against the Ptolemaic.
Fig. 80 represents the planet's disc as seen at five points in its
orbit.
1, 3, and 5 are taken at superior conjunction, greatest elonga-
tion, and near inferior conjunction, respectively ; while 2 and 4 are at
intermediate points. (No. 2 is badly engraved, however; the sharp
corners are impossible.)
The planet attains its maximum brightness when its appar-
ent area is at a maximum, about 36 days before and after
inferior conjunction.
According to Zollner, the albedo of the planet is 0.50 ; i.e.,
about three times that of the moon, and almost four times that
of Mercury. It is, however, slightly exceeded by the reflect-
ing power of Uranus and Jupiter, while that of Saturn is about
the same. This high reflecting power has generally been con-
sidered to indicate a surface mostly covered with clouds
(though Lowell dissented from this, see Art.
325).
The disc
of Venus is brightest at the edge, as is also the case with
Mercury, Mars, and the moon.
324. Atmosphere of the Planet.
Venus has an atmosphere
of some density.
When crossing the limb of the sun at a
transit it is encircled with a thin bright ring due to atmos-
pheric refraction,
reflection, and diffusion of light. If due
solely to refraction, which is more than doubtful, it would
follow that the atmosphere must be about 55 miles deep, and
much denser than our own. But at certain times, when the
planet, near inferior conjunction, is some minutes of arc from
the sun the ring is still visible, with proper precautions.
324]
SURFACE-MARKINGS, ROTATION", ETC. 227
and, as Kussell pointed out in 1898, it is brightest on the
edge nearest the sun,

indicating that it is caused mainly by

reflection
and diffusion,
and only in part by refraction
; so
that the atmosphere may be, and probably is, less dense than
that of the earth. There are doubtful spectroscopic indica-
tions of the presence of water-vapor.
Several observers have reported faint lights seen at times
on the dark portions of the planet's disc. They cannot be
explained by any reflection of foreign light from the planet's
surface, but, if real, must originate there. They recall the
Aurora Borealis and other electrical manifestations on the
earth.
325. Surface-Markings, Rotation, Etc.

As has been said,

Venus is a very unsatisfactory telescopic object. She presents
no obvious surface-markings,

nothing to most observers
but occasional indefinite shadings : sometimes, however, when
in the crescent phase, intensely bright spots have been re-
ported near the "cusps," or points, of the crescent. These
may perhaps be
"
ice-caps," like those which are seen on
Mars. The darkish shadings may possibly be continents and
oceans, dimly visible, or they may be atmospheric objects
;
observations do not yet decide. From certain irregularities
occasionally observed upon the "terminator," some have
maintained that there are high mountains on the surface,
but the evidence is by no means satisfactory.
Lowell, in opposition to all previous observers, reported the dis-
covery, at Flagstaff in 1896, of a system of permanent markings
consisting of rather narrow, nearly straight, dark streaks, radiating
like spokes from a sort of central
"
hub." He describes them as
fairly definite in outline, but dim, as if seen through a luminous
though unclouded atmosphere of considerable depth
;
and he goes so
far as to give a map of the planet, with names attached to some of
the leading features. His observations have been confirmed by
other observers at Flagstaff.
No satellite has ever been discovered
;
not, however, for
want of earnest searching. Venus probably has none.
228
ROTATION OF THE PLANET.
325]
325*.
Rotation of the Planet.

Schroter, early in the cen-

tury, assigned a rotation period of 23h. 21m., and the result
was partially confirmed by some later observers, and generally
accepted until recently, though not without misgivings. The
planet's disc shows no sensible oblateness, as it ought to do if
his figures were correct. The observations of Schiaparelli, on
the other hand, while he did not consider them absolutely
conclusive, indicate a very slow rotation, probably of 225
days, identical with the planet's orbital period, as in the case
of Mercury and the moon. Mr. Lowell considered that his
observations absolutely prove the correctness of this conclu-
sion, and also that the equator of Venus is only very slightly
inclined to her orbit.
326. Transits.

Occasionally Venus passes between the
earth and the sun at inferior conjunction, giving us a so-called
"transit." She is then visible even to the naked eye as a
black spot on the disc, crossing it from east to west. When
the transit is central, it occupies about eight hours, but when
the track lies near the edge of the disc, the duration is of
course correspondingly shortened. Since the sun passes the
nodes of the orbit on June 5th and December 7th, all transits
must occur near these dates, but they are very rare phenomena.
Their special interest consists in their availability for the
purpose of finding the sun's parallax (see Appendix, Arts. 516-
519).
The first observed transit (in 1639) was seen by only
two persons,

Horrox and Crabtree, in England, but the four

which have occurred since then have been extensively observed
in all parts of the world where they were visible, by scientific
expeditions sent out for the purpose by the different govern-
ments. The transits of 1769 and 1882 were visible in the
United States.
327. Recurrence and Dates of Transits.

Five synodic, or thir-

teen sidereal revolutions of Venus are very nearly equal to eight years,
the difference being little more than one day ; and still more nearly

328]
MAES.
229
in fact, almost exactly

243 years are equal to

152 synodic, or 395 sidereal revolutions. If,
then, we have a transit at any time, we may
have another at the same node eight years earlier
or later. Sixteen years before or after, it will
be impossible, and no other transit can occur
at the same node until after the lapse of 235
or 243 years, although a transit or pair of tran-
Fig. 81. sits may occur at the other node in about half
Transit of Venus Tracks, that time. Transits of Venus have occurred, or
will occur at the following dates :

j
Dec. 7th, 1631. ( June 5th, 1761.
( Dec. 4th, 1639. ( June 3d, 1769.
V
Dec. 9th, 1874.
f
June 8th, 2004.
1 Dec. 6th, 1882. ( June 6th, 2012.
Fig. 81 shows the tracks of Venus across the sun's disc in the
transits of 1874 and 1882.
MAES.
328. This planet is also prehistoric as to its discovery. It
is so conspicuous in color and brightness, and in the extent
and apparent capriciousness of its movement among the stars,
that it could not have escaped the notice of the very earliest
observers.
Its mean distance from the sun is a little more than one and
a half times that of the earth (141,500000
miles), and the
eccentricity of its orbit is so considerable
(0.093)
that its
radius vector varies more than 26,000000 miles. At opposi-
tion the planet's average distance from the earth is 48,600000
miles. When opposition occurs near the planet's perihelion,
this distance is reduced to 35,500000 miles, while near aphelion
it is over 61,000000. At superior conjunction, the average
distance from the earth is 234,000000.
The apparent diameter and brilliancy of the planet of course
vary enormously with those great changes of distance. At a
"favorable
"
opposition (when the distance is at its minimum),
230
MARS. [
329
the planet is more than fifty times as bright as at superior
conjunction, and fairly rivals Jupiter; when most remote, it
is hardly as bright as the Pole-star.
The favorable oppositions occur always in the latter part of
August (at which time the earth as seen from the sun passes the
perihelion of the planet), and at intervals of 15 or 17 years. The last
such opposition was in 1909.
The inclination of the orbit is small,
1
51'.
The planet's sidereal period is 687 days, or 1 year
10
months ; its synodic period is much the longest in the plane-
tary system, being 780 days, or nearly 2 years and 2 months.
During 710 of the 780 days it moves eastward, and retro-
grades during 70.
329. Magnitude, Mass, Etc.

The apparent diameter of the

planet ranges from
3".6
at conjunction to 24".5
at a favorable
opposition. Its real diameter is approximately 4300 miles, with
an error of perhaps 50 miles one way or the other. This makes
its surface
about two-sevenths, and its volume one-seventh of
the earth's.
Its mass is a little less than
i
of the earth's mass. This
makes its density 0.73 and superficial gravity 0.38 ; a body
which here weighs 100 pounds would have a weight of only
38 pounds on the surface of Mars.
330. General Telescopic Aspect, Phases, Albedo, Atmosphere,
Etc.

When the planet is nearest the earth, it is more favor-

ably situated
1
for telescopic observation than any other
heavenly body,
the moon alone excepted. It then shows a
ruddy disc which, with a power of 75,
is as large as the moon.
1
Venus at times comes nearer; but when nearest she is visible only by
daylight, and the hemisphere presented to the earth is mostly dark.
331]
TELESCOPIC ASPECT.
231
Since its orbit is outside the earth's, it never exhibits the
crescent phases like Mercury and Venus ; but at quadrature it
appears distinctly gibbous, as in Fig.
82,
about like the moon three days from the
full. Like Mercury, Venus, and the moon,
"BS
its disc is brighter at the limb (i.e., at the
1|B
circular edge) than at the centre ; but at
BjJL^zlj^B
the "terminator" or boundary between
day and night upon the planet's surface,
there is a slight shading which, taken in
connection with certain other phenomena,
indicates the presence of an atmosphere.
Mars at Quadrature.
This atmosphere, however, contrary to
opinions formerly held, is probably much less dense than that
of the earth, the low density being indicated by the infre-
quency of clouds and of other atmospheric phenomena famil-
iar to us upon the earth, to say nothing of the fact that since
the planet's superficial gravity is less than

the force of
gravity on the earth, a dense atmosphere would be impossible.
More than forty years ago Huggins, Janssen, .and Vogel
all reported the lines of water-vapor in the spectrum of the
planet's atmosphere ; but the observations of Campbell, at the
Lick Observatory in 1894, throw great doubt on their result,
and show that the water-vapor, if present at all, is too small
in amount to give decisive evidence of its presence.
1
Zollner gives the albedo of Mars as
0.26,
just double that of
Mercury, and much higher than that of the moon, but only
about half that of Venus and the major planets. Near oppo-
sition, the brightness of the planet suddenly increases, in the
same way as that of the moon near the full (Art.
162).
331. Rotation, Etc.

The spots upon the planet's disc en-

able us to determine its period of rotation with great precision.
1
A similar result was obtained by Campbell in 1909, when the obser-
vations were repeated under favorable conditions.
232 STJEFACE AND TOPOGRAPHY.
[
331
Its sidereal day is found to be 24 hours, 37 minutes, 22.67
seconds, with a probable error not to exceed one-fiftieth of a
second. This very exact determination is effected by compar-
ing drawings of the planet made by Huyghens and Hooke
more than 200 years ago with others made recently.
The inclination of the planet's equator to the plane of its
orbit is very nearly
24 50' (26
21'
to the ecliptic). So far,
therefore, as depends upon that circumstance, Mars should
have seasons substantially the same as our own, and certain
phenomena of the planet's surface, soon to be described, make
it evident that such is the case.
The planet's rotation causes a slight but sensible flattening at
the poles,

about
J^,
according to the latest determinations.
(Much larger values, now known to be certainly erroneous, are
found in the older text-books.)
332. Surface and Topography. With even a small tele-
scope, not more than three or four inches in diameter, the
planet is a very beautiful object, showing a surface diversified
with markings dark and light, which for the most part are
found to be permanent objects. Occasionally, however, for a
few hours at a time, we see others of a temporary character,
supposed to be clouds ; but these are surprisingly rare as com-
pared with clouds upon the earth. The permanent markings
on the planet are broadly divisible into three classes,

First, The white patches, two of which are specially conspicu-

ous near the planet's poles, and are by many supposed to be
masses of snow or ice, since they behave just as would be
expected if such were the case. The northern one dwindles
away during the northern summer, when the North Pole is
turned towards the sun, while the southern one grows rapidly
larger ; and vice versa during the southern summer. But the
probable low temperature of the planet (Art.
335)
makes it at
least doubtful whether the apparent
"
snow and ice
"
is really
congealed water, or some quite different substance.
332]
MARS.
233
Second, Patches
of
bluisli-gray or greenish shade, covering
about
|
of the planet's surface, until recently generally sup-
posed to be bodies of water, and therefore called
"
seas
"
and
"oceans." But more recent observations show a great variety
of details within these areas, and such changes of
appearance
following the seasons of the planet, that this theory is no
longer tenable, and they seem more likely to be regions cov-
ered with something like vegetation.
Third, Extensive regions
of
various shades
of
orange and
yellow, covering nearly five-eighths of the surface, and inter-
preted as land. These markings are, of course, best seen when
near the centre of the planet's disc ; near the limb they are
lost in the brilliant light which there prevails,
and at the
terminator they fade out in the shade.
Fig. 83.Telescopic Views of Mars.
Fig. 83 gives an idea of the planet's general appearance, though
without pretending to minute accuracy.
333, Recent Discoveries. The Canals and their Gemination

In addition to these three classes of markings, the Italian

astronomer Schiaparelli in 1877 and 1879 reported the dis-
covery of a great number of fine straight lines, or "canals"
as he called them, crossing the ruddy portions of the planet's
disc in all directions
;
and in 1881 he announced that some of
them become double at times. These new markings are faint,
and very difficult to see, and for several years there was a
strong suspicion that he was misled by some illusion
;
more
recently, however, his results have been abundantly confirmed,
234
SURFACE AND TOPOGRAPHY.

333
both, in Europe and in the United States. It appears that in
the observation of these objects the power of the telescope is
less important than steadiness of the air and keenness of the
observer's vision. Nor are they usually best seen when Mars
is nearest, but their visibility depends largely upon the season
on the planet ; and this is especially the case with their "gem-
FlG. 83*.
ination." Fig.
83* from one of Mr. Lowell's drawings in
1894,
gives an idea of the extent and complexity of the canal-
system
;
but the reader must not suppose that in the telescope
it stands out with any such conspicuousness. The figure
shows also how some of the canals cross the so-called "seas,"
and disprove the propriety of the name.
333*. As to the real nature and office of the
"
canals
"
there is a
wide difference of opinion, and it is very doubtful if their true ex-
planation has yet been reached. Indeed it is still quite possible that
some of the peculiar phenomena reported are illusions, based on
what the observers think they ought to see : it is easy to be deceived
in attempting to interpret intelligibly what is barely visible. Ac-
cording to Flammarion, Lowell, and other zealous observers of the
planet, the polar caps are really snow-sheets, which melt in the
(Martian) spring, and send the water towards the planet's equator

333*]
MAPS OF THE PLANET.
235
over its nearly level plains (for no high mountains have yet been
discovered there), obscuring for several weeks the well-known mark-
ings which are visible at other times. In Lowell's view the dark
regions on the planet's surface are areas covered with some sort of
vegetation, while the ruddy portions are barren deserts, intersected
by the canals, which he believes to be really irrigating water courses
;
and on account of their straightness, and some other characteristics,
he is disposed to regard them as artificial. When the water reaches
these
"
canals
"
vegetation springs up along their banks, and these
belts of verdure are what we see with our telescopes, not the narrow
water-channels themselves. Where the canals cross each other and
the water supply is more abundant, there are dark, round
"
lakes," as
they have been called, which he interprets as
"
oases." All of this
theoretical explanation rests, however, upon the assumption that the
planet's temperature is high enough to permit the existence of water
in the liquid state
;
to say nothing of other difficulties. But what-
ever may be the explanation, there is no longer any doubt as to the
existence of the
"
canals," nor that they (and other features of the
surface) undergo real changes with the progress of the planet's sea-
sons. Their
"
gemination," however, still remains a mystery, and in
the report of the Harvard College Observatory for 1896 it is stated
that some experiments recently made there throw a good deal of
doubt on the
"
objective reality
"
of the doubling.
334. Maps of the Planet. A number of maps of Mars have
been constructed by different observers since the first was made by
Maedler in 1830. Fig. 84 is reduced from one published in 1888 by
Schiaparelli, and shows most of his
"
canals
"
and their
"
gemination."
While there may be some doubt as to the accuracy of the minor de-
tails, there can be no question that the main features of the planet's
surface are substantially correct. The nomenclature, however, is in a
very unsettled condition. Schiaparelli has taken his names mostly
from ancient geography, while the English areographers,
1
following
the analogy of the lunar maps, have mainly used the names of astrono-
mers who have contributed to our knowledge of the planet's surface.
1
The Greek name of Mars is Ares, hence
"
Areography
"
is the descrip-
tion of the surface of Mars.
236 MARS.
[
334

336]
SATELLITES.
237
335. Temperature. As to the temperature of Mars we
have no certain knowledge at present. Unless the planet
has some unexplained sources of heat it ought to be very cold.
Its distance from the sun reduces the intensity of solar radi-
ation upon its surface to less than half its value upon the
earth, and its atmosphere cannot well be as dense as at the
tops of our loftiest mountains. On the other hand things look
very much as if liquid water and vegetable life were present
there. It is earnestly to be hoped that before long we may
come into possession of some heat-measuring apparatus suffi-
ciently delicate to decide whether the planet's surface is
really intensely cold or reasonably warm,

for of course
there are various conceivable hypotheses which might account
for a high temperature at the surface of Mars.
336. Satellites.
The planet has two satellites, discovered
by Hall, at Washington, in 1877. They are extremely small,
and observable only with very large telescopes. The outer one,
Deimos, is at a distance of 14,600 miles from the planet's
centre, and has a sidereal period of 30 hours, 18 minutes
;
while the inner one, Phobos, is at a distance of only 5800
miles, and its period is only 7 hours, 39 minutes, less than
one-third of the planet's day. (This is the only case known
of a satellite with a period shorter than the revolution of its
primary.) Owing to this fact, it rises in the west, as seen from
the planet's surface, and sets in the east, completing its strange
backward diurnal revolution in about 11 hours. Deimos, on
the other hand, rises in the east, but takes nearly 132 hours
in its diurnal circuit, which is more than four of its months.
Both the orbits are sensibly circular, and lie very closely in
the plane of the planet's equator.
Micrometric measures of the diameter of such small objects are im-
possible, but from photometric observations, Prof. E. C. Pickering,
assuming that they have the same reflecting power as that of Mars
itself, estimates the diameter of Phobos as about seven miles, and
238
HABITABILITY OF MARS.
[
336
that of Deimos as five or six. Mr. Lowell, however, from his obser-
vations of 1894, deduced considerably larger values, viz. 10 miles for
Deimos, and 36 for Phobos. If this is correct, Phobos, seen in the
zenith from the point on the planet's surface directly beneath him,
would appear somewhat larger than the moon but only about half as
bright. Deimos would be no brighter than Venus.
337. Habitability of Mars.
As to this question we can only
say that, different as must be the conditions on Mars from those pre-
vailing on the earth, they differ less from ours than those on any
other heavenly body observable with our present telescopes ; and if
life, such as we know it upon the earth, can exist on any of the
planets, Mars is the one. If we could waive the question of temper-
ature, and assume, with Flammarion and others, that the polar caps
consist of frozen water, then it would become extremely probable
that the growth of vegetation is the explanation of many of the
phenomena actually observed.
Mr. Lowell went further and argued the presence of intelligent
beings, possessed of high engineering skill, from the apparent
"
ac-
curacy
"
with which the "canals" seem to be laid out, in a well
planned system of irrigation. But at present, and until the temper-
ature problem is solved, such speculations appear rather premature,
to say the least.
THE ASTEROIDS, OR MINOR PLANETS.
338. The asteroids
1
are a multitude of small planets circling
around the sun in the space between Mars anl Jupiter. It
was early noticed that between Mars and Jupiter there is a
gap in the series of planetary distances, and when Bode's Law
(Art.
284)
was published in 1772, the impression became very
strong that there must be a missing planet in the space,

an
impression greatly strengthened when Uranus was discovered
in 1781, at a distance precisely corresponding to that law. An
association was formed to search for the missing planet, but
rather strangely the first discovery was made, not by a mem-
1
They were first called "asteroids" (i.e., "star-like" bodies) by Sir
William Hersehel early in the century, because, though really planets,
an ordinary telescope shows them only as stars, without a disc.

338
J THE ASTEROIDS. 239
ber of the organization, but by the Sicilian astronomer, Piazzi,
who on the very first night of the last century (Jan. 1st, 1801)
discovered a planet which he named Ceres, after the tutelary
divinity of Sicily. The next year Pallas was discovered by
Olbers. Juno was found in 1804 by Harding, and in 1807
Olbers, who had broached the theory of an exploded planet,
discovered the fourth, Vesta, the only one which is bright
enough ever to be easily seen by the naked eye. The search
was kept up for some years longer, but without success,
because the searchers did not look for small enough objects.
The fifth, asteroid (Astreea) was found in 1845 by Hencke,
an amateur who had resumed the subject afresh by studying
the smaller stars. In 1847 three more were discovered, and
every year since then has added from one to a hundred.
Since 1891, when AYolf of Heidelberg introduced photogra-
phy as a means of discovery, the number has grown very rap-
idly. The list then included 321; now the number exceeds 800.
Most of the new discoveries are due to Wolf and his assistants,
though others have made important contributions.
All the asteroids whose orbits have been determined are
designated by numbers, mostly in the order of discovery ; all
but the newer ones have names also.
Thus Ceres is
Q),
Thule is
(279),
etc.
339. Their Orbits.

The mean distances of the different

asteroids from the sun differ considerably, and the periods, of
course, correspond. Hungaria,
(434),
is nearest to the sun
(excepting Eros ; see
p. 243),
its distance from the sun being
about 180,800000 miles, and its period about 2 years and 260
days. Hector,
1
(624),
one of the Jupiter group, is the most
remote, with a mean distance of 5.27(490,000,000 miles).
The inclinations of the orbits to the ecliptic average nearly
8.
The orbit of Pallas,
(?),
is inclined at an angle of 35, and
several others exceed
25.
The eccentricity of the orbits is very
1
See additional notes on page 360 b.
240 THE BODIES THEMSELVES.
[
339
large in many cases. Ocllo,
(475),
has the almost cometary
eccentricity of 0.38 and *nore than a dozen others have an
eccentricity exceeding 0.30.
340. The Bodies Themselves.

The four first discovered,

and one or two others, when examined with a powerful tele-
scope, show a perceptible disc, not large enough, however, for
satisfactory measurement. Vesta is much the brightest of
them, and until very recently was therefore supposed to be
the largest. In 1894-5 Mr. Barnard, however, at the Lick
Observatory, succeeded in making a set of micrometric meas-
ures which gave the following rather surprising results. He
finds the diameter of Ceres to be 485 miles
;
of Pallas, 304
;
of
Vesta, 243
;
and of Juno only 118. But the
"
probable error
"
must be considerable. The albedo of Vesta must much ex-
ceed that of the others. None of these bodies except the first
four can be more than about 50 or 60 miles in diameter ; and
the newly discovered ones, barely visible in a 12-inch tele-
scope, cannot be larger than the moons of Mars, perhaps
10 or 20 miles in diameter.
As to the individual masses and densities, we have no
certain knowledge.
If the density of Ceres is about the same as that of the rocks which
compose the earth's crust, her mass may be as great as
7^0
tna
^
^
the earth. If so, gravity on her surface
would be about
^
of gravity
here, so that a body would fall about eight inches in the first second.
Of course on the smaller asteroids it would be much less. If the
hypothetical inhabitant and owner of one of these little planets
should throw a stone, it would become independent, circling around
the sun in an orbit of its own, and never returning to the planet.
It is, however, possible from the perturbations they produce
on Mars to estimate a limit for the aggregate mass of the
whole swarm. According to Leverrier, it cannot exceed one-
fourth the mass
of
the earth, but may be very much less. A
still more recent computation by Kavene in 1896 indicates a
total mass about
T\z
that of the earth.
340]
THE ASTEROIDS. 241
The united mass of those at present known would make only a
small fraction of such a body,

hardly a thousandth of it; presum-

ably, therefore, the number still undiscovered is to be counted by
thousands, and they must be, for the most part, very much smaller
than those already known. How long it will be considered worth
while to hunt for new ones is a question now forcing itself on the
attention of astronomers.
341. Origin. As to this we can only speculate. It is hardly
possible to doubt, however, that this swarm of little rocks in
some way represents a single planet of the terrestrial group.
A commonly accepted view
r
is that the material, which, accord-
ing to the nebular hypothesis, once formed a ring (like one of
the rings of Saturn), and ought to have collected to make a
single planet, has failed to be so united; and the failure is
ascribed to the perturbations produced by the giant Jupiter,
whose powerful attraction is supposed to have torn the ring
to pieces, and thus prevented the normal development of a
planet. Another view is -that the asteroids may be fragments
of an exploded planet. If so, there must have been not one,
but many, explosions
;
first of the original body, and then of
the separate pieces, for it is demonstrable that no single explo-
sion could account for the present tangle of orbits.
342. Intra-Mercurial Planets.
It is not improbable that
there is a considerable quantity of matter circulating around the sun
inside the orbit of Mercury. This has been believed to be indicated
by an otherwise unexplained advance of the perihelion of its orbit.
It has been somewhat persistently supposed that this intra-Mercurial
matter is concentrated into one, or possibly two, planets of consider-
able size, and such a planet has several times been reported as dis-
covered, and has even been named
"
Vulcan." We can only say
here that the supposed discoveries have never been confirmed* and
the careful observations of total solar eclipses during the past ten
years make it practically certain that there is no
"
Vulcan." Perhaps,
however, there is an intra-Mercurial family of
"
asteroids." But they
must be very minute or some of them w
T
ould certainly have been
found either during eclipses or crossing the sun's disc ; a planet as
much as 200 miles in diameter could hardly have escaped discovery.
242
THE ZODIACAL LIGHT.
[
343
343. The Zodiacal Light.

This is a faint beam of light

extending from the sun both ways along the ecliptic. In the
evening it is best seen in the months of February, March, and
April, and in our latitudes then extends about
90
eastward
from the sun ; in the tropics, it is said that it can be followed
quite across the sky, forming a complete ring. At the point
in the sky directly opposite to the sun, there is a patch of
slightly greater luminosity, called the
"
Gegenschein" or
"counter-glow." The region near the sun is fairly bright
and even conspicuous, but the more distant portions are ex-
tremely faint and can be observed, like the fainter portions
of the milky way, only in places where there is no illumina-
tion of the air by artificial lights. The spectrum is a simple,
continuous spectrum, without markings
of
any kind.
We emphasize this, because it has often been mistakenly reported
that the line which characterizes the spectrum of the Aurora Borealis
appears in the spectrum of the zodiacal light.
The cause of the phenomenon is not certainly known. Some
imagine that the zodiacal light is only an extension of the solar
corona (whatever that may be), which is not perhaps unlikely;
but on the whole the more prevalent opinion seems to be that
it is due to sunlight, reflected from myriads of small meteoric
bodies circling around the sun, nearly in the plane of the eclip-
tic, thus forming a thin, flat sheet (something like one of
Saturn's rings), which extends far beyond the orbit of the
earth. Near the sun, within the orbits of Mercury and Venus,
they are supposed to be much more numerous than at a greater
distance
;
thus accounting for the greater brightness of the
zodiacal light in that part of the sky, notwithstanding the fact
that all the meteoric particles within
90
from the sun would
present to us less than half their illuminated surface : if
globular, they would show a crescent phase like the moon
between new and half.
As for the
"
Gegenschein" this is explained by supposing
that the particles opposite to the sun in the sky
"
flash out
"
343]
THE ZODIACAL LIGHT. 243
in the same way the moon does at the full. See Art. 162.
We have no direct evidence as to the size of the meteoric
particles, though the analogy of shooting stars suggests that
they are probably very small. See Art. 410.
The peculiar disturbance of Mercury, referred to in the preceding
article, may be, perhaps, due to the denser portion of this ring near
the sun, and this is the reason why we consider the subject here in
connection with the planets, rather than later in connection with the
subject of meteors. The theory has also been maintained that the
zodiacal light is due to a meteoric ring surrounding the earth.
Note to Art. 339. Eros,
(433),
is in many respects the most remark-
able of the minor planets thus far known. It was discovered (photo-
graphically) by Witt at Berlin in August, 1898, and turns out to have a
mean distance and period less than that of Mars. The semi-major axis
of its orbit is 135,480,000 miles, and its period 643.14 days. The eccen-
tricity of its orbit is 0.223, so that at aphelion it recedes to a distance of
nearly 166,000000 miles from the sun, while at perihelion its distance is
105,290,000 miles, which is only 12,000000 miles greater than the earth's
mean distance
;
but the two orbits are so situated that the planet's
smallest possible distance from the earth is 13,500000 miles, and occurs
only when Eros comes to opposition about January 21st. Observations
of Eros made at such an opposition will furnish by far the most accurate
determination of the solar parallax (see Art. 515). Unfortunately such
oppositions are rare. One occurred in 1894 (before the planet was dis-
covered)
;
the next will be in 1931. In the winter of 1900-1901 the
conditions, though not the best,

the least distance between the planet

and the earth having been nearly 30,000000 miles, were much better
than usual, and an immense number of careful observations were made,
the results of which have not yet been completely worked out.
1
The inclination of the planet's orbit is nearly 11, so that when nearest
the earth, as in 1894, it goes far north, and at the time of opposition
moves among the stars nearly from north to south instead of from east
to west.
It is extremely small, probably not over 20 miles in diameter, and
seldom visible except with the largest telescopes
;
but its changes of
apparent brightness are extreme, and it is just possible that when nearest
it may become visible to the naked eye. There is also a periodic variation
an axial rotation in aboi
1
See note on page 360 a.
244 THE MAJOR PLANETS.
[
344
CHAPTER XII.
THE MAJOR PLANETS. JUPITER : ITS SATELLITE SYS-
TEM
;
THE EQUATION OF LIGHT, AND THE DISTANCE
OF THE SUN. SATURN : ITS RINGS AND SATELLITES.
URANUS : ITS DISCOVERY, PECULIARITIES, AND
SATELLITES, NEPTUNE : ITS DISCOVERY, PECULIARI-
TIES, AND SATELLITE.
344. Jupiter, the nearest of the major planets, stands next
to Venus in the order of brilliance among the heavenly bodies,
being fully five or six times as bright as Sirius, the most bril-
liant of the stars, and decidedly superior to Mars, even when
Mars is nearest. It is not, like Venus, confined to the twilight
sky, but at the time of opposition dominates the heavens all
night long.
Its orbit presents no marked peculiarities. The mean dis-
tance of the planet from the sun is a little more than five astro-
nomical units (483,000000 miles), and the eccentricity of the
orbit is not quite
^,
so that the actual distance ranges about
21,000000 miles each side of the mean. At an average oppo-
sition, the planet's distance from the earth is about 390,000000
miles, while at conjunction it is distant about 580,000000 ; but
it may come as near to us as 370,000000, and may recede to a
distance of nearly 600,000000.
The inclination of its orbit to the ecliptic is only
1
19'. Its
sidereal period is 11.86 years, and the synodic is 399 days (a
figure easily remembered), a little more than a year and a
month.
345. Dimensions, Mass, Density, Etc.

The planet's apparent

diameter varies from
50"
to 32", according to its distance from

345]
GENERAL TELESCOPIC ASPECT, ETC. 245
the earth. The disc, however, is distinctly oval, so that while
the equatorial diameter is 88,200 miles,
1
the polar diameter is
only 83,000. The mean diameter, f
2a
J-
b
\ (see Art.
95),
is
86,500
miles, or very nearly eleven times that of the earth.
Its surface,
therefore, is 119, and its volume or bulk 1300
times that of the earth. It is by far the largest of all the
planets,

larger, in fact, than all the rest united.

Its mass is very accurately known, both by means of its
satellites and from the perturbations it produces upon certain
asteroids. It is
j-^g
of the sun's mass, or about 316 times that
of the earth.
Comparing this with its volume, we find its mean density to
be 0.24; i.e., less than one-fourth the density of the earth,
and almost precisely the same as that of the sun. Its surface
gravity is about 2-| times that of the earth, but varies nearly
20 per cent between the equator and poles of the planet on
account of its rapid rotation.
346. General Telescopic Aspect, Albedo, Etc.

In even a
small telescope the planet is a fine object, for a magnifying
power of only 60 makes its apparent diameter, even when
remotest, equal to that of the moon. With a large instrument
and a magnifying power of 200 or 300, the disc is covered with
an infinite variety of detail, interesting in outline and rich in
color, changing continually as the planet turns on its axis.
For the most part the markings are arranged in
"
belts
"
par-
allel to the planet's equator, as shown in Fig. 85.
The left-hand one of the two larger figures is from a drawing by
Trouvelot
(1870),
and the other from one by Vogel
(1880).
The
smaller figure below represents the planet's ordinary appearance in
a three-inch telescope.
Near the limb the light is less brilliant than in the centre
of
the disc, and the belts there fade out. The planet shows no
1
The recent measures of Barnard and See make the diameter nearly
2000 miles greater.
246
JUPITER. [346
perceptible phases, but the edge which is turned away from the
sun is usually sensibly darker than the other. According to
Zollner, the mean albedo of the planet is 0.62, which is extremely
high, that of white paper being 0.78. The question has been
raised whether Jupiter is not to some extent self-luminous, but
there is no proof and little probability that such is the case.
Fig. 85.
Telescopic Views of Jupiter.
347. Atmosphere and Spectrum.

The planet's atmosphere

must be very extensive. The forms visible with the telescope
are nearly all evidently atmospheric. In fact, the low mean
density of the planet makes it very doubtful whether there is
anything solid about it anywhere, whether it is anything
more than a ball of fluid overlaid by cloud and vapor.
The spectrum of the planet differs less from that of mere re-
flected sunlight than might have been expected, showing that
the light is not obliged to penetrate the atmosphere to any

347]
ROTATION.
247
great depth, before it encounters the reflecting envelope of
clouds. There are, however, dark shadings in the red and
orange parts of the spectrum that are probably due to the
planet's atmosphere, and seem to be identical in position with
certain bands which are intense in the spectra of Uranus and
Neptune.
.. 34$. Rotation.

Jupiter rotates on its axis more swiftly

than any other of the planets. Its sidereal day has a length
of about 9 hours, 55 minutes. The time can be given only ap-
proximately, not because it is difficult to find and observe well-
defined objects on the disc, but because different results are
obtained from different spots, according to their nature and
their distance from the equator, the differences amounting
to six or seven minutes. Speaking generally, spots near the
equator indicate a shorter period of rotation than those near
the poles, just as is the case with the sun.
In consequence of the swift rotation, the planet's "oblate-
ness
"
or
"
polar compression
"
is quite noticeable,

about
-Jy.
The plane of rotation nearly coincides with that of the orbit,
the inclination being only 3,
so that there can be no well-
marked seasons on the planet due to the causes which produce
our own seasons.
349. Physical Condition. This is obviously very different
from that of the earth or Mars. No permanent markings are
found upon the disc, though occasionally some which may be
called "sub-permanent" do appear, as, for instance, the "great
red spot
n
shown in Fig. 85. This was first noticed in 1878,
became extremely conspicuous for several years, and is still
visible, although only a faded ghost of itself. Were it not
that during the first 8 years of its visibility it changed the
length of its apparent rotation by about six seconds (from 9
hours, 55 minutes, 34.9 seconds to 9 hours, 55 minutes, 40.2
seconds), we might suppose it permanently attached to the
^,43 JUPITER.
[
349
planet's surface, and evidence of a coherent mass underneath.
As it is, opinion is divided on this point.
Many things in the planet's appearance indicate a high
temperature, as, for instance, the abundance of clouds, and
the swiftness of their transformations
;
and since on Jupiter
the solar light and heat are only
^T
as intense as here, we are
forced to conclude that it gets very little of its heat from the
sun, but is probably hot on its own account, and for the same
reason that the sun is hot ; viz., as the result of a process of
condensation. In short, it appears very probable, as has been
intimated before, that the planet is a sort of
"
semi-sun"

hot, though not so hot as to be sensibly self-luminous.

350. Satellites.

Jupiter has nine satellites now known.

Four of them are so large as to be easily seen with an opera
glass, and were discovered by Galileo in 1610 with his newly
invented telescope. They are usually known as the first,
second, etc., in the order of distance from the planet. The
distances range from 262,000 to 1,169,000 miles, and their
sidereal periods from 42 hours to
16
days. Their orbits are
sensibly circular, and very nearly in the plane of the planet's
equator. The third is much the largest,

about 3600 miles

in diameter; the others are between 2000 and 3000. The
fifth, discovered by Barnard in 1892 at the Lick Observatory,
is extremely small and lies very close to the planet. The
sixth and seventh, discovered by Perrine, also at the Lick
Observatory, by photography, in 1905,
1
are still smaller, and
at nearly equal distances of over
7,000,000 miles, with periods
of about
8-
and 9 months. The eighth was discovered by
Melotte at Greenwich, also by photography, in 1908, and the
ninth by Nicholson at the Lick Observatory in 1914.
The fourth satellite is very dark, so that on the planet's disc it is
hardly distinguishable from its shadow. The others appear bright,
invisible, or dark, according to the brightness of the background.
1
See note on page 263.
350]
SATELLITE PHENOMENA. 249
Spots are sometimes seen on their surfaces, and there are variations
of brightness, conspicuous in the case of the fourth, which seem to
indicate that, like the moon, they keep always the same face towards
their primary.
Some observers have reported changes of form as if they were not
solid but cloudlike.
351. Eclipses and Transits. The orbits of the four large
satellites are so nearly in the plane of the planet's orbit
that excepting the fourth, which sometimes escapes, they are
eclipsed at every revolution, and also cross the planet's disc
at every conjunction. When the planet is either at opposition
or conjunction, the shadow, of course, is directly behind it, and
we cannot see the eclipse at all. At other times we ordinarily
see only the beginning or the end ; but when the planet is at
or near quadrature the shadow projects so far to one side that
the whole eclipse of every satellite, except the first, takes
place clear of the disc. An eclipse is a gradual phenomenon,
the satellite disappearing by becoming slowly fainter and
fainter as it plunges into the shadow, and reappearing in the
same leisurely way.
Two important uses have been made of these eclipses : they
have been employed for the determination of longitude, and
they furnish the means
of
ascertaining the time required by
light to traverse the space between the earth and the sun.
352. The Equation of Light.

When we observe a celestial

body we see it not as it is at the moment of observation, but
as it tuas at the moment when the light which we see left it.
If we know its distance in astronomical units, and know how
long light takes to traverse that unit, we can at once cor-
rect our observation by simply dating it back to the time when
the light started from the object. The necessary correction is
called the
"
equation
of
light" and the time required by light to
traverse the astronomical unit
of
distance is the "Constant
250
JUPITER.
[352
of
the Light-equation
shall see).
(not quite 500 seconds, as we
It was in 1675 that Roemer, the Danish astronomer, (the inventor
of the transit instrument, meridian-circle, and prime-vertical instru-
ment,

a man almost a century in advance of his day,) found that

the eclipses of Jupiter's satellites show a peculiar variation in their
times of occurrence, which he explained as due to the time taken by
light to pass through space. His bold and original suggestion was
neglected for more than 50 years, until long after his death, when
Bradley's discovery of aberration proved the correctness of his views.
353. Eclipses of the satellites recur at intervals which are
really almost exactly equal (the perturbations being very slight),
and the interval can easily be determined and the times tab-
ulated. But if we thus predict the times of the eclipses during
a whole synodic period of
the planet, then, beginning
at the time of opposition, it
is found that as the planet
recedes from the earth, the
eclipses, as observed, fall con-
stantly more and more be-
hindhand, and by precisely
the same amount for all
four satellites. The differ-
ence between the predicted
and observed time continues
to increase until the planet
is near conjunction, when
the eclipses are almost 17
minutes later than the pre-
diction. After the conjunction they quicken their pace, and
make up the loss, so that when opposition is reached once
more they are again on time.
It is easy to see from Fig. 86 that at opposition the planet
Fig. 86.
Determination of the Equation of Light.

353]
THE EQUATION OF LIGHT.
251
is nearer the earth than at conjunction by just two astronom-
ical units; i.e., JB

JA = 2SA, and light coming from

J to
the earth when it is at A, will, therefore, make the journey
quicker than when it is at B, by twice the time it takes light
to pass from S to A.
The whole apparent retardation of eclipses between opposi-
tion and conjunction must therefore be exactly twice the time
1
required
for
light to come from
the sun to the earth. In this way
the
"
light-equation constant " is found to be very nearly 499
seconds, or 8 minutes, 19 seconds, with a probable error of
perhaps two seconds.
354. Since these eclipses are gradual phenomena, the determination
of the exact moment of a satellite's disappearance or reappearance is
very difficult, and this renders the result somewhat uncertain. Prof. E.
C. Pickering of Cambridge has proposed to utilize photometric observa-
tions for the purpose of making the determination more precise, and
two series of observations of this sort and for this purpose are now
nearly completed, one in Cambridge, and the other at Paris under
the direction of Cornu, who has devised a similar plan. Pickering-
has also applied photography to the observation of these eclipses with
encouraging success.
355. The Distance of the Sun determined by the "Light-
equation."

Until 1849 our only knowledge of the velocity

of
light was obtained from such observations of Jupiter's satel-
lites. By assuming as known the earth's distance from the sun,
the velocity of light can be obtained when we know the time
occupied by light in coming from the sun. At present, how-
ever, the case is reversed. We can determine the velocity of
light by two independent experimental methods, and with a
1
The student's attention is specially directed to the point that the ob-
servations of the eclipses of Jupiter's satellites give directly neither the
velocity of light nor the distance of the sun : they give only the time re-
quired by light to make the journey from the sun. Many elementary
text-books, especially the older ones, state the case carelessly.
252
SATURN. [
355
surprising degree of accuracy. Then, knowing this velocity
and the
"
light-equation constant/' we can deduce the distance
of the sun. According to the latest determinations the veloc-
ity of light is 186,330 miles per second. Multiplying this by
499 we get 92,979,000 miles for the sun's distance (compare
Art.
127).
SATURN.
356. This is the most remote of the planets known to the
ancients. It appears as a star of the first magnitude (out-
shining all of them, indeed, except Sirius), with a steady,
yellowish light, not varying much in appearance from month
to month, though in the course of 15 years it alternately gains
and loses nearly 50 per cent of its brightness with the chang-.
ing phases of its rings : for it is unique among the heavenly
bodies, a great globe attended by nine satellites and sur-
rounded by a system of rings, which has no counterpart else-
where in the universe so far as known.
Its mean distance from the sun is about
9-J-
astronomical
units, or 886,000000 miles
;
but the distance varies nearly
100,000000 miles on account of the considerable eccentricity
of the orbit (0.056).
Its nearest opposition approach to the
earth is about 774,000000 miles, while at the remotest con-
junction it is 1028,000000 miles away. The inclination of the
orbit to the ecliptic is about
2|-. The sidereal period is about
29^- years, the synodic period being 378 days.
357. Dimensions, Mass, Etc. The apparent mean diameter
of the planet varies according to the distance from
14"
to
20".
The planet is more flattened at the poles than any other
(nearly
I
L),
so that while the equatorial diameter is about
75,000 miles, the polar is only 68,000 : the mean diameter,
therefore,
(
a
j,
is not quite
73,000,

a little more than

nine times the diameter of the earth. Its surface is about 84

357]
SURFACE, ALBEDO, SPECTRUM. -253
times that of the earth, and its volume 770 times. Its mass is
found (by means of its satellites) to be 95 times that of the
earth, so that its mean density comes out only one-eighth that
of the earth, actually less than that
of
water ! It is by far the
least dense of all the planetary family.
Its mean superficial gravity is about 1.2 times gravity upon
the earth, varying, however, nearly 25 per cent between the
equator and the pole. It rotates on its axis in about 10
hours, 14 minutes, as determined by Hall in 1876 from a
white spot that for a few weeks appeared upon its surface.
The observations of Stanley Williams in 1893, while generally
confirming Hall's result, furnish evidence that spots in dif-
ferent latitudes have slightly ^different periods.
The equator of the planet is inclined about
27
to the plane
of its orbit.
358. Surface, Albedo, Spectrum.

The disc of the planet,

like that of Jupiter, is shaded at the edge, and like Jupiter it
shows a number of belts arranged parallel to the equator. The
equatorial belt is very bright (not relatively quite so much so,
however, as represented in Fig.
87),
and is often of a delicate
pinkish tinge. The belts in higher latitudes are comparatively
faint and narrow, while just at the pole there is usually a cap
of olive green. Occasionally there are slight irregularities in
the edges of the belts.
Zollner makes the mean albedo of the planet 0.52, about the
same as that of Venus.
The planet's spectrum is substantially like that of Jupiter,
but the dark bands are rather more pronounced. These bands,
however, do not appear in the spectrum of the ring, which
probably has very little atmosphere. As to the physical con-
dition and constitution of the planet, it is probably much like
Jupiter, though it does not seem to be "boiling" quite so
vigorously.
254 SATURN. [358
Fig. 87.

Saturn and his Rings.

359] THE RINGS. 255
359. The Rings.

The most remarkable peculiarity of the

planet is its ring system. The globe is surrounded by three
thin, flat, concentric rings, like circular discs of paper pierced
through the centre. They are generally referred to as A, B,
and C, A being the exterior one.
Galileo
half
discovered them in 1610; that is, he saw with his
little telescope two appendages on each side of the planet; but he
could make nothing of them, and after a while he lost them. The
problem remained unsolved for nearly 50 years, until Huyghens
explained the mystery in 1655. Twenty years later D. Cassini dis-
covered that the ring is double; i.e., composed of two concentric
rings, with a dark line of separation between them; and in 1850
Bond of Cambridge, U.S., discovered a third
"
dusky
"
or
"
gauze
"
ring between the principal ring and the planet. (It was discovered
a fortnight later, but independently, by Dawes in England.)
The outer ring, A, has a diameter of about 168,000 miles,
1
and a width of about 10,000. Cassini's division is about 1000
miles wide
;
the ring, B, which is much the broadest of the
three, is about 17,000. The semi-transparent ring, C, has a
width of about 9000 miles, leaving a clear space of from 9000
to 10,000 miles in width between the planet's equator and its
inner edge. Their plane coincides with that of the planet's
equator. The thickness of the rings is extremely small,

probably not over 100 miles, as proved by the appearance

presented when once in 15 years we view them edgewise.
360. Phases of the Rings.

The rings are inclined about

28
to the ecliptic, and, of course, maintain their plane parallel
to itself at all times. Twice in a revolution of the planet,
therefore, this plane sweeps across the orbit of the earth (too
small to be shown in the figure

Fig.
88),
occupying nearly a
year in so doing ; and whenever the plane passes between the
earth and the sun the dark side of the ring is towards us, and
the edge alone is visible.
1
The recent measures of See make the outside diameter about 173,000
miles, and differ somewhat in other respects.
256 SATURN.
[
360
While the plane of the ring is sweeping over the earth's orbit she
crosses the plane once or three times according to circumstances ;
usu-
ally three times, causing two periods of disappearance. When the
edge is exactly towards us only the largest telescopes can see the ring,
like a fine needle of light piercing the planet's ball, as in the upper-
most engraving of Fig. 87. The last disappearance occurred in 1907.
Fig. 88.
The Phases of Saturn's Rings.
361. Structure of the Ring's.

It is now universally ad-

mitted that they are not continuous sheets, either solid or
liquid, but mere swarms
of
separate particles, each pursuing
its own independent orbit around the planet, though all mov-
ing nearly in a common plane.
The idea was first suggested by J. Cassini in 1715, but was lost
sight of until again suggested by Bond in connection with his dis-
covery of the semi-transparent or dusky ring ; it has finally been
established by the researches of Peirce, Maxwell, and others, that no
continuous sheet of solid or liquid matter could stand the strain of
rotation, while all the conditions of the problem are met by the
meteoric hypothesis, and in 1895, Keeler, of the Allegheny Observa-
tory, obtained a beautiful spectroscopic confirmation of the theory by
showing, from a photograph of the spectrum of the planet and its
rings, that the particles at the outer edge of the ring are moving more
slowly than those at the inner edge, the velocities being respectively
about 10.1 and 12.4 miles a second,

as they ought to be.

361]
SATELLITES. 257
It is a question not yet settled whether the rings constitute
a stable system, or are liable ultimately to be broken up.
362. Satellites.

Saturn has ten

1
of these attendants, the
largest of which was discovered by Huyghens in 1655. It
looks like a star of the ninth magnitude, and is easily seen
with a three-inch telescope.
Four others were discovered by D. Cassini, before 1700,

two by
Sir William Herschel, near the end of the last century, and one, Hype-
rion, by Bond of Cambridge, U.S., in September, 1848. The ninth
and tenth
1
were also discovered at Cambridge by W. H. Pickering,
in 1898 and 1905, and named Phoebe and Themis.
Since the order of the discovery of the satellites does not agree
with that of the order of the distance, it has been found necessary
to designate them by the names assigned by Sir John Herschel, as
follows, beginning with the most remote of the old satellites, viz. :

Iapetus, (Hyperion), Titan, Rhea, Dione, Tethys

;
Enceladus, Mimas.
It will be noticed that these names, leaving out Hyperion, which
was not discovered when the others were assigned, form a line and a
half of a regular Latin pentameter.
The range of the system is enormous.
1
Iapetus has a distance
of 2,225,000 miles, with a period of 79 days, nearly as long as
that of Mercury. On the western side of the planet, this satellite
is always much brighter than upon the eastern, showing that, like
our own moon, it keeps the same face towards the planet at all
times,

one-half of its surface having a higher reflecting power

than the other.
Titan, as its name suggests, is by far the largest. Its distance is
about 770,000 miles, and its period a little less than 16 days. It is
probably 3000 or 4000 miles in diameter, and, according to Stone, its
mass is
j-^q
of Saturn's. The orbit of Iapetus is inclined about
10
to the plane of the rings, but all of the other satellites move exactly
in their plane, and all the five inner ones in orbits sensibly circular.
It is not impossible, nor even improbable, that other minute satellites
besides Hyperion and Themis may yet be discovered in the great
gap between Titan and Iapetus.
1
Eor note on the new satellites, see page 263.
258
URANUS. [
363
URANUS.
363. Uranus was the first planet ever "discovered," and the
discovery created great excitement and brought the highest
honors to the astronomer. It was found accidentally by the
elder Herschel on March
13, 1781, while "sweeping" the
heavens for interesting objects with a seven-inch reflector of
his own construction. He recognized it at once by its disc as
something different from a star, but supposed it to be a pecu-
liar sort of a comet, and its planetary character was not dem-
onstrated until nearly a year had passed. It is easily visible
to a good eye as a star of the sixth magnitude.
Its mean distance from the sun is about 19 times that of the
earth, or about 1800,000000 miles, and the eccentricity of its
orbit is about the same as that of Jupiter's, making the aphe-
lion distance nearly 70,000000 miles greater than the distance
at perihelion. The inclination of the orbit to the ecliptic is
very slight

only 46'. The sidereal period is 84 years, and

the synodic, 369|
days.
In the telescope it shows a greenish disc about
4"
in diam-
eter, which corresponds to a real diameter of about 32,000
1
miles. This makes its bulk about 66 times that of the earth.
The planet's mass is found by its satellites to be about 14.6
times that of the earth ; so that its density and surface gravity
are respectively 0.22 and 0.90. The albedo of the planet, ac-
cording to Zollner, is very high, 0.64,

even a little above

that of Jupiter. The spectrum exhibits intense dark bands in
the red, due to some unidentified substance in the planet's at-
mosphere, which is probably dense. These bands explain the
marked greenish tint of the planet's light.
The disc is obviously oval, with an ellipticity of about
y
1
^
according to the writer's observations, which are confirmed by
those of Schiaparelli. There are no clear markings on the
disc, but there seem to be faint traces of something like belts,
1
28,500, according to See.
363]
SATELLITES.
259
which, most singularly and inexplicably, seem to lie, not in
the plane of the satellite orbits, but at an inclination of
20
or so to that plane. The observations, however, are far from
satisfactory or conclusive. Xo spots are visible from which
to determine the planet's diurnal rotation.
364. Satellites. The planet has four satellites, Ariel, Um-
briel, Titania, and Oberon, Ariel being the nearest to the planet.
The two brightest, Oberon and Titania, were discovered by Sir
William Herschel a few years after his discovery of the planet;
Ariel and Umbriel, by Lassell in 1851.
They are telescopically among the smallest bodies in the
solar system, and most difficult to see. In real size, they
are, of course, much larger than the satellites of Mars, very
likely measuring from 200 to 500 miles in diameter.
Their orbits are sensibly circular, and all lie in one plane,
which ought to be, and probably is, coincident with the plane
of the planet's equator ; but the belts raise questions.
They are very close packed also, Oberon having a distance of only
375,000 miles, and a period of 13 days, 11 hours, while Ariel has a
period of 2 days, 12 hours, at a distance of 120,000 miles. Titania,
the largest and brightest of them, has a distance of 280,000 miles,
somewhat greater than that of the moon from the earth, with a period
of 8 days, 17 hours.
The most remarkable thing about this system remains to be
mentioned. The plane of their orbits is inclined
82.2
to the
plane of the ecliptic, and in that plane they revolve backwards;
or we may say, what comes to the same thing, that their orbits
are inclined to the ecliptic at an angle of
97.
8,
in which case
their revolution is considered as direct.
NEPTUNE.
365. Discovery. The discovery of this planet is reckoned
the greatest triumph of mathematical astronomy. Uranus
260 NEPTUNE. [
365
failed to move in precisely the path computed for it, and was
misguided by some unknown influence to an extent which
could almost be seen with the naked eye. The difference
between the actual and computed places in 1845 was the "in-
tolerable quantity
"
of nearly two minutes of arc.
This is a little more than half the distance between the two prin-
cipal components of the double-double star, Epsilon Lyrae, the north-
ern one of the two little stars which form the small equilateral triangle
with Vega (Art. 468). A very sharp eye detects the duplicity of
Epsilon without the aid of a telescope.
One might think that such a minute discrepancy between
observation and theory was hardly worth minding, and that
to consider it
"
intolerable
"
was putting the case very strongly.
But just these minute discrepancies supplied the data which
were found sufficient for calculating the position of a great
world, until then unknown, and bringing it to light. As the
result of a most skilful and laborious investigation, Leverrier
wrote to Galle in substance :

"Direct your telescope to a point on the ecliptic in the constellation of

Aquarius, in longitude 326, and you will find within a degree of that
place a new planet, looking like a star of about the ninth magnitude, and
having a perceptible disc."
The planet was found at Berlin on the night of Sept.
23,
1846, in exact accordance with this prediction, within half an
hour after the astronomers began looking for it, and within
52'
of the precise point that Leverrier had indicated.
We cannot here take the space for a historical statement, further
than to say that the English Adams fairly divides with Leverrier the
credit for the mathematical discovery of the planet, having solved the
problem and deduced the planet's approximate place even earlier than
his competitor. The planet was being searched for in England at
the time it was found in Germany. In fact, it had already been
observed, and the discovery would necessarily have followed in a few
weeks, upon the reduction of the observations.

366]
ERROR OF THE COMPUTED ORBIT.
261
366. Error of the Computed Orbit.
Both Adams and Lever-
rier, besides calculating the planet's position in the sky, had deduced
elements of its orbit and a value for its mass, which turned out to be
seriously wrong. The reason was that they assumed that the new
planet's mean distance from the sun would follow Bode's Law, a sup-
position perfectly warranted by all the facts then known, but which,
nevertheless, is not even roughly true. As a consequence their com-
puted elements were erroneous, and that to an extent which has led
high authorities to declare that the mathematically computed plauet
was not Neptune at all, and that the discovery of Neptune itself was
simply a
"
happy accident." This is not so, however. While the data
and methods employed were not by themselves sufficient to determine
the planet's orbit with accuracy, they were adequate to ascertain the
planet's direction from the earth. The computers informed the ob-
servers where to point their telescopes, and this was all that was neces-
sary for finding the planet. In a similar case the same thing could
be done again.
367. The Planet and its Orbit. The planet's mean distance
from the sun is a little more than 2800,000000 miles (instead
of being over 3600,000000, as it should be according to Bode's
Law). The orbit is very nearly circular, its eccentricity being
only 0.009. Even this, however, makes a variation of over
50,000000 miles in the planet's distance from the sun. The
inclination of the orbit is about
If
. The period of the planet
is about 164 years (instead of 217 as it should have been ac-
cording to Leverrier's computed orbit), and the orbital veloc-
ity is about
3-1-
miles per second.
Neptune appears in the telescope as a small star of between
the eighth and ninth magnitudes, absolutely invisible to the
naked eye, though easily seen with a good opera-glass. Like
Uranus, it shows a greenish disc, having an apparent diameter
of about
2".
6. The real diameter of the planet is about 35,000
*
miles
;
but the probable error of this must be fully 500 miles.
The volume is a little more than 90 times that of the earth.
1
More recent measures by Struve, Barnard, and See make it about
28,000 miles

a surprising change.
262 NEPTUNE.
[
367
Its mass, as determined by means of its satellite, is about
18 times that of the earth, and its density 0.20.
The planet's albedo, according to Zollner, is 0.46, a trifle
less than that of Saturn and Venus.
There are no visible markings upon its surface, and nothing
certain is known as to its rotation.
The spectrum of the planet appears to be like that of
Uranus, but of course is rather faint.
It will be noticed that Uranus and Neptune form a "pair
of twins," very much as the earth and Venus do, being almost
alike in magnitude, density, and many other characteristics.
368. Satellite.

Neptune has one satellite, discovered by

Lassell within a month after the discovery of the planet
itself. Its distance is about 223,000 miles, and its period
5
d
,
21\ Its orbit is inclined to the ecliptic at an angle of
34
48', and it moves backward in it from east to west, like
the satellites of Uranus. It is a very small object, not quite
as bright as Oberon, the outer satellite of Uranus. From its
brightness, as compared with that of Neptune itself, we esti-
mate its diameter as about the same as that of our own moon.
369. The Solar System as seen from Neptune.

At Nep-
tune's distance the sun itself has an apparent diameter of only
a little more than one minute of arc,

about the diameter of

Venus when nearest us, and too small to be seen as a disc by
the naked eye, if there are eyes on Neptune. Its light and
heat are there only

^
of what we get at the earth. Still,
we must not imagine that the Neptunian sunlight is feeble
as compared with starlight, or even moonlight. Even at
the distance of Neptune the sun gives a light nearly equal
to 700 full moons. This is about 80 times the light of a
standard candle at one metre's distance, and is abundant for
all visual purposes. In fact, as seen from Neptune, the sun
would look very like a large electric arc lamp, at a distance
of a few yards.

370]
ULTKA-NEPTUNIAN PLANETS. 263
370. Ultra-Neptunian Planets.

Perhaps the breaking down

of Bode's Law at Neptune may be regarded as an indication that
the solar system terminates there and that there is no remoter
planet, but of course it does not make it certain. If such a planet
exists, however, it is sure to be found sooner or later, probably by
means of the disturbances it produces in the motion of Uranus and
Neptune. Prof. W. H. Pickering has recently determined the ele-
ments of such a hypothetical planet
"
O," basing his determination
upon the perturbations of Uranus. A photographic search for the
planet has been made, but without success.
Note to Art. 350.

Jupiter's New Satellites. The orbits of the

sixth and seventh are remarkable not only for their near equality and
immense size but because they are both inclined to the planet's equator
more than 30. They face differently, however, so that they do not coin-
cide, but interlock. The orbit of the sixth is quite eccentric. Both
satellites are extremely small, the seventh much smaller than the other,
neither of them being visible to the eye in any ordinary telescope.
The eighth and ninth are another pair of twins, twice as far from
Jupiter as the sixth and seventh, and revolving in the opposite direction.
Note to Art. 362.

Saturn's New Satellites. Although the dis-

covery of Saturn's ninth satellite, Phcebe, upon photographs made at
Arequipa, was first announced in 1898, it was not until the spring of
1904 that it was finally confirmed. The satellite is more than eight
million miles distant from the planet, about which it revolves once in
550 days. Its motion is backward, from east to west, like that of the
eighth and ninth satellites of Jupiter.
The discovery of a tenth satellite having an orbit of nearly the same
size and period as Hyperion was announced in 1905, but has not been
fully confirmed.
264 COMETS AND METEORS.
[
371
CHAPTER XIII.
COMETS AND METEORS.
THE NUMBER, DESIGNATION, AND ORBITS OF COMETS.

THEIR CONSTITUENT PARTS AND APPEARANCE.

THEIR
SPECTRA AND PHYSICAL CONSTITUTION.

THEIR PROB-
ABLE ORIGIN.

REMARKABLE COMETS.

AEROLITES,
THEIR FALL AND CHARACTERISTICS.

SHOOTING STARS
AND METEORIC SHOWERS.

CONNECTION BETWEEN
COMETS AND METEORS.
371 . From time to time bodies very different from the stars
and planets appear in the heavens, remain visible for some
weeks or months, pnrsne a longer or shorter path, and then
vanish in the distance. These are the "comets" (from coma,
i.e., "hair,") so called because when one of them is bright
enough to be seen by the naked eye, it looks like a star sur-
rounded by a luminous fog, and usually carries with it a
streaming tail of hazy light. The large ones are magnificent
objects, sometimes as bright as Venus and visible by day, with
a head as large as the moon, having a train which extends from
the horizon to the zenith, and is really long enough to reach
from the earth to the sun. Such comets are rare, however.
The majority are faint wisps of light, visible only with the
telescope.
Fig. 89 is a representation of Donati's comet of 1858, which was
one of the finest ever seen.
In ancient times comets were always regarded with terror,

as of evil omen, if not personally malignant ; and the notion

371]
COMETS.
265
Fig. 89.
Naked-eye View of Donati's Comet, Oct. 4, 1858. (Bond.)
still survives in certain quarters, although the most careful
research goes to prove that they really do not exert upon the
earth the slightest perceptible influence of any kind.
266 DESIGNATION OF COMETS.
[
371
Thus far, our lists contain nearly 800, about 400 of which
were observed before the invention of the telescope, and there-
fore must have been bright. Of those observed since then, only
a small proportion have been conspicuous to the naked eye,

perhaps one in five. The total number that visit the solar
system must be enormous, for there is seldom a time when one
at least is not in sight ; and even with the telescope we see
only such as come near the earth and are favorably situated
for observation.
372. Designation of Comets.

A remarkable comet generally

bears the name of its discoverer, or of some one who has acquired its
"
ownership," so to speak, by some important research concerning it.
Thus we have Halley's, Encke's, and Donati's comets. The common
herd are designated only by the year of discovery, with a letter indi-
cating the order of discovery in that year ; or, still again, by the year,
with a Roman numeral denoting the order of perihelion passage. Thus,
Donati's comet is
"
Comet 1858-VI.," and also
"
Comet/,
1858."
Comet
b is not, however, always Comet II., for Comet c may beat it in reach-
ing perihelion. In some cases, a comet bears a double name, as the
Pons-Brooks Comet, which was discovered by Pons in 1812, and by
Brooks on its recent return in 1883.
373. Duration of Visibility and Brightness.

The comet of
1811 was observed for 17 months, the great comet of 1861 for
a year, and Comet 1889. 1 was followed at the Lick Observatory
for nearly two years,

the longest period of visibility yet

recorded. On the other hand the comet is sometimes visible
only a week or two. The average is probably not far from
three months.
As to brightness, comets differ widely. About one in five
reaches the naked-eye limit, and a very few, say four or five
in a century, are bright enough to be seen in the daytime.
The great comet of 1882 and Comet a, 1910, were so observed.
374. Their Orbits.

A large majority move in orbits that

are sensibly parabolas. Of about 400 orbits thus far com-
puted, more than 300 are of
this kind. About 85 orbits are

374]
THEIR ORBITS.
267
more or less distinctly elliptical, and about half a dozen seem
to be hyperbolas
;
but hyperbolas differing so slightly from the
parabola that the hyperbolic character is not certain in a single
one of the cases. Comets which have elliptical orbits of course
return at regular intervals ; the others visit the sun only once,
and never come back.
As in the case of a planet, three perfect observations of a
comet's place are sufficient to determine its entire orbit.
Practically, however, it is not possible to observe a comet
with anything like the accuracy of a planet, nor usually with
sufficient precision to determine certainly from three observa-
tions whether the orbit is or is not parabolic.
Fig. 90. The Close Coincidence of Different Species of Cometary Orbits within the
Earth's Orbit.
375. The plane of the orbit and its perihelion distance can in most
cases be fairly settled from a few observations ; but the eccentricity.
268 THE ELLIPTIC COMETS. CS
375
and the major axis (with its corresponding period), require a long
series for their determination, and are seldom ascertained with much
precision from observations made at a single appearance of the comet.
In that part of the comet's path which can be observed from the earth,
the three kinds of orbits diverge but little
;
indeed, they may almost
coincide (as shown in Fig.
90.)
It must be understood, moreover, that orbits which are sensibly
parabolic are seldom strictly so ; indeed, the chances are infinity to
one against an exact parabola. If a comet were moving at any
time exactly in such an orbit, then the slightest retardation due to
the disturbing force of any planet, would change this parabola into
an ellipse, and the slightest acceleration would make an hyperbola of
it. (See Art. 259.)
376. The Elliptic Comets.

There are about a dozen of the

elliptic orbits, to which computation assigns periods near or
exceeding a thousand years. The real character of most of
these orbits is still rather doubtful. About 75 comets, how-
ever, have orbits distinctly and certainly elliptical, and about
60 have periods of less than a hundred years. About 20
of these have been actually observed at two or more returns
to perihelbn
;
as to the rest of them, some are now expected
within a few years, and some have probably been lost to ob-
servation, either like Biela's comet, soon to be discussed, or by
having their orbits transformed by perturbations.
The difficulty of determining whether a particular comet is or is
not periodic is much increased by the fact that these bodies have not
any characteristic "personal appearance" so to speak, by which a
given individual can be recognized whenever seen

as Saturn could
for instance. It is necessary to depend almost entirely upon the ele-
ments of its orbit for the identification of a returning comet, and this
is not always satisfactory. (See Art.
377.)
The first comet ascertained to move in an elliptical orbit was that
known as Halley's with a period of about 76 years, its periodicity
having been discovered by Halley in 1681. It has since been observed
in 1759 and 1835, and again. in 1909 and 1910. The second of the
periodic comets (in order of discovery) is Encke's, with the shortest
period known, only 3|- years. Its periodicity
was discovered in 1819.
376]
COMET GROUPS.
269
Fig. 91 shows the orbits of a number of the short-period
comets (it would cause confusion to insert more), and also
that of Halley's Comet. These particular comets all (except
Halley's) have periods ranging from 3
\
to 8 years, and it will
be noticed that they all pass very near the orbit of Jupiter.
Fig. 91.

Orbits of Short-period Comets.

Moreover, each comet's orbit crosses that of Jupiter near one oj
its nodes (the node is marked by a short cross line). The fact
is extremely significant, showing that these comets at times
come very near to Jupiter, and it points to an almost certain
connection between that planet and these bodies.
377. Comet Groups.

There are several instances in which

a number of comets, certainly distinct, chase each other along
almost exactly the same path, at an interval, usually of a few
months or years, though they sometimes appear simultaneously.
The most remarkable of these "comet groups" is that composed
pf the great comets of 1668, 1843, 1880, 1882, and 1887. It is
270 COMETS.
[
377
of course nearly certain that the comets of such a
"
group
"
have a common origin, perhaps from the disruption of a single
comet by the attraction of the sun or a planet.
378. Perihelion Distance, Etc.
The perihelion distances of
comets differ greatly. Eight of the 400 orbits approach the sun within
less than 6,000000 miles, and four have a perihelion distance exceed-
ing 200,000000. A single comet, that of 1729, had a perihelion dis-
tance of more than
four
astronomical units, or 375,000000 miles. It
is one of the half dozen comets possibly hyperbolic, and must have
been an enormous one to be visible under the circumstances. There
may, of course, be any number of comets with still greater perihelion
distances, because as a rule we are only able to see such as come
reasonably near to the earth's orbit,

probably only a small percent-

age of the total number that visit the sun.
The inclinations of cometary orbits range all the way from zero to
90.
As regards the direction
of
motion, the six hyperbolic comets and
all the elliptical comets having periods less than 100 years move direct,
excepting only Halley's Comet and Tempel's Comet of 1866. The
rest show no decided preponderance either way.
379. Comets are Visitors.

The fact that the orbits of most

comets are sensibly parabolic and that their planes have no
evident relation to the ecliptic, apparently indicates (though
it does not absolutely demonstrate) that these bodies do not
in any proper sense belong to the solar system. They are
probably only visitors. They come to us precisely as if they
simply dropped towards the sun from an enormous distance
;
and they leave the system with a velocity which, if no force
but the sun's attraction acts upon them, will carry them away
to an infinite distance, or until they encounter the attraction
of some other sun. Their motions are just what might be ex-
pected of ponderable masses moving in empty space between
the stars, under the law of gravitation.
A slightly different view is advocated by some high authorities.
They think that our solar system in its journey through space (Art.
379]
PHYSICAL CONSTITUTION. 271
430)
is accompanied by distant, outlying clouds of nebulous matter,
and that they are the source and original
"
home
"
of the comets.
It is argued that if the comets came from interstellar space the num-
ber of hyperbolic orbits would be much greater, because we should
meet so many more comets than would overtake us.
380. Acceleration of Encke's Comet.
This little comet be-
haves in an exceptional manner. It shortens its period of
3^
years by about two hours at each revolution, having cut
it down more than two days since its discovery in 1819. This
effect is probably due to some resistance
1
encountered by the
comet, possibly by collision with swarms of meteors.
PHYSICAL CONSTITUTION OF COMETS.
381. The Constituent Parts of a Comet.

(a) The essential

part of a comet, that which is always present and gives the
comet its name, is the Coma, or nebulosity, a hazy cloud of
faintly luminous transparent matter.
(6)
Next w^e have the Nucleus, which, however, is wanting in
many comets, and makes its appearance only when the comet
is near the sun. It is a bright, more or less star-like point
near the centre of the comet, and is usually the object "ob-
served on" in noting a comet's place. In some cases, the
nucleus is double or even multiple.
(c) The Tail, or Train, is a stream of light which commonly
accompanies a bright comet, and is sometimes present even
with a telescopic one. As the comet approaches the sun, the
tail follows it ; but as the comet moves away from the sun, it
precedes. It is usually, speaking broadly, directed away
from
the sun, though its precise form and position are determined
1
It seems at first a singular paradox that resistance should shorten a
comet's period and make it go faster. It does so by diminishing the size
of -the orbit. Every diminution of the comet's velocity will decrease a, the
semi-major axis of its orbit; but the time of revolution is proportional to
a*, and is hence also diminished.
272 COMETS.
[
381
partly by the comet's motion. It is practically certain
that
it consists of extremely rarefied matter, which is thrown off
by the comet and powerfully repelled by the sun. It certainly
is not

like the smoke of a locomotive or the train of a

meteor

matter simply
left behind by the comet.
(d) Jets and Envelopes. The head of a brilliant comet is
often veined by short jets of light, which appear to be spurted
out of the nucleus
;
and sometimes the nucleus throws off a
series of concentric envelopes, like hollow shells, one within
the other. These phenomena, however, are seldom observed
in telescopic comets.
382. Dimensions of Comets.

The volume or bulk of a comet

is often enormous

almost beyond conception if the tail is

included in the estimate. The head, as a rule, is from
40,000
to 150,000 miles in diameter : a comet less than 10,000 miles
in diameter would stand little chance of discovery, and comets
exceeding 150,000 are rather rare, though there are a consider-
able number on record.
The comet of 1811 at one time had a diameter of fully 1,200000
miles
(40
per cent larger than that of the sun). The head of the
comet of 1680 was 600,000 miles in diameter, that of Holmes's comet
of 1892, 700,000,
and that of Donati's comet about 250,000.
The diameter of the head keeps changing all the time ; and
what is singular is, that while the comet is approaching the
sun, the head usually contracts, expanding again as it recedes.
The diameter of Encke's Comet contracts from about 300,000 miles
(when it is 130,000000 miles from the sun) to a diameter not ex-
ceeding 12,000 or 14,000, when it is at perihelion, at a distance of
33,000000, the variation in bulk being more than 10,000 to 1. No
entirely satisfactory explanation is known, but Sir John Herschel has
suggested that the change is merely optical,

that near the sun a part

of the nebulous matter is evaporated by the solar heat and so becomes
invisible, condensing and reappearing again when the comet gets to
cooler regions.

382]
MASS OF COMETS. 273
The nucleus usually has a diameter ranging from 100 miles
up to 5000 or 6000, or even more. Like the comet's head, it
also varies greatly in diameter, even from day to day; the
changes, however, do not seem to depend in any regular way
upon the comet's distance from the sun, but rather upon its
activity in throwing off jets and envelopes.
The tail of a comet, as regards simple magnitude, is by far
its most imposing feature. Its length is seldom less than
5,000000 or 10,000000 miles : it frequently attains 50,000000,
and there are several cases where it has exceeded 100,000000.
383. Mass of Comets. While the volume of comets is thus
enormous, their masses are apparently insignificant, in no case
at all comparable even with that of our little earth. The
evidence on this point, however, is purely negative : it does
not enable us in any case to say how great the mass really is,
but only how great it is not\ i.e., it only proves that the
comet's mass is less than a certain very small fraction of the
earth's mass. The evidence is derived from the fact that no
sensible perturbations are produced in the motions of the
planets when comets come even very near them ; and yet in
such a case the comet itself is fairly "sent kiting," showing
that gravitation is fully operative between the comet and
planet.
Lexell's Comet in 1770, and Biela's Comet on several occasions,
came so near the earth that the length of the comet's period was
changed by several weeks, while the year was not altered by so much
as a single second. It would have been changed by many seconds if
the comet's mass were as much as
TooVoo
that of the earth. At pres-
ent this mass
(tofooo
^ the earth's mass) is very generally assumed
as a probable
"
upper limit
"
for even a large comet. It is about ten
times the mass of the earth's atmosphere, and is about equal to the
mass of a ball of iron 150 miles in diameter.
384. Density of Comets.

This is, of course, extremely

small, the mass being so minute and the volume so great. If
274 COMETS. [
384
the head of a comet 50,000 miles in diameter has a mass
nnnnnr
^na* ^ the ear^h, its mean density is about
-^^
of
that of the air at the earth's surface. As for the tail, the
density must be almost infinitely lower yet, far below that of
the best vacuum we can make by any means.known to science :
it is nearer to an
"
airy nothing
"
than anything else we know
of. The extremely low density of comets is shown also by
their transparency. Small stars can be seen through the head
of a comet 100,000 miles in diameter, even very near its
nucleus, and with hardly a perceptible diminution of lustre.
385. We must bear in mind, however, that the low mean density
of a comet does not necessarily imply that the density of its constitu-
ent parts is small. A comet may be to a considerable extent com-
posed of small heavy bodies, and still have a low mean density,
provided they are widely separated. There is much reason, as we
shall see, for supposing that such is really the case,

that the comet

is largely composed of small meteoric stones, carrying with them a
certain quantity of enveloping gas.
Another point should be referred to. Students often find it hard
to conceive how such impalpable "dust clouds" can move in orbits
like solid masses and with such enormous velocities. They forget
that in a vacuum a feather falls as swiftly as a stone. Inter-planetary
space is a vacuum, far more perfect than anything we can produce by
artificial means, and in it the lightest bodies move as freely and
swiftly as the densest, since there is nothing to resist their motion. I
f
"
all the earth were suddenly annihilated except a single feather, the
feather would keep on and pursue the same orbit, with the unchanged
speed of nearly 19 miles a second.
386. The Light of Comets.

To some extent this may be

mere reflected sunshine, but in the main it is light emitted by
the comet itself, under the stimulus of solar action.
That the light depends in some way on the sun is shown by the
fact that its intensity follows very closely the same law as the
brightness of a planet; i.e., the comet's brightness is ordina-
rily proportional to the quantity

-, in which M is the dis-

LIGHT OF COMETS.
275
tance of the comet from the sun, and r its distance from the
earth.
But the brightness often varies rapidly and capriciously
without any apparent reason; and that the comet is self-lumi-
nous when near the sun is proved by its spectrum, which is
not that of sunlight at all, but is a spectrum of bright bands,
three of which are usually seen and have been identified
with the spectrum of gaseous hydrocarbons, or, probably, cyan-
ogen. This spectrum is absolutely identical with that given
by the blue base of a candle flame
;
or, better, by a Bunsen
S/uctra vf Cor/ut
\V
'
\i
x
.'ill
i i-JK ilil'lnl
-
inn
Fig. 92. Comet Spectra.
(For convenience in engraving, the dark lines of the solar spectrum in the lowest strip
of the figure are represented as bright.)
burner consuming ordinary coal gas. Occasionally a fourth
band is seen in the violet, and when the comet approaches un-
usually near the sun, the bright lines of sodium, magnesium,
(and probably iron) sometimes appear. There seem to be
cases, also, in which different bands replace the ordinary
276 COMETS.
[
386
hydrocarbon bands, and the spectrum of Holmes's comet of
1892 was purely continuous. Mr. Lockyer maintains that as
a regular thing the spectrum of a comet changes with its
changing distance from the sun, but this is doubtful.
Fig. 92 represents the ordinary comet spectrum compared with
the solar spectrum, and with that of a candle flame. Two anomalous
spectra also are shown in the figure.
Fig. 93. Head of Donati's Comet, Oct. 5, 1858. (Bond.)
The spectrum makes it almost certain that hydrocarbon gases are
present in considerable quantity, and that these gases are somehow
rendered luminous
;
not probably by any general heating, for there is
no reason to think that the general temperature of a comet is high,
but more likely by electric discharges between the solid particles, or by
local heatings, due perhaps, as Mr. Lockyer maintains, to collisions
between them. We are not to suppose, however, that the hydrocar-
386]
PHENOMENA NEAR PERIHELION. 277
bon gas, because it is so conspicuous in the spectrum, necessarily con-
stitutes most of the comet's mass : more likely it is only a very small
percentage of the whole.
387. Phenomena that accompany the Comet's Approach to the
Sun.

When a comet is first discovered it is usually a mere

round, hazy cloud of faint nebulosity, a little brighter near the
middle. As it approaches the sun, it brightens rapidly, and
the nucleus appears.
Then on the sunward
side the nucleus begins
to emit luminous jets, or
to throw off more or less
symmetrical envelopes,
which follow each other
at intervals of some
hours, expanding and
growing fainter, until
they are lost in the gen-
eral nebulosity of the
head. Fig. 93 shows
the envelopes as they
appeared in the head of
Donati's comet of 1858.
At one time seven of them were visible together: very few
comets, however, exhibit this phenomenon with such symme-
try. More frequently the emissions from the nucleus take
the form of mere jets and streamers, as shown in Fig.
94,
which is a drawing of the nead of Tebbutt's comet of 1881.
This was an extremely active one, continually throwing out
jets, breaking the nucleus into fragments, or exhibiting some
other unexpected appearance.
388. Formation of the Tail.

The tail appears to be formed

of material which is first projected from
the nucleus
of
the comet
towards the sun, and then afterwards repelled by the sun, as illus-
Fig. 94.

Tebbutt's Comet, 1881. (Common.)

278
COMETS.
[388
trated by Fig. 95. At least, this theory has the great advan-
tage over all others which have been proposed, that it not
only accounts for the phenomena in a general way, but admits
of being worked out in detail and verified mathematically, by
comparing the actual size and
form of the comet's tail, at
different points in the orbit,
with that indicated by the
theory ; and the accordance is
generally very satisfactory.
^
To Sun
Fig. 95.

Formation of a Cornet's Tail by

Matter expelled from the Head.
According to this theory, the
tail is simply an assemblage of
repelled particles, each moving in
its own hyperbolic orbit around
the sun, the separate particles hav-
ing very little connection with or
effect upon each other, and being
almost entirely emancipated from
the control of the comet's head.
Since the force of the projection is seldom very great, all these orbits
lie nearly in the plane of the comet's orbit, and the result is that the
tail is usually a sort of a flat, hollow, curved, horn-shaped cone, open
at the large end, as represented by Fig. 96.
389. Curvature of the Tails and
Tails of Different Types. The
tail is curved, because the re-
pelled particles after leaving the
comet's head retain their original
motion, so that they are arranged
not along a straight line drawn
from the sun to the comet, but
on a curve convex to the direc-
tion of the comet's motion, as
shown in Fig. 97 : but the stronger the repulsion the less the
curvature.
Fig. 96.
A Comet's Tail as a Hollow Cone.

3S9]
CURVATURE OF THE TAILS. 279
Bredichin (of Moscow) has found that in this respect the
trains of comets may be classified under three different types,
as indicated by Fig. 98.
First, the long, straight rays: they are composed of matter upon
which the solar repulsion is from 12 to 15 times as great as the gravi-
tational attraction, so that the particles leave the comet with a relative
velocity of four or five miles a second, which is afterwards continu-
ally increased until it becomes enormous. The nearly straight rays
shown in Fig. 89 belong to this type. For plausible reasons, con-
nected with its low density, Bredichin considers them to be composed
of hydrogen, possibly set free by the decomposition of hydrocarbons.
They are rather uncommon, and in no case have been bright enough
to allow a spectroscopic test of their nature.
YiG. 97. A Comet's Tail at Different Points in its Orbit near Perihelion.
The second type is the curved plume-like train, like the principal
tail of Donati's comet. In trains of this type, supposed to be due to
hydrocarbon vapors, the repulsive force varies from 2.2 times the gravi-
tational attraction for particles on the convex edge of the train, to
half that amount for those on the inner edge.
. Third. A few comets show tails of still a third type, short, stubby
brushes, violently curved, and due to matter upon which the repulsive
force is feeble as compared with gravity.
These are assigned to
280 UNEXPLAINED AND ANOMALOUS PHENOMENA.
[ 38G
metallic vapors of considerable density, iron perhaps, with an admix-
ture of sodium, etc.
The nature of the force which repels the particles of a comet is
still somewhat uncertain.
Until very recently it has
been generally assumed to
be in some way electrical
;
but the recent experi-
mental demonstrations
of the direct impulsive
action of light-waves, long
recognized as a necessary
consequence of the electro-
magnetic theory of light,
make it quite possible that
this light-repulsion may
furnish the explanation.
Nor is there any real antag-
onism between this and
the electrical theory, now
that the new theory of
light is accepted.
There is no reason to sup-
pose that the matter driven
off
to form the tail is ever
recovered by the comet.
390. Unexplained and
Anomalous Phenomena.

A curious phenome-
non, not yet explained,
is the dark stripe which,
in a large comet nearing
the sun, runs down the
centre of the tail, look-
Bredichin's Three Types of Cometary Tails. . , .-.
mg very much as it it
were a shadow of the comet's head. It is certainly not a
shadow, however, because it usually makes more or less of an

390]
THE NATURE OF COMETS.
281
angle with the sun's direction. It is well shown in Figs. 93
and 94. When the comet is a greater distance from the sun,
this central stripe is usually bright, as in Fig. 99.
Not infrequently, moreover, comets possess anomalous tails,

usually in addition to the normal tail, but sometimes sub-

stituted for it,

tails directed sometimes straight towards the

sun, and sometimes at right
angles to that direction. Then,
sometimes, there are luminous
"
sheaths," which seem to envelop
the head of the comet and pro-
ject towards the sun; or little
clouds of cometary matter which
"
FlG 99
leave the main comet like puffs

-ii
Bright-Centred Tail of Coggia's Comet.
of smoke from a bursting bomb,
june, 1874.
and travel off at an angle until
they fade away (see Fig. 100).
None of these appearances are
contradictory to the theory above stated, although not yet
clearly included in it.
391. The Nature of Comets.

All things considered, the

most probable hypothesis as to the constitution of a comet is
that its head is a swarm of small meteoric particles, widely
separated (say pin-heads, many feet apart), each carrying with
it a gaseous envelope, in which light is produced either by
electric discharges or by some action due to the rays of the
sun. As to the size of the constituent
"
particles," opinions
differ widely. Some maintain that they are large rocks : Pro-
fessor Newton calls a comet a
"
gravel-bank
"
: others say that
it is a mere
"
dust-cloud." The unquestionable and close con-
nection between meteors and comets, which we shall soon dis-
cuss, almost compels some
"
meteoric hypothesis."
392. Origin of Periodic Comets. It is clear, as has been
said, that the comets which move in parabolic orbits cannot
282 THE CAPTURE THEORY.
[
392
have originated in the solar system, but must be visitors rather
than citizens : as to those which move in elliptical orbits, it
is a question whether we are to regard them as native-born or
only as naturalized.
It is evident that, in some way, many of them stand in pe-
culiar relations to Jupiter and other planets (see Art.
376).
All the short period comets, i.e., those which have periods
ranging from three to eight years, pass very close to the orbit
of Jupiter, and are now recognized and spoken of as Jupiter's
"
comet-family." About thirty are known already, of which
fifteen have already been observed twice or oftener. Simi-
larly, Saturn is credited with two comets ; Uranus with two
(one of them is Tempel's comet, which.is closely connected with
the November meteors, and was last due in 1900).
Finally,
Neptune has a family of six
;
among them Halley's Comet
and two others which have returned a second time to peri-
helion since 1880.
393. The Capture Theory.

The generally accepted theory

as to the origin of these
"
comet families
"
is one first sug-
gested by La Place,

that the comets which compose them have

been captured by the planet to which they stand related. A
comet entering the system and passing near a planet will be
disturbed, and either accelerated or retarded : if it is accel-
erated, the original parabolic orbit will be changed to an
hyperbola, and the comet will never be seen again ; but
if
it is
retarded, the orbit becomes elliptical, and the comet will return
at each revolution to the place where it was first disturbed.
After a lapse of time the planet and the comet will come
together a second time at or near this place. The result may
be- an acceleration which will send the comet out of the system
again ; but it is an even chance, at least, that it may be a
retardation, and that the orbit and period will thus be further
diminished. And this may happen over and over again, until

393]
REMARKABLE COMETS.
283
the comet's orbit falls so far inside that of the planet that it
suffers no further disturbance to speak of.
Given time enough and comets enough, and the ultimate
result -would necessarily be such a comet family as really
exists. It is not permanent, however : sooner or later, if a
captured comet is not first disintegrated, it will almost cer-
tainly encounter its planet under such conditions as to be
thrown out of the system in an hyperbolic orbit.
The late R. A. Proctor declined to accept the above theory, and
maintained with much vigor and ability the theory that comets and
meteor swarms have been
"
ejected
"
from the great planets by erup-
tions of some sort. We cannot here stop to discuss the theory, but
the objections to it are serious, and probably fatal.
394. Remarkable Comets.

Our space does not permit us

to give full accounts of any considerable number. We limit
ourselves to three, which, for various reasons, are of special
interest.
Biela's Comet is (or rather was) a small comet some
40,000 miles in diameter, at times barely visible to the naked
eye, and sometimes showing a short tail. It had a period of
6.6 years, and it was the second comet of short period known,
having been discovered by Biela, an Austrian officer, in
1826
;
(the periodicity of Encke's Comet had been discovered seven
year's earlier.) Its orbit comes within a few thousand miles
of the earth's orbit, the distance varying somewhat, of course,
on account of perturbations ; but the approach is often so close
that if the comet and the earth should happen to come along
at the same time there would be a collision.
In 1832, some one started the report that such an encounter was to
occur, and there was in consequence, a veritable panic in southern
France, the first of the numerous
"
comet-scares." On this occasion,
the comet passed the critical point nearly a month ahead of the earth,
and was never at a distance less than 15,000000 miles.
284 biela's COMET. [
395
395. At its return in 1846 it did a very strange thing, en-
tirely unprecedented. It split into two. When first seen, on
Nov. 28th, it was round and single. On Dec. 19th it was dis-
tinctly pear-shaped, and ten days later it had divided, the
duplication being first noticed in this country (at New Haven
and Washington) some weeks before it was observed in
Europe. The twin comets travelled along for four months at
an almost unchanging distance of about 165,000 miles, without
any apparent effect upon each other's motions, but both very
active from the physical point of view, showing remarkable
variations of brightness, and also alternations, comet A bright-
ening up when B was faint, and vice versa. In August,
1852,
the twins were again observed, now at a distance of about
1,500000 miles ; but it was impossible to tell which was
which. Neither of them has ever been seen again, though
they must have returned many times, if still existing as comets,
and more than once in a favorable position.
396. There remains, however, another remarkable chapter in
the story of this comet, though its proper place is under the
head of meteors. In 1872, on Nov. 27th, just as the earth was
crossing the track of the lost comet, but some millions of
miles behind where the comet ought to be, she encountered a
wonderful meteoric shower. As Miss Clerke expresses it, per-
haps a little too positively, "it became evident that Biela's
Comet was shedding over us the pulverized products of its
disintegration." The same thing happened again in Novem-
ber, 1885.
It is not certain whether the meteor swarms thus encoun-
tered were really what was left of the comet itself, or whether
they merely follow in its path. The comet must have been
several millions of miles ahead of the place where these meteor
swarms were met, unless it has been set back in its orbit since
1852 by some unexplained and improbable perturbations. But
if the comet still exists and occupies the place it ought to, it

396]
THE GREAT COMET OF 1882. 285
cannot be found ; it must have somehow lost the power
of
shining.
The meteors connected with this comet are known both as
"
Bie-
lids
"
and as
"
Andromedes," the latter name indicating that their so
called
"
radiant " is in the constellation of Andromeda.
397. The Great Comet of 1882.

This will long be remem-
bered, not only for its magnificent beauty, but for the great number
of unusual phenomena it presented. It was first seen in the southern
hemisphere about September 3rd, but not in the northern until the
17th, the day on which it arrived at perihelion. On that day and. the
next, it was independently discovered within two or three degrees of
the sun near noon, by several observers who had not before heard of
its existence. On the 17th, at the Cape of Good Hope, the observers
followed it right up to the edge of the sun's disc, which it
"
transited
"
invisibly, showing neither as a light nor as a dark spot on the solar
surface. It was visible to the naked eye in full sunshine for nearly a
week after perihelion. It then became a splendid object in the morning-
sky, and it continued to be observed for six months. That portion of
the orbit visible from the earth, coincides almost exactly with the or-
bits of four other comets,

those of 1668, 1843, 1880, and 1887, with

which it forms a "cornet group," as already mentioned (Art.
377).
The striking peculiarity of the orbits of this
"
comet group
"
is the
closeness of their approach to the sun, their perihelion distances all
being less than 750,000 miles, so that they pass within 300,000 miles
of the sun's surface ; i.e., right through the corona, and with a velocity
exceeding 300 miles a second ; and yet this passage through the corona
does not disturb their motion perceptibly. The orbit of the comet
of 1882, turns out to be a very elongated ellipse, with a period of about
800 years. The period of the comet of 1880 was computed as onlv
17 years, while the orbits of the other three appear to be sensibly
parabolic.
398. Telescopic Features. Early in October, the comet pre-
sented the ordinary features. The nucleus was round, a number of
well-marked envelopes were visible in the head, and the dark stripe
down the centre of the tail was sharply defined. Two weeks later,
the nucleus had been broken up and transformed into a crooked
286 THE COMET OF 1882.
[398
stream, some 50,000 miles in length, of five or six bright points ; the
envelopes had vanished from the head, and the dark stripe was re-
placed by a bright central spine.
At the time of perihelion the comet's spectrum was filled with
countless bright lines. Those of sodium were easily recognizable, and
continued visible for several weeks
;
the other lines disappeared much
more quickly, and were not certainly identified, although the general
aspect of the spectrum indicated that iron, manganese, and calcium
were probably present. By the middle of October it had become
simply the normal comet spectrum, with the ordinary hydrocarbon
bands.
Fig. 100. The "Sheath," and the Attendants of the Comet of 1882.
399. The Tail.

The comet was so situated that the tail was

directed nearly away from the earth, and so was not seen to good
advantage, never having an apparent length exceeding
35. The
actual length, however, at one time was more than 100,000000
miles.
399]
METEORS AND SHOOTING STARS. 287
A unique, and so far unexplained, phenomenon was a faint, straight-
edged
"
sheath
"
of light that enveloped the portions of the comet near
the head, and projected
3
or
4
in front of it, as shown in Fig. 100.
Moreover, there were certain shreds of cometary matter accompanying
the comet at a distance of
3
or
4
when first seen, but gradually re-
ceding and growing fainter. This also was something new in comet-
ary history, though Brooks's Comet of 1889 (next to be mentioned)
has since then done the same thing.
399*. Brooks's Comet 1889. V. (for a time known as the
Lexell-Brooks Comet). Comet 1889. V was a small one dis-
covered by Brooks in July, 1889, and was soon found to be
moving in an elliptical orbit with a period of about 7 years.
At the Lick Observatory it was observed to have three accom-
panying fragments. On investigating the orbit more carefully
with the data then available, Mr. Chandler found that in 1886
it had passed, very close to Jupiter, and that its orbit had been
greatly changed from a much larger ellipse, with a period, ac-
cording to his calculations, of about 27 years ; and his calcu-
lations led him to conclude that it was very probably identical
with the lost comet of Lexell, which was observed in 1770
(with a period which was then computed to be about 5-- years),
but never returned. Laplace, and later, Leverrier, showed
that it must have passed near to Jupiter in 1779, and been
thrown into a much larger orbit. The data, however, were
not sufficient to decide the dimensions exactly, nor at the time
of Mr. Chandler's computation, to make his identification cer-
tain
;
but it seemed so probable, that the comet was for some
time called the
"
Lexell-Brooks." It returned late in
1896,
and from the observations in 1889 and 1896 Dr. Poor of
Baltimore has shown that probably Chandler's identification
cannot be maintained. At the same time the whole history of
the investigation forms an admirable illustration of the
"
cap-
ture theory." In 1889 the comet passed certainly within
200,000 miles of Jupiter, and perhaps even closer. The motion
of the satellites was not in the least affected (indicating the
288 brooks's comet.
[399*
minuteness of its mass), but it was probably at that time that
the comet was pulled into four pieces, as observed by Barnard.
In 1921, if it
"
lives
"
so long, i.e., if it does not become too
much disintegrated to be still observable as a comet, it will
again pass near to Jupiter
;
and it remains to be seen what
will happen to it then.
Holmes's comet of 1892-3 was in many ways remarkable. When
first discovered it was already visible to the naked eye, and was
apparently almost stationary, fast increasing in size as if swiftly ap-
proaching. For a time a popular impression prevailed that it was
Biela's lost comet, and might strike the earth, which led to some-
thing like a
"
newspaper panic
"
in certain quarters. It was, how-
ever, really receding, and never came nearer than 150,000000 miles.
It was never conspicuous, and had no nucleus or notable train
;
but
its bulk was enormous : at one time its diameter exceeded 700,000
miles. It experienced many capricious changes of apparent size and
brightness, and its spectrum was purely continuous,

a thing unprece-
dented in comets. It moves in an orbit like that of an asteroid, with
its perihelion just outside the orbit of Mars, and its aphelion close to
that of Jupiter, its period being a few days less than seven years.
399**.
Photography of Comets.

It is now possible to photo-

graph comets, and the photographs bring out numerous pecu-
liarities and details which are not visible to the eye even with
telescopic aid. This is especially the case in the comet's tail.
Fig. 100
#
is from Hussey's photograph of Rordame's comet of
1893, for which we are indebted to the kindness of Professor
Holden, director of the Lick Observatory. As the camera was
kept pointed at the head of the comet (which was moving
pretty rapidly) the star-images during the hour's exposure are
drawn out into parallel streaks, the little irregularities being
due to faults of the driving-clock and vibrations of the tele-
scope. The knots and streamers which characterize the com-
et's tail were none of them visible in the telescope, and differ
from those shown upon plates taken on the days preceding and
COMET RORDAME, JULY 13, 1893.
Photographed hy W. J. Hussey, at the Lick Observatory.

399**] PHOTOGRAPHY OF COMETS. 289

following. Other plates, made the same evening a few hours
earlier and later, indicate that the knots were swiftly receding
from the comet's head at a rate exceeding 150,000 miles an
hour.
Comets have several times lately been discovered by pho-
tography in the same way as asteroids,

first by Barnard
in 1892.
METEORS AND SHOOTING STARS.
400. Meteorites.

Occasionally bodies fall upon the earth

out of the sky. Until they reach the air they are usually in-
visible, but as soon as they enter it they become conspicuous,
and the pieces which fall are called
"
Meteorites,"
"
Aerolites,"
"
Uranoliths," or simply
"
meteoric stones."
If the fall occurs at night, a ball of fire is seen, which moves
with an apparent velocity depending upon the distance of the
meteor and the direction of its motion. The fire-ball is generally
followed by a luminous train, which sometimes remains visible
for many minutes after the meteor itself has disappeared.
The motion is usually somewhat irregular, and here and there
along its path the meteor throws off sparks and fragments,
and changes its course more or less abruptly. Sometimes it
vanishes by simply fading out in the distance, sometimes by
bursting like a rocket. If the observer is near enough, the
flight is accompanied by a heavy, continuous roar, emphasized
now and then by violent detonations. The noise is frequently
heard fifty miles away, especially the final explosion.
1
If the fall occurs by day, the luminous appearances are
mainly wanting, though sometimes a white cloud is seen, and
the train may be visible. In a few cases, aerolites have fallen
almost silently, and without warning.
1
The observer must not expect to hear the explosion at the moment
when he sees it, since sound travels only about 12 miles a minute. Usually
the sound is some minutes on the way.
290
AEROLITES. [
401
401. The Aerolites Themselves. The mass that falls is
sometimes a single piece, but more usually there are many
fragments, sometimes numbering thousands : as the old writers
say, "It rains stones." The pieces weigh from 500 pounds to
a few grains, the aggregate mass occasionally amounting to
more than a ton.
By far the greater number of aerolites are stones, but a few,
perhaps three or four per cent of the whole number, are masses
of nearly pure iron more or less alloyed with nickel.
The total number of meteorites which have fallen and been gath-
ered into our cabinets since 1800 is about 275,

11 of which are
iron masses. Nearly all, however, contain a large percentage of iron,
either in the metallic form or as sulphide. Between 25 and 30 of the
275 fell within the United States, the most remarkable being those of
Weston, Conn., in 1807; New Concord, Ohio, 1860; Amana, Iowa,
1875; Emmett County, Iowa, 1879 (mainly iron)
;
and Johnson County,
Ark., 1886 (iron).
Twenty-five
*
of the chemical elements have been found in
these bodies, but not one new element, though a large number
of new minerals appear in them, and seem to be peculiar to
and characteristic of aerolites. The most distinctive external
feature of a meteorite is the thin, black, varnish-like crust
that covers it. It is formed by the fusion of the surface dur-
ing the meteor's swift flight through the air, and in some
cases penetrates the mass in cracks and veins. The surface is
generally somewhat uneven, having
"
thumb-marks
"
upon it,

hollows probably formed by the fusion of some of the

softer minerals.
Fig. 101 is from a photograph given in Langley's
"
New Astron^
omy," where the body is designated

perhaps a little too positively

as "part of a comet."
402. Path and Motion. When a meteor has been observed
from a number of different stations, its path can be computed.
Including helium.
402]
OBSERVATION OF METEORS.
291
It usually first appears at an altitude of between 80 and 100
miles and disappears at an altitude of between 5 and 10 miles.
The length of the path may be anywhere from 50 to 500 miles.
The velocity ranges
from 10 to 40 miles a
second in the earlier
part of its course, and
this is reduced to one
or two miles a second
before the meteor dis-
appears.
The average velocity
with which these bodies
enter the air seems to be
very near the parabolic
velocity of 26 miles a
second, due to the sun's
attraction at the earth's
distance

just as should
be the case, if, like the
comets, they come to us
from inter-stellar space;
but more recent researches
of Professor Xewton seem
to show such a decided
preponderance of direct
motions and small inclinations to the ecliptic as would rather indicate
on the other hand, that they are of planetary instead of stellar origin

perhaps minute
"
outriders
"
of the asteroid group.
Fig. ioi.
Fragment of one of the Amana Meteoric Stones.
403. Observation of Meteors.

The object should be to obtain

as accurate an estimate as possible of the altitude and azimuth of the
meteor at moments which can be identified, and also of the time occu-
pied in traversing definite portions of the path. By night, the stars
furnish the best reference points from which to determine its position.
By day, one must take advantage of natural objects and buildings to
292
THE LIGHT AND HEAT OF METEORS. [
403
define the meteor's place, the observer marking the precise spot where
he stood, when the meteor disappeared behind a chimney for instance,
or was seen to burst just over a certain twig in a tree. By taking a
proper instrument to the place afterwards, it is then easy to translate
such data into bearings and altitude. As to the time
of flight,
which
is required in order to determine the meteor's velocity, it is usual for
the observer to begin to repeat rapidly some familiar verse of doggerel
when the meteor is first seen, reiterating it until the meteor disap-
pears. Then by rehearsing the same before a clock, the number of
seconds can be pretty accurately determined.
404. The Light and Heat of Meteors. These are due simply
to the destruction of the meteor's velocity by the friction and
resistance of the air. When a body moving with a high veloc-
ity is stopped by the resistance of the air, by far the greater
part of its energy is transformed into heat. Sir William
Thomson has shown that the thermal effect in the case of a
body moving through the air with a velocity exceeding 10
miles a second is the same as if it were immersed in a
flame
having a temperature at least as high as that of the oxy-
hydrogen blow-pipe ; and, moreover, this temperature is inde-
pendent of the density of the air,

depending only on the

velocity of the meteor. Where the air is dense, the total
quantity of heat

i.e., the number of calories developed in a

given time

is of course greater than where the air is rarefied

;
but the virtual temperature of the air where it rubs against the
surface is the same in either case. During the meteor's flight its
surface therefore is heated to lively incandescence and melted,
and the liquefied portions are swept off by the rush of air, con-
densing as they cool to form the train. In some cases this train
remains visible for many minutes,

a fact not easy to explain.

It is hardly possible that such a smoke-like cloud should remain
luminous by retaining its heat for so long a time, and it seems
probable therefore that the material must be phosphorescent.
405. Origin of Meteors.

They cannot be, as some have

maintained, the immediate products of eruption from volcanoes,
405]
SHOOTING STARS. 293
either terrestrial or lunar, since they reach our atmosphere
with a velocity greater than 7-j- miles a second, the
"
parabolic
velocity
"
(see Art. 507*) due to the earth's attraction. This
indicates that they come to us from the depths of space.
There is no certain reason for assuming that they have origin-
ated in any way different from the larger heavenly bodies : at
the same time many of them resemble each other so closely as
almost to compel the surmise that these at least have a com-
mon source.
It is not, perhaps, impossible that such may be fragments which,
ages ago, were shot out from now extinct lunar volcanoes, with a
velocity which made planets of them for the time being. If so, they
have since been travelling in independent orbits, until at last they
encounter the earth at the point where her orbit crosses theirs. Nor
is it impossible that some of them were thrown out by terrestrial
eruptions when the earth was young, or from the planets, or from the
stars.
SHOOTING STARS.
406. Their Nature and Appearance. These are the swiftly
moving, evanescent, star-like points of light, which may be
seen every few minutes on any clear, moonless night. They
make no sound, nor (with perhaps one exception hereafter to
be noted) has anything been known to reach the earth's sur-
face from them, not even in the greatest
"
meteoric showers."
For this reason it is probably best to retain, provisionally at least,
the old distinction between them and the great meteors from which
aerolites fall. It is quite possible that the distinction has no real
ground,

that shooting stars are just like other meteors except in

size, being so small that they are entirely consumed in the air : but
then, on the other hand, there are some things which favor the idea
that the two classes of bodies differ about as asteroids do from comets.
407. Number of Shooting Stars.

Their number is enormous.

A. single observer averages from four to eight an hour ; but if
294
SHOOTING STARS. C
4(>7
the observers are sufficiently numerous, and so organized as to
be sure of noting all that are visible from a given station,
about eight times as many are counted. From this it is estima-
ted by Professor Newton that the total number which enter our
atmosphere daily must be between 10,000000 and
20,000000,
the average distance between them being about 200 miles.
Besides those which are visible to the naked eye, there is a
still larger number of meteors which are so small as to be
observable only with the telescope.
The average hourly number about six o'clock in the morning
is double the hourly number in the evening ; the reason being
that in the morning we are on the front of the earth, as re-
gards its orbital motion,
1
while in the evening we are in the
rear. In the evening we see only such as overtake us. In the
morning we see all that we either meet or overtake.
408. Elevation, Path, and Velocity.

By observations made
at stations 30 or 40 miles apart, it is easy to determine
these data with some accuracy. It is found that on the aver-
age the shooting stars appear at a height of about 74 miles,
and disappear at an elevation of about 50 miles, after travers-
ing a course of 40 or 50 miles, with a velocity of from 10 to 30
miles a second,

about 25 on the average. They do not be-

gin to be visible at so great a height as the aerolitic meteors,
and they are more quickly consumed, and therefore do not
penetrate the atmosphere to so great a depth.
409. Brightness, Material, Etc. Now and then a shooting
star rivals Jupiter or even Venus in brightness. A consider-
able number are like first-magnitude stars, but the great ma-
jority are faint. The bright ones generally leave trains.
Occasionally it has been possible to get a
"
snap shot," so to
1
The earth's orbital motion at any instant is (very nearly) directed
towards that point on the ecliptic which is 90
west of the sun.

409]
PROBABLE MASS. 295
speak, at the spectrum of a meteor, and in it the bright lines
of sodium and magnesium (probably) are fairly conspicuous
among many others which cannot be identified by such a hasty
glance.
Since these bodies are consumed in the air, all we can hope
to get of their material is their
"
ashes." In most places its
collection and identification is, of course, hopeless ; but the
Swedish naturalist, Nordenskiold, thought that it might be
found in the polar snows. In Spitzbergen he therefore melted
several tons of snow, and on filtering the water he actually
detected in it a sediment containing minute globules of oxide
and sulphide of iron. Similar globules have also been found
in the products of deep-sea dredging. They may be meteoric,
but what we now know of the distance to which smoke and
fine volcanic dust is carried by the wind makes it not im-
probable that they may be of purely terrestrial origin.
410. Probable Mass of Shooting Stars.

We have no way
of determining the exact mass of such a body ; but from the
light it emits, as seen from a known distance, an estimate can
be formed which is not likely to be widely erroneous.
An efficient incandescent electric lamp consumes about 150 foot-
pounds of energy per minute, for every candle power. Assuming for
the moment, then, that the ratio of the light (or luminous energy) to
the total energy is the same for a meteor as for the electric lamp, we
can compute the total energy of a meteor which shines with known
brightness for a given number of seconds ; and we can then compute
its mass
1
from its known velocity.
. If a meteor converted all its energy into light, wasting none in
invisible rays, this calculation would give the mass several times too
great. If, on the other hand, the meteor were only feebly luminous,
the result would be too small.
1
If the energy is expressed in foot-pounds (pounds of force) and the
mass is wanted in mass-pounds, the equation for the energy is
E =

) nearly
;
whence M
=
2g
61
J
'
V*
296 SHOOTING STARS.
[' 410
It is likely on the whole that an ordinary meteor and a good
incandescent lamp do not differ widely in their "luminous
efficiency/' and calculations on this basis indicate that the
ordinary shooting stars weigh only a small fraction of an
ounce,

from a grain or hvo up to 50 or 100 grains.

411. Effects produced by Meteors and Shooting Stars.

We must content ourselves with merely alluding to certain effects

which they must theoretically produce, adding that in no case have
such effects been found sensible to observation.
1
.
In the first place, meteors add continually to the earth's mass

per-
haps as much as 40,000 tons a year. If so, it would take about 1000
million years to accumulate a layer one inch thick on the earth's
surface.
2. They diminish the length
of
the year : (a) by acting as a resist-
ing medium, and so really shortening the major axis of the earth's
orbit (like the orbit of Encke's comet)
;
(b) by increasing the mass of
the earth and sun, and so increasing the attraction between them
;
(c) by increasing the size of the earth, and thus slackening its rota-
tion and lengthening the day.
Calculation shows, however, that the combined effect would hardly
amount to more than
j^
of a second in a million years.
3. Each meteor brings to the earth a certain amount
of
heat, devel-
oped in the destruction of its motion. According to the best esti-
mates, however, all the meteors that fall upon the earth in a year
supply no more heat than the sun does in about one-tenth
of
a second.
4. They must necessarily render inter-stellar space imperfectly trans-
parent, if, as there is every reason to suppose, they pervade it through-
out in any such numbers as in the domain of the solar system. But
this effect is also so small as to defy calculation.
412. Meteoric Showers.

There are occasions when these

bodies, instead of showing themselves here and there in the
sky at intervals of several minutes, appear in
"
showers
"
of
thousands ; and at such times they do not move at random, but
all their paths diverge or
"
radiate
"
from a single spot in the
sky, known as the "radiant"; i.e., their paths produced back-
ward all pass through it, though they do not usually start
412]
METEORTC SHOWERS.
297
there. Meteors which, appear near the radiant are apparently
stationary, or describe paths that are very short, while those
in the more distant regions of the sky pnrsne long courses.
The " radiant" keeps its place among the stars sensibly
unchanged during the whole continuance of the shower, for
hours or days, it may be, and the shower is named according
to the place of the radiant. Thus, we have the "Leonids,"
or meteors whose radiant is the constellation of Leo ; the
41
Andromedes
"
(or Bielids)
;
the "Perseids," the "Lyrids," etc.
Fig. 102 represents the tracks of a large number of the Leonids of
1866, showing the position of the radiant near Zeta Leonis.
Fig. 102. The Meteoric Radiant in Leo, Nov. 13,
The
"
radiant " is explained as a mere effect of perspective.
The meteors are all moving in lines nearly parallel when
encountered by the earth, and the radiant is simply the per-
spective "vanishing point" of this system of parallels: its
298 METEORIC SHOWERS. [
412
position depends entirely upon the direction of the motion
of the meteors relative to the earth. For various reasons,
however, the paths of the meteors, after they enter the air,
are not exactly parallel, and in consequence the radiant is not
a mathematical point, but a "spot" in the sky, often covering
an area of three or four degrees square.
Probably the most remarkable of all the meteoric showers that
have ever occurred was that of the Leonids on Nov. 12th, 1833. The
number at some stations was estimated as high as 100,000 an hour, for
five or six hours.
"
The sky was as full of them as it ever is of snow-
flakes in a storm."
413. Dates of Meteoric Showers.

Meteoric showers are

evidently caused by the earth's encounter with a swarm of
meteors, and since this swarm pursues a regular orbit around
the sun, the earth can meet it only when she is at the point
where her orbit cuts the path of the meteors : this, of course,
must always happen on or near the same day of the year,
except as in the process of time the meteoric orbits shift
their positions on account of perturbations. The Leonid
showers, at present, appear on the 16th of November, within
a day or two; and the Andromedes about the 20th of the
same month.
In some cases the meteors are distributed along their whole
orbit, forming a sort of ring and rather widely scattered. In
that case the shower recurs every year and may continue for
several days, as is the case with the Perseids, or August meteors.
On the other hand, the flock may be concentrated, and then the
shower will occur only when the earth and the meteor-swarm
both arrive at the orbit-crossing together. This is the case
with both the Leonids and the Andromedes. The showers
then occur, not every year, but only at intervals of several
years, and always on or near the same day of the month.
For the Leonids, the interval is about 33 years, and for the
Bielids, usually 13.
1
In 1892 a shower of them occurred on November 23.

413]
THE MAZAPIL METEORITE.
, 299
The meteors which belong to the same group have certain family
resemblances. The Perseids are yellow, and move with medium
velocity. The Leonids are very swift (we meet them), and they are
of a bluish green tint, with vivid trains. The Bielids are sluggish
(they overtake the earth), are reddish, being less intensely heated
than the others, and they usually have only feeble trains.
414. The Mazapil Meteorite.

As has been said, during these

showers no sound is heard, no sensible heat perceived, nor do any
masses reach the ground ; with one exception, however, that on Nov.
27th, 1885, a piece of meteoric iron fell at Mazapil, in northern Mex-
ico, during the shower of Andromedes which occurred that evening
(Art. 396). Whether the coincidence is accidental or not, it is certainly
interesting. Many high authorities speak confidently of this piece of
iron as being a piece of Biela's comet itself ; and this brings us to one
of the most remarkable discoveries of nineteenth century astronomy.
415. The Connection between Comets and Meteors. At the
time of the great meteoric shower of 1833, Professors Olmsted
and. Twining, of New Haven, were the first to recognize the
"radiant," and. to point out its significance as indicating the
existence of a swarm
of
meteors revolving around the sun in a
permanent orbit. Olmsted even went so far as to call the body
a "comet." Others soon showed that in some cases, at least,
the meteors must be distributed in a complete ring around the
sun, and Erman of Berlin developed a method of computing
the meteoric orbit when its radiant is known. In 1864 Profes-
sor Newton of New Haven showed by an examination of the
old records that there had been a number of great meteoric
showers in November, at intervals of 33 or 34 years, and he
predicted confidently a repetition of the shower on November
13th or 14th, 1866. The shower occurred as predicted, and
was observed in Europe ; and it was followed by another in
1867 which was visible in America, the meteoric swarm being
extended in so long a procession as to require more than two
years to cross the earth's orbit. The swarm returned again
in 1900
and 1901, but comparatively few meteors were seen.
300 METEORS AND COMETS.
[416
416. Identification of Meteoric and Cometary Orbits. With-
in a few weeks after the shower of 1866 it was shown by
Leverrier and Oppolzer that the orbit of these meteors was
identical with that of a faint comet known as Tempers, observed
a year before ; and about the same time, in fact a few weeks
earlier, Schiaparelli showed that the Perseids, or August me-
teors, move in an orbit identical with that of the bright comet
of 1862, known as TutUe's.
Now a single coincidence might be accidental, but hardly
two. Five years later came the shower of Andromedes, fol-
lowing in the track of Biela's comet; and among the more
than a hundred distinct meteor swarms, now recognized, Prof.
Fig. 103.

Orbits of Meteoric Swarms.

Alexander Herschel finds five others which are similarly re-
lated, each to its special comet. It is no longer possible to
doubt that there is a real and close connection between these
comets and their attendant meteors.
Fig. 103 represents four of these cometo-meteoric orbits.
417]
NATURE OF THE CONNECTION. 301
417. Nature of the Connection. This cannot be said to be
ascertained. In the case of the Leonids and the Andromedes,
the meteoric swarm follows the comet. But this does not seem
to be so in the case of the Perseids, which scatter along more
or less abundantly every year.
The prevailing belief seems to be at present that the comet
itself is only the thickest part of the meteoric swarm, and that
the clouds of meteors scattered along its path are the result of
its disintegration.
It is easy to show that if a comet really is such a swarm, it must
gradually break up more aud more at each return to perihelion and
disperse its constituent particles along its path, until the compact
swarm has become a diffuse ring. The longer the comet has been
u=place
of Uranus 126 A. D.
w\
I
\
\
*,' /
/ s*
/ V
*-' / 4o
.
O^

f-
'-"--^
1
f$Q \\
s<j
/>
/IS* w
/
,#
/
si /
\
Jp
r
/ W/ S-i , J-
\y
,%

/
II
^Vi
"\
/
/}f
i

[1
\
A
\\
/y\
r
Y^_
^l
V \
Fig. 104.

Origin of the Leonids.

moving around the sun, the more uniformly the particles will be
distributed. The Perseids are supposed, therefore, to have been in
the system for a long time, while the Leonids and Andromedes are
believed to be comparatively newcomers. Leverrier, indeed, has gone
so far as to indicate the year 126 a.d. as the time at which Uranus
captured Tempel's comet, aud brought it into the system (as illus-
302 MR. lockyer's hypothesis. [
417
trated by Fig. 104). But the theory that meteoric swarms are the
product of cometary disintegration assumes the premise that comets
enter the system as compact clouds, which, to say the least, is not yet
certain.
418. Mr. Lockyer's Meteoric Hypothesis. One of the Eng-
lish astronomers, Mr. Lockyer, has been enlarging greatly the
astronomical importance of meteors. The probable meteoric
constitution of the zodiacal light (Art.
343),
as well as of
Saturn's rings, and of the comets, has long been recognized;
but he goes much farther and maintains that all the heavenly
bodies are either meteoric swarms, more or less condensed, or
the final products of such condensation ; and upon this hypoth-
esis he attempts to explain the evolution of the planetary
system, the phenomena of variable and colored stars, the
various classes of stellar spectra, and the forms and structure
of the nebulae,

indeed, pretty much everything in the

heavens from the Aurora Borealis to the sun. As a
"
working
hypothesis
"
his theory is unquestionably suggestive and has
attracted much attention, but it does not bear criticism in all
its details.

419
j THE STARS.
303
CHAPTER XIV.
THE STARS.
THEIR NATURE, NUMBER, AND DESIGNATION.

STAR-
CATALOGUES AND CHARTS. PROPER MOTIONS AND
THE MOTION OT THE SUN IN SPACE.

STELLAR PAR-
ALLAX.

STAR -MAGNITUDES.

VARIABLE STARS.

STELLAR SPECTRA.
419. The solar system is surrounded by an immense void,
peopled only by meteors. If there were any body a hundredth
part as large as the sun within a distance of a thousand astro-
nomical units, its presence would be indicated by considerable
perturbations of Uranus and Neptune. The nearest star, as
far as our present knowledge goes, is one whose distance is
more than 200,000 units,

so remote that, seen from it, the

sun would look about like the Pole-star, and no telescope yet
constructed would be able to show a single one of all the
planets of the solar system.
The spectra of the stars indicate that they are bodies like
our sun, incandescent, shining each with its own peculiar light.
Some are larger and hotter than the sun, others smaller and
cooler ; some, perhaps, hardly luminous at all. They differ
enormously among themselves, not being, as was once thought,
as much alike as individuals of the same race, but differing as
widely as animalcules from elephants.
. 420. Number of the Stars.

Those that are visible to the

eye. though numerous, are by no means countless. If we take
304
CONSTELLATIONS. [
42<>
a limited region, as, for instance, the bowl of
"
The Dipper/'
we shall find that the number we can see within it is not very
large,

hardly a dozen. In the whole celestial sphere, the

number of stars bright enough to be distinctly seen by an
average eye is only between 6000 and 7000,

and that in a
perfectly clear and moonless sky : a little haze or moonlight
will cut down the number full one-half. At any one time, not
more than 2000 or 2500 are fairly visible, since near the hori-
zon the small stars (which are vastly the most numerous) dis-
appear. The total number which could be seen by the ancient
astronomers well enough to be observable with their instruments
is not quite 1100.
With even the smallest telescope the number is enormously
increased. A common opera-glass brings out at least
100,000,
and with a 2^-inch telescope, Argelander made his "Durch-
musterung" of the stars north of the equator, more than
300,000 in number. The Lick telescope, 36 inches in diameter,
probably reaches about 100,000000.
421. Constellations.

The stars are grouped in so-called

"constellations," many of which are extremely ancient, all
those of the Zodiac and all those near the northern pole being
of pre-historic origin. Their names are for the most part drawn
from the Greek and Eoman mythology, many of them being
connected in some way or other with the Argonautic expedi-
tion. In some cases the eye, with the help of a lively imagi-
nation, can trace in the arrangement of the stars a vague
resemblance to the object which gives name to the constella-
tion, but generally no reason is obvious for either its name or
its boundaries.
Of the 67 constellations now generally recognized, 48 have
come down from Ptolemy, the others having been formed by
later astronomers to embrace stars not included in the old con-
stellations, and especially to provide for the stars near the
southern pole. Many other constellations have been proposed
at one time or another, but since rejected as useless or imper-

421] DESIGNATION OF THE STARS.

305
tinent, though a few have obtained partial acceptance and at
present find a place upon some maps.
*
A thorough knowledge of these artificial star groups and of the
names and places of the stars that compose them, is not at all essen-
tial even to an accomplished astronomer ; but it is a matter of great
convenience to be acquainted with the principal constellations, and to
be able to recognize at a glance the brighter stars,

50 to 100 in
number. This amount of knowledge is easily obtained in three or
four evenings by studying the heavens in connection with a good
celestial globe, or with star-maps

taking care, of course, to select the

evenings in different seasons of the year, so that the whole sky may
be covered. In the Uranography, which forms a supplement to this
volume, we give a brief description of the various constellations, and
directions for tracing them by the help of small star-maps, which are
quite sufficient for this purpose, though not on a scale large enough
to answer the needs of detailed study. For reference purposes
1
,
the
more elaborate atlases of Proctor, Heis, or Klein, are recommended.
422. Designation of the Stars.

There are various ways of

designating particular stars.
(a) By Names. About sixty of the brighter stars have
names of their own.
These names are partly of Latin and Greek origin {e.g., Capella,
Sirius, Arcturus, Procyon, Regulus, etc.), and partly Arabic (e.g.
%
Aldebaran, Vega, etc.).
(6)
By the Star's Place in the Constellation. This was the
usual method employed by Ptolemy for designating stars.
Thus, Spica is the star in the "spike
of
wheat" that Virgo carries;
Cot Leonis (the lion's heart) is a synonym for Regulus ; and Cyno-
sure means
"
dog's tail
";
since Ursa Minor was apparently a dog in the
days of the early Greek astronomers, who gave that name to the star
which is now the Pole-star.
(c) By Constellation and Letters. In 1603, Bayer, in pub-
lishing his star-map, adopted an excellent plan, ever since
followed, of designating the stars in a constellation by the
1
An excellent star-atlas by Professor Upton has lately been published
bv Ginn & Co.
306
STAR-CATALOGUES. [
422
letters of the Greek alphabet. The letters are ordinarily
applied nearly in the order of brightness, Alpha (a) being the
brightest star of the constellation, and Beta
(/?)
the next
brightest, etc. But they are sometimes applied to the stars in
their order
of
position rather than in that of brightness.
When the stars of a constellation are so numerous as to exhaust
the letters of the Greek alphabet, the Roman letters are next used,
and then, if necessary, we employ the numbers which Flamsteed as-
signed a century later. At present every naked-eye star can be re-
ferred to and identified by its letter or number in the constellation to
which it belongs.
(d) By Catalogue Number. Of course the preceding meth-
ods all fail in the case of telescopic stars
v
To such we refer as
number so-and-so of some one's catalogue : thus^ LI.
21,185 is
read "Lalande, 21,185," and means the star that is so numbered
in Lalande's catalogue. At present, somewhere from
600,000
to 800,000 stars are contained in our catalogues, so that (except
in the Milky Way) every star visible in a three-inch telescope
can be found and identified in one or more of them.
Synonyms. Of course all the bright stars which have names
have letters also, and are sure to be found in every catalogue
which covers their part of the heavens. A conspicuous star,
therefore, has usually many "aliases," and sometimes great
care is necessary to avoid mistakes on this account.
423. Star-Catalogues-.

These are lists of stars, giving their

positions (i.e., their right ascensions and declinations, or lati-
tudes and longitudes), and usually also indicating their so-
called
"
magnitudes
"
or brightness.
The first of these star-catalogues was made about 125 B.C. by Hip-
parchus of Bithynia (the first of the world's great astronomers),
giving the latitude and longitude of: 1080 stars. This catalogue was
republished by Ptolemy, 250 years later, the longitudes being corrected
for precession
;
and during the middle ages several others were made
by the Arabic astronomers and those that followed them.

423
] STELLAR PHOTOGRAPHY.
307
The modern catalogues are numerous. Some, like Argelander's
"
Durchmusterung," already referred to, give the place of a great
number of stars rather roughly, merely as a means of ready identifica-
tion
;
others are
"
catalogues of precision," like the Pulkowa and
Greenwich catalogues, which give the places of only a few hundred
so-called "fundamental stars," determined as accurately as possible,
each star by itself. The immense catalogue of the German Astrono-
mische Gesellschaft, now in process of publication, will contain accu-
rate places of all stars above the 9th magnitude north of 15
South
Declination. The observations, by numerous co-operating observato-
ries, have occupied nearly 20 years, but are at last finished.
424. Mean and Apparent Places of the Stars.

The modern
star-catalogue contains the mean right ascension and declination of its
stars at the beginning of some designated year ; i.e., the place the star
would occupy if there were no equation of the equinoxes, nutation, or
aberration. To get the actual (apparent) right ascension and decli-
nation of a star
for
some given date (which is what we always want in
practice), the catalogue place must be "reduced" to that date; that
is, it must be corrected for precession, aberration, etc. The operation
is, however, a very easy one with modern tables and formulae, involv-
ing perhaps from five to ten minutes' work.
425. Star-Charts and Stellar Photography.

For some pur-

poses, accurate st&i-charts are even more useful -than cata-
logues. The old-fashioned and laborious way of making such
charts was by
"
plotting
"
the results of zone observations, but
at present it is being done by means of photography, vastly
better and more rapidly. A co-operative campaign began in
1889, the object of which is to secure a photographic chart of
all the stars down to the 14th magnitude. The work is now
well advanced, the greater part of the necessary
23,000
negatives having been already made.
One of the most remarkable things about the photographic
method is 'that with a good instrument there appears to be no
limit to the faintness of the stars that can be photographed
:
by increasing the time of exposure, smaller and smaller stars
308 STELLAR PHOTOGRAPHY. [425
FlG. 105.

Photographic Telescope of the Paris Observatory.

425]
PROPER MOTIONS. 309
are continually reached. With the ordinary plates and expo-
sure-times not exceeding twenty minutes, it is now possible
to get distinct impressions of stars that the eye cannot pos-
sibly see with the telescope employed.
Fig. 105 represents the photographic telescope
(14
inches aperture
and 11 feet focus) of the Paris Observatory. The others engaged in
this star-chart campaign are all of identical optical power. Several
other enormous photographic telescopes, ranging in diameter from
24 to 32 inches, and from 40 to 60 feet long, have recently been
mounted in European observatories. The "Bruce telescope
"
(named
for its donor, the late Miss Bruce of New York) has a four-lens
objective of 24 inches diameter and 14 feet focal length. It is at
present mounted at Arequipa, Peru.
STAR MOTIONS.
426. The stars are ordinarily called
"fixed"
in distinction
from the planets or
"
wanderers," because they keep their posi-
tions and configurations sensibly unchanged with respect to
each other for long periods of time. Delicate observations,
however, separated by sufficient intervals, have demonstrated
that the fixity is not absolute, but that the stars are all really
in motion ; and by the spectroscope the rate of motion towards
or from the earth can in some cases be approximately meas-
ured. In fact, it appears that their velocities are of the same
order as those of the planets : they are flying through space
incomparably more swiftly than cannon-balls, and it is only
because of their inconceivable distance from us that they
appear to change their places so slowly.
427. Proper Motions. If we compare a star's position (right
ascension and declination), as determined to-day, with that
observed a hundred years ago, it will always be found, to have
changed considerably. The difference is due in the main to
precession, nutation, and aberration. Those, however, are none
of them real motions
of
the stars, but are only apparent dis
310 PEOPER MOTIONS. [
427
placements, and moreover are
"
common"; i.e., they are shared
alike by all the stars in the same part of the sky. But after
allowing for all these
"
common " and apparent motions
of a
star, it generally appears that within a century the star has
really changed its place more or less with reference to others
near it, and this real shifting of place is called its "proper"
motion,
the word
"
proper
"
being in this case the antithesis
of "common." Of two stars side by side in the same tele-
scopic field of view, the proper motions may be directly oppo-
site, while, of course, the common motions will be sensibly
the same.
The maximum proper motion now known is that of an
eleventh-magnitude star in Ophiuchus, found by Barnard to
move 10".3 a year. An eighth-magnitude star known as
No. 243, Gould's Cordoba Zones, Fifth Hour, drifts 8".7 annu-
ally, while the so-called "runaway star," 1830 Groombridge,
changes its position
7"
each year.
While these stars of large proper motion are all faint,
the proper motions of faint stars average less than those of the
brighter, since on the average they are more distant. For the
first-magnitude stars the average is about
J"
annually, and for
the sixth-magnitude stars

the faintest visible to the naked

eye

it is about
-fa
11
. These motions are always sensibly
rectilinear.
They were first detected in 1718 by Halley, who found that since
the time of Hipparchus the star Arcturus had moved towards the
south nearly a whole degree, and Sirius about half as much.
At present the best method of determining proper motion is to
measure the positions of stars relative to each other on photographs,
with at least ten years between them

the longer the interval the

better.
428. Real Motions of the Stars.

The
"
proper motion
"
of
a star gives us very little knowledge as to the real motion of
that star in miles per second, unless we know its distance
;
nor even then unless we also know its rate of motion towards
428]
REAL MOTIONS OF STARS. 311
on from us. The proper motion derived from the comparison
of the catalogues of different dates is only the angular value
of that part of the whole motion which is perpendicular to
the line of vision. A star moving straight towards or from
the earth has no "proper motion" at all in the technical sense
;
i.e., no change of apparent place which can be detected by
comparing observations of its position.
Fig. 106 illustrates the subject. If a star really moves in a year
from A to B, it will seem to an observer at the earth to have moved
over the line Ab, and the proper motion (in seconds of arc) will be
Ab
206,265 x

. Since A
b
a tv> ,* *wn,
Distance
a To the Earth
cannot be greater than AB, we
can in some cases fix a minor
limit to the star's velocity. We 5
2$
know, for instance, that the
FlG. 106.
-
Components of a Star's Motion.
distance of 1830 Gr. is probably
not less than 2,000000 astronomical units; and, therefore, since Ab
subtends an angle of
7"
at the earth, its length must at least equal
astronomical units. This represents the motion for a
206,265
F
year and corresponds to a velocity of about 200 miles a second.
The real velocity along the line AB is, of course, the hypothenuse
of the right-angled triangle whose sides equal Ab and Aa, and can
be found only when both Ab and Aa are known.
In many cases a number of stars in the same region of the
sky have a motion practically identical, making it almost cer-
tain that they are really neighbors and in some way connected,

probably by community of origin. In fact, it seems to be

the rule rather than the exception that stars which are ap-
parently near each other are really comrades. Five stars of the
Great Dipper are apparently moving along parallel lines with
equal velocities, and even some stars in other parts of the sky,
notably Sirius, seem to belong to this same system. Many of
the stars in the constellation of Taurus have a common motion,
and another such group is found in Perseus.
312 THE SUN'S WAY. [
429
429. Motion in Line of Sight.

The motion of a star di-

rectly towards or away from us (usually called radial motion)
may be detected by means of the spectroscope.
If
a star is
approaching us, the lines
of
its spectrum will be shifted towards
the violet, according to Doppler's principle (Arts. 200 and
500),
and vice versa if it is receding from us. The reality of these
motions was first demonstrated by visual observations made by
Huggins in 1868, but photographs are better adapted to the
accurate measurements necessary.
The spectrum of titanium or iron is photographed on each
side of the spectrum of the star. If the star is at rest relative
to the earth, the corresponding lines of star and comparison
spectrum will agree. If the star is approaching the earth, its
lines will be shifted toward the violet end of the spectrum.
In Fig. 107 the dark lines of the spectrum of rj Leonis are dis-
placed toward the red by an amount which indicates that the
star and earth were separating at
the rate of 18 miles a second.
When the lines of the spectrum
are clear-cut and well defined, as
in the illustration, very accurate
results may be obtained, so that
Spectrum of Eta Leonis (Yerkes) for such stars the radial velocity
is known to within a small frac-
tion of a mile per second. Even when the lines are broad and
hazy, we may know this component of a star's motion with
greater accuracy than we do its cross motion, which involves
a knowledge of the distance of the star.
For the most part these motions of the stars, so far as at pres-
ent ascertained, seem to range between zero and 25 or 30 miles
a second, with still higher speeds in a few exceptional cases.
430. The Sun's Way.

The proper motions of the stars are

due partly to their own motions, but partly also to the motion
of
the sun, which, like the other stars, is travelling through
space, taking with it the earth and the planets. Sir William
4400 4600
Fig. 107.

43
0]
PARALLAX AND DISTANCE OF STARS.
313
Herschel was the first to investigate and determine the direc-
tion of this motion a century ago.
The principle involved is this : The motion of a star relative
to the solar system is made up of its own real motion combined
with the sun's motion reversed. On the whole, therefore, the
stars will apparently drift bodily in a direction opposite to
the sun's real motion. Those in that quarter of the sky to
which we are approaching will open out from each other, and
those in the rear will close up behind us. Again, from the
radial motion of the stars (spectroscopically measured) a re-
sult can be obtained. In the portion of the heavens toward
which the sun is moving, the stars will on the whole seem to
approach, and in the opposite quarter, to recede. The indivi-
dual motions lie in all directions
;
but when we deal with them
by the hundred the individual is lost in the general, and the
prevailing drift appears.
About twenty different determinations of the point in the
sky towards which the sun's motion is directed have been thus
far made by various astronomers. There is a reasonable ac-
cordance of results, and they all show that the sun, with its
attendant planets, is moving towards a point in the constella-
tion of Hercules, having a right ascension of about
267
(17
hours, 48 minutes), and a declination of about
31
north.
This point is called the
"
Apex
of
the sun's way."
If there are any predominant drifts among the stars whose mo-
tions form the basis of this calculation, as recent investigations of
Kapteyn and others would indicate, this computed position will
be affected.
THE PARALLAX AND DISTANCE OE THE STARS.
431 . When we speak of the
"
parallax " of the sun, of the
moon, or of a planet, we always mean the
u
diurnal" or "geocen-
tric" parallax (Art.
147) ;
i.e., the angular semi-diameter
of
the
earth as seen from the body. In the case of a star, this kind
314
PAKALLAX AND DISTANCE OF STABS. [
431
of parallax is hopelessly insensible, never reaching
2 \
of a
second of arc. The expression "parallax of a star" always
refers, on the contrary, to its "annual" or "heliocentric" par-
allax; i.e., the angular semi-diameter, not of the earth, but of
the earth's orbit as seen from the star. In Fig. 108 the angle
at the star is its parallax.
Even this heliocentric parallax, in the case of all stars but
a very few, is too minute to be fairly measured by our present
E
Star

*
Sun
Fig. 108.
The Annual Parallax of a Star.
instruments, never reaching a single second. In the case of
Alpha Centauri, which is our nearest neighbor so far as known
at present, the parallax is about
0".9
according to the earlier
observers, but only 0".75 according to the latest authorities.
Only four or five other cases are now known in which the
parallax exceeds 0".3.
432. In accordance with the principle of relative motion
(Art.
287),
every star really at rest must appear to move in
the sky just as if it were travelling yearly around a little
orbit 186,000000 miles in diameter, the precise counterpart of
the earth's orbit, and with its plane parallel to the plane of
the ecliptic. In this little orbit the star keeps always oppo-
site to the earth, apparently moving in the opposite direc-
tion. If the star is near the pole of the ecliptic, its "par-
allactic orbit," as it is called, will be sensibly circular: if it
is near the ecliptic, the orbit will be seen edge-wise as a straight
line; while if a star is at an intermediate celestial latitude, the
orbit will be an ellipse, which becomes more nearly circular as
we approach the pole of the ecliptic.
432]
THE LIGHT YEAR. 315
If, now, we can measure the apparent size of this parallactic
orbit in seconds of arc, the star's distance immediately follows.
It equals
206265
R x
i>"
in which R is the astronomical unit (the distance of the earth
from the sun), and p" is the star's parallax in seconds of arc
;
i.e., the angular semi-major axis
of
its parallactic orbit.
For a discussion of methods, see Appendix, Arts. 521-523.
433. Unit of Stellar Distance; the Light Year.

The dis-
tances of the stars are so enormous that even the radius of
the earth's orbit, the "astronomical unit" hitherto employed,
is too small for a convenient measure. Astronomers use the
parsec, a distance corresponding to a parallax of one second,
as the unit of stellar distance. Another common unit is the
light year, the distance light travels in a year, which is about
63,000
x
times the distance of the earth from the sun.
A star with a parallax of one second is at a distance of 3.262
light years
j
and in general the distance in light years equals
3.262
p"
'
No star has as yet been found with a parallax greater than
0".75, which corresponds to a distance of four and three-tenths
"
light years " from the solar system
;
the naked-eye stars
are probably for the most part within 200 or 300 years, and
many of the remoter ones must be some thousands of years
away.
For the parallaxes of a number of stars, see Table V. of the Appendix.
1
This number,
63,000, is found by dividing the number of seconds in
a year by 499, the number of seconds that it requires light to travel from
the sun to the earth.
316 BRIGHTNESS AND LIGHT OF STARS. [
34
THE BRIGHTNESS AND LIGHT OF THE STARS.
434. Star Magnitudes.

Hipparchus and Ptolemy arbitra-

rily divided the stars into six classes, or so-called "magni-
tudes," according to their brightness, the stars of the sixth
magnitude being those which are barely perceptible by an or-
dinary eye, while the first class comprised about twenty of
the brightest. After the invention of the telescope, the same
method was extended to the fainter stars, but without any
settled system, so that the "magnitudes" assigned to telescopic
stars by different observers are very discordant.
435. Of course, the stars grouped under one magnitude are not ex-
actly alike in brightness, but shade from brighter to fainter, so that
precision requires the use of fractional magnitudes, and we now ordina-
rily employ the decimal notation. Thus a star of magnitude 2.4 is a
shade brighter than one whose magnitude is written 2.5.
Heis enumerates the stars clearly visible to the naked eye, north
of the 35th parallel of south declination, as follows :

First Magnitude, 14. Fourth Magnitude, 313.

Second
" 48. Fifth
"
854.
Third
"
152. Sixth
"
2010.
Total, 3391.
It will be noticed how rapidly the numbers increase for the smaller
magnitudes. Nearly the same holds good also for telescopic stars,
though below the tenth magnitude the rate of increase falls off.
436. Light Ratio and Absolute Scale of Star Magnitude.

The scale of magnitudes ought to be such that the "light

ratio," or the number
of
times by which the brightness
of
any star
exceeds that
of
a star just one magnitude smaller, should be the
same through its whole extent. If r represent this ratio, a
first-magnitude star will be r times as bright as a second, a
second r times as bright as a third, and so on. This would
make a first-magnitude star r
5
times as bright as a sixth, and

436]
SCALE OF MAGNITUDES. 317
as the light received from a first-magnitude star may be taken
as 100 times that from a star of the sixth magnitude, the value
of our light ratio is -\/l00, or 2.512. The logarithm of this
number is 0.4.
An increase of 100 times in light means, therefore, a change
of five magnitudes.
On this scale, Altair (Alpha Aquilae) and Aldebaran (Alpha
Tauri) may be taken as standard first-magnitude stars, while
the Pole-star and the two Pointers are very nearly of the
standard second magnitude.
437. Fractional and Negative Magnitudes and General
Equation.

For stars which are brighter than the standard first

magnitude we have to use fractional and even negative magnitudes.
Thus, according to Pickering, the magnitude of Vega is 0.2, of Arc-
turus 0.0, and of Sirius

1.4. This means that Sirius is 2.51
2 - 4
(about 9.12) times as bright as Altair. The magnitude of the sun
is about

26.3.
If b
m
is the brightness of a star of magnitude m, and b
n
that of
another of the nth magnitude, we have the equation
:
^ = 2.512
(*-
m
>, or, log.
(
b
-^\
= (n- m).
b
n
'
\bj 10
A ;
By way of illustration let us compare the brightness of two stars
of magnitude 3.2 and 8.6 respectively. Using these numbers for m
and n, the logarithm of the ratio of brightness is 2.16, corresponding
to the number 145. Therefore a 3.2-magnitude star is 145 times as
bright as one of magnitude 8.6.
438. Magnitudes and Telescopic Power.

If a good tele-
scope just shows stars of a certain magnitude, then, since the
light-gathering power of a telescope depends on the area of
its object-glass (which varies as the square of its diameter),
we must have a telescope with its aperture larger in the ratio
of V2.512 :
1,
in order to show stars one magnitude smaller
;
i e., the aperture must be increased in the ratio of 1.59 to 1.
A ten-fold increase in the diameter
of
an object-glass theoret-
ically carries the power of vision just
five
magnitudes lower.
318 STELLAR PHOTOMETRY. [
438
It is usually estimated that the twelfth magnitude is the limit of
vision for a 4-inch glass. It would require, therefore, a 40-inch glass
to reach the seventeenth magnitude of the absolute scale ; but on
account of loss of light from the increased thickness of the lenses,
and for other reasons, the powers of large glasses never quite reach
the theoretical limit.
439. Measurement of the Brightness of Stars : Stellar
Pho-
tometry.
Our space does not permit any extended discussion of
this subject, which has of late attracted much attention.
When the magnitudes of a few stars have been determined, other
stars may be arranged in order of brightness so as to form a
"
sequence
"
(including some of the known standards) and magni-
tudes assigned. This method was introduced by Herschel and may
be used with or without a telescope. The light of all stars down to
magnitude 6.5, and of many fainter stars in selected regions, has
now been photometrically measured.
Magnitudes may also be found by comparing the size and black-
ness of star images on photographic plates. The method of sequences
may be used, or, if the images are round and black, their diameters
may be measured. In either case it is necessary to have on the plate
a few standard stars of known magnitude. As the photographic
plate is less sensitive than the eye to red light, a red star will
appear comparatively faint upon the photograph, and we must dis-
tinguish between photographic and visual magnitudes. A red star
may appear two or more magnitudes brighter to the eye than on
the photograph.
440. Starlight compared with Sunlight.Zollner and others
have endeavored to determine the amount of light received by
ns from certain stars, as compared with the light of the sun.
A standard first-magnitude star, like Altair, gives ns about
oooo-Wooo?^
as limch light as the sun does, and it would
take, therefore, about nine million million stars of the sixth
magnitude to equal the light of the sun. These numbers,
however, are very uncertain.
441. Assuming what is roughly but by no means strictly true,
that Argelander's magnitudes agree with the absolute scale, it appears

441]
HEAT FROM THE STARS.
319
that the 324,000 stars of his Durchmusterung, all of them north of
the celestial equator, give a light about equivalent to 240 or 250 first-
magnitude stars. How much light is given by stars smaller than the
9|- magnitude (which was his limit) is not certain. It must vastly
exceed that given by the larger stars. As a rough guess, we may,
perhaps, estimate that the total starlight of both the northern and
southern hemispheres is equivalent to about 3000 stars like Vega,
1
or
1500 at any one time. According to this, the starlight on a clear
night is about
^
of the light of the full moon, or about
33 ooooo o
of
sunlight. More than 90 per cent of it comes from stars which are
entirely invisible to the naked eye.
442. Heat from the Stars.

The stars send us heat as well as

light, so little, however, as to defy detection by any ordinary thermo-
scopes. Until very recently all attempts at measurement had failed
;
but in 1898-1900 Professor E. F. Nichols, working at the Yerkes
observatory with a radiometric apparatus of unprecedented delicacy,
obtained distinct deflections from the rays of Vega, Arcturus, Jupiter,
and Saturn. Arcturus appeared to give about 2.2 as much heat as
Vega, Jupiter 4.7, and Saturn
|.
443. Amount of Light emitted by Certain Stars.

When we
know the parallax of a star (and therefore its distance in astro-
nomical units) it is easy to compute its real light emission as
compared with that of the sun. It is only necessary to mul-
tiply the light we now get from it (expressed as a fraction of
sunlight) by the square of the star's distance. Thus, accord-
ing to Gill, the distance of Sirius is about 550,000 units
;
and the light we receive from it is
7o0o oqqoo o
^ sunlight.
Applying the principle above stated, we find that Sirius is
really emitting more than 40 times as much light as the sun.
As for other stars whose distance and light have been meas-
ured, some turn out brighter and some darker than the sun
;
the range of variation is very wide, and the sun holds appar-
ently a medium rank in brilliance among its kindred.
444. Why the Stars differ in Brightness.

The apparent
brightness of a star, as seen from the earth, depends both on
1
Newcomb's more recent estimate is 750 Vegas.
820 VARIABLE STARS.
[444
its distance and on the quantity
of
light it emits, and the latter
depends on the extent of its luminous surface and upon the
brightness of that surface
;
as Bessel long ago suggested,
"
there
may be as many dark stars as bright ones." Taken as a class,
the bright stars undoubtedly average nearer to us than the
fainter ones, and just as certainly they average larger in diam-
eter, and also more intensely luminous. But when we compare
a single bright star with a fainter one, we can seldom say to
which of the three different causes it owes its superiority.
We cannot assert that a particular faint star is smaller or
darker or more distant than a particular bright star, unless we
know something more than the simple fact that it is fainter.
445. Dimensions of the Stars.
We have very little absolute
knowledge on this subject ; in a few instances, as that of Algol (see
Art. 454*), it has been possible to obtain an indirect measure, and
we find that Algol is probably a little more than a million miles in
diameter : considerably bulkier than the sun. The apparent, angular
diameter of a star is probably in no case large enough to be directly
measured by any of our present instruments. At the distance of
Alpha Centauri the sun would have an angular diameter less than
0."01.
We shall find that in the case of binary stars of which we
happen to know the parallax, we can determine their masses; but
diameters, volumes, and densities are at present quite beyond our reach
except in cases like that of Algol.
VARIABLE STARS.
446. Classes of Variables.

Many stars are found to change

their brightness more or less, and are known as variable.
They may be classified as follows :

I. Stars that change their brightness slowly and continu-

ously.
II. Those that fluctuate
irregularly.
III. Temporary stars which blaze out suddenly aftd then
disappear.
:
-
;; .i;; ; ;
:;

446
] CLASSIFICATION.
321
IY. Periodic stars
of
the type
of
"
Omicron Ceti" usually with
a period- of several months.
V. Periodic stars having short periods, with a continual
change of light.
VI. Periodic stars
of
the "Algol type" in which the variation
is like what might be produced if the star were peri-
odically eclipsed by some intervening object.
447. I. Gradual Changes.

The number of stars which are
certainly known to be changing gradually in brightness is sur-
prisingly small, considering that they are growing older all the
time. On the whole, the stars present, not only in position,
but in brightness also, sensibly the same relations as in the
catalogues of Hipparchus and Ptolemy.
There are, however, instances in which it can hardly be doubted
that considerable change has occurred even within the last two or
three centuries. Thus Bayer in 1610 lettered Castor as Alpha Gemi-
norum, while Pollux, which he called Beta Geminorum, is now con-
siderably the brighter : there are about a dozen other similar cases
known, and a much larger number suspected.
448. Missing and New Stars.

It is commonly believed that a

considerable number of stars have disappeared since the first cata-
logues were made, and that some new ones have come into existence.
While it is unsafe to deny absolutely that such things may have hap-
pened, we can say, on the other hand, that not a single case of the
kind is certainly known. In numerous instances, stars recorded in
the catalogues are now missing; but in nearly every case we can
account for the fact either by a demonstrated error of observation or
printing, or by the fact that the missing stars were planets. There is
no case of a new star appearing and remaining permanently bright.
449. II. Irregular Fluctuations.

The most conspicuous vari-

able star of the second class is Eta Argus (not visible in the United
States). It varies all the way from zero magnitude (in 1843 it stood
next to Sirius in brightness) down to the seventh, which has been
its status ever since 1865, although in 1888 it was reported as slightly
322
TEMPORARY STARS. [
449
brightening up again. Alpha Orionis and Alpha Cassiopeise behave
in a similar way, except that their range of brightness is small, not
much exceeding half a magnitude.
450: III. Temporary Stars.
There are several well au-
thenticated instances of stars which have blazed up suddenly,
and then gradually faded away. The most remarkable of
these was that known as Tycho's Star, which appeared in the
constellation of Cassiopeia in November, 1572, was for some
days as bright as Venus at her best, and then gradually faded
away, until at the end of 16 months it became invisible
;
(there
were no telescopes then.) It is not certain whether it still
exists as a telescopic star : so far as we can judge, it may be
either of half a dozen which are near the place determined by
Tycho. There has been a curious and utterly unfounded
notion that this star was the
"
Star
of
Bethlehem" and would
reappear to herald the second advent of the Lord.
A temporary star, which appeared in the constellation of
Corona Borealis in May, 1866, is interesting as having been
spectroscopically examined by Huggins when near its bright-
est (second magnitude). It then showed the same bright lines
of hydrogen which are conspicuous in the solar prominences.
Before its outburst, it was an eighth-magnitude star of Arge-
lander's catalogue, and within a few months it returned to its
former low estate, which it still retains.
'
In August, 1885, a sixth-magnitude star suddenly appeared
in the great nebula of Andromeda, very near the nucleus. It
began to fade almost immediately, and in a few months en-
tirely disappeared. Its spectrum was sensibly continuous.
In December 1891 a "Nova" appeared in the foot of Au-
riga. In February it was nearly of the 4th magnitude, and
remained visible to the naked eye for about a month. Its
spectrum was very interesting. The bright lines were numer-
ous, those of hydrogen and helium with the Hand K of cal-
cium, being specially conspicuous
;
and each of them was
accompanied by a dark line on the more refrangible side, as
if two bodies were concerned : one of them giving bright lines
450]
TEMPORARY STARS.
323
in its spectrum and receding from us, the other, with corre-
sponding dark lines in its spectrum, but approaching. Accord-
ing to Vogel the relative velocity of the two masses must, if
this is the true explanation, have exceeded 550 miles a second.
In April the star became invisible, but brightened up again
in the autumn, and then showed an entirely different spectrum,
closely resembling that of a nebula.
Since 1885 thirteen new stars have been found from a study
of photographs at the Harvard College Observatory, being rec-
ognized first by their peculiar spectra and then found upon the
chart plates. Ten of these were discovered by the late Mrs.
Fleming. A new star was discovered by Turner at Oxford in
1903 upon plates taken for the Astrographic Catalogue.
Nova Persei,
1
in 1901, and Nova Aquilse, in 1918,
were
the most brilliant temporary stars of recent times, though
Nova Geminorum No. 2 attained a magnitude of
3.5 ; their
photographed spectra were similar to that of Nova Aurigae.
It is now clear that these objects are essentially alike in origin
and character, and that they are not extremely rare. All thus
far
observed have been in, or near, the Milky Way.
451. IV. Variables of the "Omicron Ceti" Type. These
objects behave almost exactly like the temporary stars, in re-
maining most of the time faint, rapidly brightening, and then
gradually fading away,

but they do it periodically. Omicron

Ceti, or Mira (i.e.,
"
the wonderful
")
is the type. It was dis-
covered by Fabricius in 1596, and was the first variable known.
During most of the time it is invisible to the naked eye, of
about the 9th magnitude at the minimum, but at intervals of
about 11 months it runs up to the fourth or third, or even
second, magnitude, and then back again
;
the rise is much
more rapid than the fall. It remains at its maximum about a
week or ten days. The maximum brightness varies very con-
siderably, and its period, while always about 11 months, also
varies to the extent of two or three weeks, and during the last
1
See note (Nova Persei) on page 332.
324
VARIABLE STARS.
;451
few years seems to have shortened materially. The spectrum
of the star at its maximum is very beautiful, showing a large
number of intensely bright lines, some of which are certainly
due to hydrogen.
Its "light curve" is A in Fig. 109.
so
jjg
<s>
8
e
i mm ii mi a
7
^
s
I J (jetI Jr^=pdii
a
X -
-
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v. _ _
/ \ / S.T -
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s
X
7-
V Z
s>
V V
4
*r
RtiZ - S
f
^
0.0 /
J
v 7 v
/
*>
4 s
-J
X ^
X
^
J
^ ^ ^,
Q -
7
"~-__^ -~ ^^
100 200 300 400 500 600 days
1
1
i
M '
Mill I
1
II 1
'
1 i i 1 1
I 'II I 1 T~'
Wnl,' livt'o' RTnMm T> 'l<Z>n'-l<9th- 'ikw.&Q W S t>
QK
- -7 % - --,'Z\ -,
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r
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t
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t
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h
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b
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' I I -y
V
4-
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T
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7 -,'
v
-^ ^ x

>~t
\
i
"-
i/
a
,
4-^-14'
'v-
'
M^^unue
rf &
1 1 1 1 1 | 1 1 II MINI | 1 ! 1 1 1 1 11,1111
5 10 15 20 25 30 days
::::: iiE::::::::::":;::: : ::;:::::::::: ::J:::::::::::S:^:
v JZ v
X-,
$
XX A
4
X
i-3 tt ,(7
ok 1 X _ .1.2 XX
v
^&

X
-tt
XX
JL
If ft
XX
tt
lAlqol,
H
\
pa
sSOn M'"M.j' tl
^n EX
J
'
I 7 7U* xx
d- u
tx
t-
itiit
ijt -L JLlt
tx
^l jtrt
IJL
_L Jftt
QK tit -t
ZE _|_
d- 5
itt -B 4t4-
^tt JZ XX
t X ..._ ._ XX
1 2 3 4 5 6d.
Fig. 109.

Light Curves of Variable Stars.

A large proportion of the known variables belong to this
class (nearly half of the whole), and a large proportion of
them have periods which do not differ very widely from one
year. None so far discovered exceed two years, and none are
less than two months. Most of the periods, however, are more
or less irregular. Some writers include the temporary stars
in this class, maintaining that the only difference is in the
length of period.
452]
EXPLANATIONS OF VARIABILITY. 325
452. Class V. Short-Period Variables.
In these the periods
range from about
3i
hours (that of XX Cygni, the shortest
known at present) to three or four weeks, and the light of the
star fluctuates continually. In many cases there are two or
more maxima in a complete period, accompanied by compli-
cated spectroscopic phenomena much like those observed in
Nova Aurigse. The light curves of Beta Lyrse and Eta Aquilae,
which are typical of this class, are given at B, Fig. 109.
453. Class VI. The Algol Type.

In this class the star re-

mains bright for most of the time, but apparently suffers a
periodical eclipse. The periods are mostly very short, ranging
from ten hours to about five days.
Algol, or Beta Persei, is the type star. During most of the
time it is of the second magnitude, and it loses about five-
sixths of its light at the time of obscuration. The fall of
brightness occupies about 4^- hours
;
the minimum lasts about
20 minutes, and the recovery of light takes about 3|- hours.
The period, a little less than three days, is known with great
precision,

to a single second indeed,

and is given in con-

nection with the light curve of the star in Fig. 109. Only
about one hundred of this class are known at present.
454. Explanation of Variable Stars.

No single explanation
will cover the whole ground. As to progressive changes, none
need be looked for. The wonder rather is that as the stars
grow old, such changes are not more notable. As for irregular
changes, no sure account can yet be given. Where the range
of variation is small (as it is in most cases) one thinks of spots
on the surface of the star, more or less like sun spots
;
and if
we suppose these spots to be much more extensive and numer-
ous than are sun spots, and also like them to have a regular
period of frequency, and also that the star revolves upon its
axis, we find in the combination a possible explanation of a
large proportion of all the variable stars. For the temporary
stars, we may imagine either great eruptions of glowing mat-
326 EXPLANATION OF VARIABLE STARS. [
4^4
ter, like solar prominences on an enormous scale, or we may
imagine that a dark star moving rapidly in space encounters
a nebula in its path, and as a result of the friction its surface
is suddenly raised to a very high temperature. Stars of the
Mira type, according to Lockyer, owe their regular outbursts
of brightness to the collisions due to the passage of a smaller
swarm through the outer portions of a larger one, around
which the smaller revolves in a long ellipse. But the great
irregularity in the periods of variables belonging to this class
is hard to reconcile with a true orbital revolution, which is
usually an accurate time-keeper. Many of the spectroscopic
phenomena of the temporary stars and of the periodic stars
of Class IY resemble pretty closely those that appear in the
solar chromosphere and prominences ; suggesting in such
cases a theory of explosion or eruption.
In the case of the short-period variables of Class V, the
spectroscopic phenomena in some instances rather seem to in-
dicate the mutual interaction of two or more bodies revolving
close together around a common centre of gravity : this is the
case with Beta Lyras. Others admit of simpler explanation,
as due merely to the axial rotation of a body with large spots
upon its surface.
454*.
Stellar Eclipses.

As to stars of the Algol type the

most natural explanation, suggested by Goodricke more than
a century ago, is that the obscuration is an eclipse produced
by the periodical interposition of some opaque body between
us and the star.
The truth of this theory was substantially demonstrated in 1889
by Vogel, who found by his spectroscopic observations (see Art.
429)
that 17 hours before the minimum Algol is receding from us at the
rate of nearly 27 miles a second, while 17 hours after the minimum
it is coming toward us at practically the same rate. This is just what
ought to happen if Algol had a large dark companion and the two
were revolving around their common centre of gravity, in an almost
454*] STELLAR ECLIPSES. 327
circular orbit, nearly edgewise towards the earth. Vogel's conclusions
are that the distance of the dark star from Algol is about 3,250000
miles, that their diameters are about 840000 and 1,060000 miles re-
spectively. Furthermore, their period being 2
d
20
h
48.9
m
,
it follows
(see Art.
466)
that their united mass is about two-thirds that of the
sun, and their mean density only about one-fifth as great as his : less
even than that of Saturn, and not much above the density of cork.
That the fainter star contributes a little to the light of the system
is shown by a slight secondary minimum midway between principal
minima, when the fainter star would be eclipsed by the brighter one.
The loss of light is less than one tenth of a magnitude.
455. Number and Designation of Variables, and their Range
of Variation.

Mr. Chandler's catalogue of known variables

(published in 1896)
includes 393 objects, and there are also a
considerable number of suspected variables. About half of
them are clearly periodic in their variation. Since then the
list has grown with extreme rapidity, and at present includes
more than 4000,
mostly stars which are never visible to the
naked eye.
Such variable stars as had not familiar names of their own
before the discovery of their variability, are generally indi-
cated by the letters E, S, T, etc.
;
i.e., R. Sagittarii is the
first discovered variable in the constellation of Sagittarius;
S. Sagittarii is the second, and so on.
In a considerable number of the earlier discovered variables,
the range of brightness is from two to eight magnitudes ; i.e.,
the maximum brightness exceeds the minimum from six to a
thousand times. In the majority, however, the range is much
less, often only a fraction of a magnitude.
It is worth noting that a large proportion of the variables,
especially of Classes IV. and V., are reddish in their color.
This is not true of the Algol type.
455*. Photography has lately come to the front as a most effective
method of detecting variables. A very large proportion of all those
discovered within the last ten years have been found by the com-
328 NUMBER AND DESIGNATION OE VARIABLES.
[
455*
parison of photographic star charts made at the Harvard Observatory
and at its Arequipa annex.. Several foreign observatories have also
contributed largely. Frequently attention has been attracted to a star
by a peculiar
"
colonnaded
"
structure of its photographic spectrum,
marking the star as suspicious,

a suspicion usually soon confirmed.

One of the most interesting discoveries is that of variable star-clus-
ters, announced by E. C. Pickering in 1895, from the study of photo-
graphs made by Bailey at Arequipa. In several clusters, notably
three known as Messier 3,
Messier
5,
and w Centauri, there are in
each more than a hundred variables. Photographs less than two
hours apart show numerous conspicuous changes of brightness. The
stars are of course all very small,

their periods generally less than

two days. Most clusters show no variables.
Another discovery, dating from 1904, is that of certain limited
areas several degrees in extent, within which variables specially
abound. One of these fields is near
y
Aquilse, another is the smaller
Magellanic cloud, and a third is in Orion, including and surrounding
the great Nebula.
In Table IV. of the Appendix, we give from Chandler's catalogue
a list of the principal' naked-eye variables which can be seen in the
United States. The observation of variable stars is especially com-
mended to the attention of amateurs, because with a very scanty in-
strumental equipment, work of scientific value can be done in this
line. The observer should put himself in communication with the
American Association of Variable Star Observers, whose secretary is
Mr. W. T. Olcott of Norwich, Connecticut.
STAR SPECTRA.
456. As early as 1824, Fraunhofer observed the spectra of a
number of bright stars, by looking at them through a small
telescope with a prism in front of the object-glass. In 1864,
as soon as the spectroscope had taken its place as a recognized
instrument of research, it was applied to the stars by Huggins
and Secchi. The former studied comparatively few spectra,
but very thoroughly, with reference to the identification of the
chemical constituents of certain stars. He found with cer-
tainty in their spectra the lines of sodium, magnesium, calcium,
iron, and hydrogen, and more or less doubtfully
a number of
456]
STAR SPECTRA.
329
other metals. Secchi, on the other hand, examined great
numbers of spectra, less in detail, but with reference to
a classification of the stars from the spectroscopic point
of view.
457. Secchi's Classes of Spectra.

He made four classes,

as follows :

I. Those which have a spectrum characterized by great in-

tensity
of
the dark hydrogen lines, all other lines being compar-
atively feeble or absent. This class comprises more than half
Fig. 110.

Secchi's Types of Stellar Spectra (Keeler).

of all the stars examined, nearly all the white or bluish stars.
Sirius and Vega are its types.
This class includes also the
"
Orion
"
stars, in whose spectra
helium lines are prominent.
II. Those which show a spectrum resembling that
of
the sun;
i.e., with numerous fine dark lines in it. Capella (Alpha
Aurigse) and Pollux (Beta Geminorum) are conspicuous exam-
ples. The stars of this class are also numerous, the first
and second classes together comprising fully seven-eighths of
all the stars observed.
Certain stars like Procyon and Altair seem to be intermediate
between the first and second classes.
330 CLASSES OF SPECTRA.
[457
III. Those which show spectra characterized by dark bands
sharply
defined
at the upper or more refrangible edge and
shading out towards the red. Most of the red stars and a
large number of the variable stars belong to this class. Some
of them show also bright lines in their spectra.
IV. This class comprises only a few small stars, which
show, like the preceding, dark bands, but shading in the
opposite direction
;
usually also they show a few bright lines.
They are all of a deep-red color.
This classification is the basis of the Harvard system now very
generally used for detailed study. Different types are indicated by
letters, arranged so as to show a possible order of evolution based
upon increasing complexity of spectrum. Secchi's Type I is sub-
divided into Harvard Types B and A, Type II into F, G and K
;
Type III corresponds to M, and Type IV to N.
458. Photography of Stellar Spectra.

The observation of
these spectra by the eye is very tedious and difficult, and
photography has of late been brought in most effectively.
Huggins in England and Henry Draper in this country were
the pioneers
;
now the photography of stellar spectra is an im-
portant part of the program of nearly all the large observatories.
Pickering uses an
11-
inch telescope, formerly
belonging to Draper,
with a battery of four
enormous prisms placed
in front of the object-
glass, as shown in Fig.
Ill, forming thus a
"
slitless spectroscope."
The edges of the prisms
are placed east andwest,
and the clock-work on
the telescope is made to
run a trifle too fast or
too slow, in order to give
Fig. 111. Arrangement of the Prisms in the Slitless
Spectroscope.
458]
PHOTOGRAPHY OF STELLAR SPECTRA.
331
width to the spectrum formed upon the sensitive plate, which is
placed at the focus of the object-glass : if the clock-work followed
the star exactly, the spectrum would be a mere narrow streak. With
this apparatus and an exposure of 30 minutes, spectra are obtained
which, before enlargement, are fully three inches long from the F
line to the ultra-violet extremity. They easily bear tenfold enlarge-
ment, and show hundreds of lines in the spectra of the stars belong-
ing to Secchi's second class. Fig. 112 is from one of these photographs
of the spectrum of Vega.
The great Bruce telescope (Art.
425) has also been provided with
an object-glass prism, and with that instrument the spectra of very
faint stars can now be reached.
c
I
KH h Hy
Fig. 112.
Photographic Spectrum of Vega.
459. The slitless spectroscope has three great advantages,

first,
that it utilizes all the light which comes from the star to the object-
glass, much of which, in the usual form of instrument, is lost in the jaws
of the slit ; second, by taking advantage of the length of a large tele-
scope, it produces a very high dispersion with even a single prism
;
third, and most important of all, it gives on the same plate and with a
single exposure the spectra of all the many stars whose images fall
upon the plate. Per contra, the giving up of the slit precludes all the
usual methods of identifying the lines of the spectrum by actually
confronting them with comparison spectra. This makes it very diffi-
cult to utilize the photographs for some purposes of scientific work.
For instance, it has not yet been found possible to use the slitless
spectroscope for determining the absolute motions of the stars in the
line of sight, though Professor Pickering in 1896 devised an exceed-
ingly ingenious method of using it to measure the relative motion of
different stars photographed on the same plates, in such a way that
any rapid motion of circulation among the stars of a single group
(the Pleiades, for instance) might be detected. In the case of the
Pleiades, however, the result was simply negative : no such relative
"
motion was found. Vogel's apparatus, for this purpose (Art.
429),
is of the ordinary form, with a slit upon which the image of the star
is thrown.
332 TWINKLING OF THE STARS.
[
460
460. Twinkling or Scintillation of the Stars.
Before closing
the discussion of starlight, a word should be added upon this subject,
though the phenomenon is purely physical and not in the least
astronomical. It depends both upon the irregularities of refractive
power in the air traversed by the light on its way to the eye, and
also on the fact that the star is optically a luminous point without
apparent size, a fact which gives rise to
"
interference
"
phenomena.
Planets, which have discs measurable with a micrometer, do not sensi-
bly twinkle. The scintillation is, of course, greatest near the horizon,
and on a good night it practically disappears at the zenith. When
the image of a scintillating star is examined with a spectroscope, dark
interference bands are seen moving back and forth in the spectrum.
Note supplementary to Art. 450.
Nova Persei.

This recent, and one of the most remarkable, of all the

temporary stars was first seen on the 20th of February, 1901, as a star
of the 2d magnitude. On the 19th it was below the 12th, not appearing
on various photographs of its region made that evening. On the 24th
it had become, next to Sirius, the brightest star in the heavens, having
increased its brilliance more than 25,000 times within five days

the
brightest
"
Nova
"
since Kepler's star of 1G04. It soon faded, with curi-
ous oscillations of light, and by the end of the year had become telescopic,
though still visible in large instruments.
On the 22d its spectrum as photographed by Pickering resembled that
of the Orion stars,

mainly continuous with about 30 dark lines ; but

on the 24th, when next photographed, it had become like that of Nova
Aurigee, and then gradually changed into that of a nebula, with the
peculiarity that its bright lines were extremely broad and hazy.
Several observers have found that its proper motion and parallax
are absolutely insensible, its distance being enormous,

probably many
hundred light-years.
Before the star became telescopic, an extensive nebulosity appeared
around it, and in November photographs (made with the reflectors of the
Lick and Yerkes observatories) showed that certain knots and streaks
in the nebula were receding swiftly from the central star,

at a rate of
many thousand miles a second unless the star is really much nearer than
the parallax observations indicate.
At present the explanation generally accepted is that first suggested by
Kayser :

that the motion is only apparent, due to a progressive illumina-

tion of denser portions of the nebula as the light from the great central
outburst advances at the rate of 186,000 miles a second. This would make
the distance of the star about 300 light-years, a very probable value.
461]
DOUBLE STARS.
333
CHAPTER XV.
DOUBLE AND MULTIPLE STARS; CLUSTERS AND NEBULAE.

THE MILKY WAY AND THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE

STARS IN SPACE. THE STELLAR UNIVERSE.

COSMOG-
ONY AND THE NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS.
461. Double Stars. The telescope shows numerous cases
in which two stars lie so near each other that they can be sep-
arated only by a high magnifying power. These are double
stars, and at present about 16,000 such couples are known.
There is also a considerable number of triple stars, and a few
which are quadruple. Fig. 113 represents some of the best-
known objects of each class.
The apparent distances generally range from
30"
downwards,
very few telescopes being able to separate stars closer than one-
fourth of a second. In a large proportion of cases, perhaps one-
third of all, the two components are very nearly equal ; but in
many they are very unequal ; in that case (never when they
are equal) they often present a contrast of color, and when
they do, the smaller star, for some reason not yet known,
always has a tint higher in the spectrum than that of the
larger : if the larger is reddish or yellow, the small star will
be green, blue, or purple. Gamma Andromedse and Beta
Cygni are fine examples for a small telescope.
The "distance" and "position angle" of a double star are
usually measured with the filar micrometer (Appendix, Art.
542),
the position angle being the angle made at the larger
star between the hour-circle and the line which joins the stars.
This angle is always reckoned from the north through the
east, completely around the circle
;
i.e., if the smaller star were
northwest of the larger one, its position angle would be
315.
334 STARS OPTICALLY AND PHYSICALLY DOUBLE.

462
462. Stars Optically and Physically Double.

Stars may be
double in two ways, optically and physically. In the first
case they are only nearly in line with each other, as seen from
the earth. In the second case they are really near each other.
In the case of stars that are only optically double, it gen-
erally happens that we can, after some years, detect their
mutual independence in the fact that their relative motion is
in a straight line and uniform. This is a simple consequence
of the combination of their independent
"
proper motions."
Fig. 113. Double and Multiple Stars.
If they axe physically connected, we find on the contrary that
the relative motion is in a concave curve; i.e., taking one of
them as a centre, the other moves around it. The doctrine of
chances shows, what direct observation confirms, that the
optical pairs must be comparatively rare, and that the great
majority of double stars must be really physically connected,
462]
BINARY STARS. 335

probably by the same attraction of gravitation which con-

trols the solar system.
463. Binary Stars.

Stars thus physically connected are

also known as binary stars. They revolve in elliptical orbits
around their common centre of gravity in periods which range
from 14 years to 1500 (so far as at present known), while the
apparent major axis of the ovals ranges from
40"
to 0".5. The
elder Herschel, a little more than a century ago, first discovered
this orbital motion of "binaries" in trying to ascertain the
parallax of some of the few double stars known at his time.
It was then supposed that they were simply "optical pairs,"
and he expected to detect an annual displacement of one of
the stars with reference to the other. He failed in this, but
found instead a true orbital motion.
At present the number of pairs in which this kind of motion has
been certainly detected is about 200, and is continually increasing as
our study of the double stars goes on. Most of the double stars have
been discovered too recently to show any sensible motion as yet, but
about fifty pahs have progressed so far, either having completed an
entire revolution or a large part of one, that it is possible to compute
their orbits with some accuracy.
464. Orbits of Binaries.

In the case of a binary pair the

apparent orbit of the smaller star with reference to the larger
is always an ellipse ; but this apparent orbit is only the true
orbit seen more or less obliquely. If we assume what is prob-
able,
1
though certainly not proved as yet, that the orbital motion
of the pair is under the law of gravitation, we know that the
1
As has been often pointed out, the question can be decided by spec-
troscopic observations whenever we become able to observe separately the
two spectra of the components of a binary and so can determine the radial
velocity of each at several different points in the orbit. The difficulties
are great, but probably not insurmountable.
336 ORBITS OF BINARIES.
[464
larger star must be in the focus of the true relative orbit
described by the smaller
;
and, moreover, that the latter must
describe around it equal areas in equal times. By the help of
these principles, we can deduce from the apparent oval the true
orbital ellipse
;
but the calculation is troublesome and delicate.
The relative orbit is all that can be determined from micrometer
observations of the distance and position angle measured between the
two stars.
tf
58 Years.
1878
90
(

Cancri.
f-~7-90
e
^^1827
270
>61 Cygni
Fig. 114.

Orbits of Binary Stars.

Fig. 114 represents the orbits of four of the best determined double-
star systems.
In but a few cases, where we have sufficient meridian-circle obser-
vations, or where the two components of the pair have had their
position and distance measured from a neighboring star not partak-
ing of their motion, we can deduce the absolute motion of each of the
two stars separately with respect to their common centre of gravity,
and thus get data for determining their relative masses (Art. 466).
The case of Sirius is in point. About 60 years ago it had been found
[
464 SIZE OF THE ORBITS. 337
from meridian-circle observations to be moving for no assignable
reason in a small oval orbit with a period of about 50 years. In
1862, Clark found near it a minute companion, which explained
everything
;
only we have to admit that this faint acolyte, which does
not give
Tshw
as much light as Sirius itself, has a mass more than
a quarter part as great ; it seems to be one of Bessel's
"
dark stars."
Fig. 114* shows the absolute and relative orbits of the system of
Sirius.
Fig. 114*.
Orbit of Sirius.
The dotted line represents the relative orbit of the companion with
respect to Sirius, while the larger, full-line ellipse is its actual orbit
around the common centre of gravity, C
;
the smaller oval being the
orbit of Sirius itself around C, as given by meridian-circle observation.
465. Size of the Orbits.

The real dimensions of a double-

star orbit can be obtained only when we know its distance
from us. Fortunately, a number of the stars whose parallaxes
have been ascertained are also binary, and assuming the best
available data as to parallax and orbit, we find the following re-
sults, the semi-major axis in astronomical units being always
338 MASSES OF BINARY STARS.
[465
equal to the fraction , in which a" is the semi-major axis of
the double-star orbit in seconds of arc, andy is its parallax.
Name.
Assumed
Parallax.
Angular
Semi-axis.
Real
Semi-axis.
Period.
Mass.
0=1.
t] Cassiopeia . .
Sirius ....
a Centauri . . .
70 Ophiuchi . . .
0".35
.39
.75
.25 ?
8".21
8 .03
17 .70
4 .55
23.5
20.6
23.6
18.2
195 y. 8
52 .2
81 .1
88 .4
0.33
3.24
2.00
0.77
These double-star orbits are evidently comparable in mag-
nitude with the larger orbits of the planetary system, none of
those given being smaller than the orbit of Uranus, and none
twice as large as that of Neptune. The elements of the orbits
are from the data of Dr. See. Observations since the reappear-
ance of the companion in 1897 indicate that the true period
and distance of Sirius are both a little less than here given,
and its mass somewhat smaller.
465*. Spectroscopic Binaries.
One of the most interesting
of recent astronomical results is the detection by the spectroscope
of several pairs of double stars so close that no telescope can separate
them. In 1889 the brighter component of the well-known double
star Mizar (Zeta Ursae Majoris, Fig. 113) was found by Pickering to
show the dark lines double in the photographs of its spectrum, at reg-
ular intervals of about 52 days. The obvious explanation is that this
star is composed of two, which revolve around their common centre
of gravity, in an orbit whose plane is nearly edgewise towards us.
When the stars are at right angles to the line along which we view
them, one of them will be moving towards us, the other from us, and
as a consequence, according to Doppler's principle (Arts. 200 and
500),
the lines in their spectra will be shifted opposite ways. Now since
the two stars are so close that their spectra overlie each other, the
result will be simply to make the lines in the compound spectrum
apparently double. From the distance between the two components
of the lines thus doubled, the relative velocity of the two stars can be
465*] SPECTROSCOPIC BINARIES. 339
found
;
and from this (knowing the period) the size of the orbit and
the united mass of the stars. Thus it appears that in the case of
Mizar, the relative velocity of the two components is about 100 miles
a second, the period 104 days, and the distance between the two stars
about 140 millions of miles
;
from which it follows (Art. 466)
that
the united mass of the two is about 40 times that of the sun.
The lines in the spectrum of Beta Aurigae exhibit the same pecu-
liarity, but the doubling occurs once in
four
days. The relative
velocity is about 150 miles a second, and the diameter of the orbit
about 8,000000 miles, the united mass of the pair being about two
and a half times that of the sun.
In 1 89
6
1
two other similar cases were announced by Professor
Pickering, discovered on the South American spectrum photographs.
The first is Muj Scorpii, with a period of 34
h
42.5
m
: the size of the
orbit not then determined. The second is 3105 Lacaille in Puppis,
with a period of 74
h
46
m
. In both cases the components are consid-
erably unequal.
These observations were all made by photographing the spectrum
with the slitless spectroscope (Art.
458),
and are only possible in cases
where the stars which compose the pair are both reasonably bright.
"With his slit-spectroscope, Vogel, in 1889, as has already been
stated in Art. 454, detected about the same time a similar orbital
motion in Algol, although the companion of the brighter star does
not give light enough to form a spectrum of its own.
A year later he found another similar result in the case of the
bright star Alpha Virginis (Spica). The star is really double, having
a small companion like that of Algol, not bright enough to make a
perceptible spectrum, but heavy enough to make its partner swing
around in an orbit 6,000000 miles in diameter once in four days.
The sun is not quite in the plane of the orbit, so that Spica is never,
like Algol, eclipsed by its attendant.
Still more recently Belopolsky of Pulkowa, Lockyer, and others,
especially Campbell of the Lick Observatory, have detected numer-
ous other similar pairs, of which the most notable are the following
:
Castor, Delta Cephei (its period is identical with that of its light-
variation), Capella, and Polaris with the low radial-velocity range of
only 4 miks a second, and a period less than 4 days. Beta Lyrae
also falls into this class, but its spectrum lines double as well as
shift. At the present time the number of known spectroscopic
1
See note
(1)
on page 360 a.
340
PLANETARY SYSTEMS ATTENDING STARS. [
465*
binaries exceeds
300, and is fast increasing. Campbell finds that
about 1 in 4 of the stars above the fifth magnitude are of this character.
466. Masses of Binary Stars.

If we assume that the

binary stars move under the law of gravitation, then when we
know the semi-major axis of the orbit in astronomical units
and the period of revolution, we can find the mass of the pair
as compared with the sun by the proportion (Art.
309)
S
+
e: M+m::l:-
2
,
i
in which S
-f-
e is the united mass of the sun and earth (e is
insignificant), M
+
m is the united mass of the two stars, a
the semi-major axis of their orbit in astronomical
units, and
t their period in years. This gives
The final column of the little table gives the masses of the star-
pairs resulting from the data which are presented
;
but the reader must
bear in mind that they are not much to be relied on, because of the
uncertainty of the parallaxes in question. A slight error in the paral-
lax makes a vastly greater error in the resulting mass. The reader is
also reminded of the fact that the mass of the pair gives no clue to
the diameter or density of the stars.
466*. Evolution of Binary Systems.

As already remarked
(Art. 462) the theory of probabilities indicates that the great
majority of double stars must be physically connected, but our
observations have not yet continued long enough to give us
anything like an accurate knowledge of the orbits of more than
a very few. Table VII (Appendix) presents a list of twenty,
mostly computed by Dr. See, which may be regarded as fairly
known. Two others of long period are added, not yet, how-
ever, to be accepted as reliable, the data being insufficient.
It will be noticed that the orbits are very eccentric as com-
pared with those of the planets, the average eccentricity of
the stellar orbits being nearly 0.50. Dr. See has investigated
the probable origin of these binary systems, and finds that

466]
PLANETARY SYSTEMS ATTENDING STARS. 341
all the peculiarities of their orbits can be accounted for by the
theory of "tidal evolution" (Art.
281). It is supposed that
in such cases the primitive nebula as it whirls assumes the
dumb-bell form known as the
"
apioid
"
: the two parts separ-
ate, and as they revolve around their common centre of gravity
great tides are raised, which by their interaction push the
spinning globes apart into eccentric orbits.
467. Planetary Systems attending Stars.

It is a natural
question whether some, at least, of the stars have not planetary systems
of their own, and whether some of the small
"
companions
"
that we
see may not be the Jupiters of such systems. We can only say as to
this that no telescope ever constructed could even come near to making-
visible a planet which bears to its primary approximately the relations
of size, distance, and brightness which Jupiter bears to the sun. In the
solar system, viewed from our nearest neighbor among the stars, Jupi-
ter would be a star of about the twenty-first magnitude, not quite
5"
distant from the sun, which itself would be a star of the second magni-
tude. To render a star of the twenty-first magnitude barely visible
(apart from all the difficulties raised by the proximity of a larger star)
would require a telescope of more than 20 feet aperture.
468. Multiple Stars.

There are a considerable number of

cases where we find three or more stars connected in one sys-
tem. Zeta Cancri consists of a close pair revolving in a nearly
circular orbit, with a period of somewhat less than 60 y-ears,
while a third star revolves in the same direction around them,
at a much greater distance, and with a period that must be at
least 500 years. Moreover, the third star is subject to a pecu-
liar irregularity in its motion, which seems to indicate that it
has an invisible companion very near it, the system probably
being really quadruple. In Epsilon Lyrse we have a most
beautiful quadruple system composed of two pairs, each pair
making its own slow revolution with a period of over 200
years
;
probably, moreover, since they have a common proper-
motion, the two pairs revolve around each other in a period
only to be reckoned by milleniums. In Theta Ononis we have
342
CLUSTERS.
[468
a multiple star in which the six components are not organized
in pairs, but are at not very unequal distances from each other
(see Fig. 113).
469. Clusters.

There are in the sky numerous groups of

stars, containing from a hundred to many thousand members.
A few are resolvable by the naked eye, as, for instance, the

Asterope
* Taygeta

.
;
.....-*
:::::::::::::::
.

^Fleione ^
"
Alcyone,
1/"
Maia
Ik
;
V

Cekeno
*
Electro,

Atlas

Merope
% .

+ .

Fig. 115. The Pleiades.

Pleiades (Fig.
115) ;
some, like "Praesepe
"
(in Cancer), break
up under the power of even an opera-glass ; but most of them
require a large telescope to show the separate components.
469] NEBULAE. 343
To the naked eye or small telescopes, if visible at all, they
look merely like faint clonds of shining haze ; but in a large
telescope they are among the most magnificent objects the
heavens afford. The cluster known as
"
13 Messier," not far
from the
"
apex of the sun's way," is perhaps the finest.
The question at once arises whether the stars in such a
cluster are comparable with our own sun in magnitude, and
separated from each other by distances like that between the
sun and Alpha Centauri, or whether they are really small and
closely packed,

mere sparks of stellar matter,

whether
the swarm is about the same distance from us as the stars, or
far beyond them. The irregular ones, like the Pleiades and
Prgesepe clusters, undoubtedly belong to our own stellar system,
but it may be otherwise with a few like the Hercules cluster
(13
Messier), which are globular in form. While the evidence
may not be conclusive, recent investigations seem to indicate
that this cluster may be as distant as 100,000 light years. If
this be so, individual stars must be more luminous than our
sun, it may take 1000 years for light to travel from one side
to the other, and the actual distances between members of the
cluster must be enormous, though perhaps less than that which
separates our sun from its nearest neighbor.
NEBULA.
470. Besides the luminous clouds which under the telescope
break up into separate stars, there are others which no tele-
scopic power resolves, and among them some which are
brighter than many of the clusters. These irresolvable objects,
which now number something like
10,000,
are
"
the nebulae."
Two or three of them are visible to the naked eye,

one, the
brightest of all, and the one in which the temporary star
of 1885 appeared, is in the constellation of Andromeda, and is
represented in Fig. 116 as seen in a good-sized telescope.
Another most conspicuous and very beautiful nebula is that in
the sword of Orion.
344 NEBULAE.
[470
The larger and brighter nebulae are mostly irregular in form,
sending out sprays and streams in all directions, and contain-
ing dark openings and "lanes." Some of them are of enor-
mous volume. The nebula of Orion (which includes within
its boundary the multiple star Theta Orionis) covers several
square degrees, and since we know with certainty that it is
more remote than Alpha Centauri, its cross-section as seen
from the earth must ex-
ceed the area of Nep-
tune's orbit by many
thousand times. The
nebula of Andromeda is
not quite so extensive,
and it is rather more
regular in its form. The
smaller nebulae are, for
the most part, more or
less nearly oval in form
and brighter in the cen-
tre. In the so-called
"
nebulous stars," the
central nucleus is like a
star shining through a
fog. The
"
planetary
nebulae" are nearly cir-
cular and of about uni-
formbrightness through-
out, and the rare
"
annular or ring nebulae
"
are darker in the
centre. Fig. 117 is a copy of a photograph of a nebula in
the constellation of Canes Venatici and is a fine illustration
of the spiral form. This is sometimes called the
"
Whirlpool
Nebula." There are several double nebulae and a few that
are variable in brightness, though no periodicity has yet been
ascertained in their variations.
The great majority of the
thousands of nebulae are ex-
Fig. 116.
Telescopic View of the Great Nebula in Andromeda,
470]
DRAWINGS AND PHOTOGRAPHS. 345
tremely faint, but the few that are reasonably bright are very
interesting objects.
471. Drawings and Photographs of Nebulae.

Not very long

ago the correct representation of a nebula was an extremely dif-
ficult task. A few more or less elaborate engravings exist of
perhaps fifty of the most conspicuous of them ; but photogra-
phy has recently taken possession of the field. The first suc-
cess in this line was by Henry Draper of New York, in 1880,
in photographing the nebula of Orion. Since his death in
1882, great progress has
been made, both in Eu-
rope and this country,
and at present the pho-
tographs are continually
bringing out new and
before unsuspected fea-
tures. Fig.
118, for in-
stance, is from a photo-
graph of the nebula of
Andromeda, taken by
Mr. Eoberts of Liverpool
in December, 1888, and
shows that the so-called
"
dark lanes," which hith-
erto had been seen only
as straight and wholly
inexplicable markings, as
represented in Fig.
116,
are really curved ovals, like the divisions in Saturn's rings.
The photograph brings out clearly a distinct spiral structure
pervading the whole nebula, though as yet not satisfactorily
seen by the eye with any telescope.
The photographic work of Keeler has shown that great
numbers of nebulae are of a spiral form.
Fig. 117. A Spiral Nebula (Keeler).
346
PHOTOGRAPHS OF NEBULJ3.
[471
Thus, in the Pleiades, it has been found that nearly all the largei
stars have wisps of nebulous matter attached to them, as indicated by
the dotted outlines in Fig. 115 : and in a small territory in and near
Fig. 118.

Mr. Roberts's Photograph of the Nebula of Andromeda.

the constellation of Orion, Pickering, with an eight-inch photographic
telescope, found upon his star plates nearly as large a number of

471
1
CHANGES IN NEBULAE. 347
new nebulae as of those that were previously known within the same
boundary.
The photographs of nebulae require, generally, an exposure of from
one hour to four or five, or even more. The images of all the brighter
stars in the field are therefore enormously over-exposed, and seriously
injure the picture from an artistic point of view.
472. Changes in Nebulae. It cannot perhaps be stated with
certainty that sensible changes have occurred in any of the nebulae,
since they first began to be observed,

the early instruments were so

inferior to the modern ones that the older drawings cannot be trusted
very far ; but some of the differences between the older and more re-
cent representations make it extremely probable that real changes are
going on. Probably after a reasonable interval of time, photography
will settle the question.
473. Spectra of Nebulae.

One of the most important of

the early. achievements of the spectroscope was the proof that
the light of the nebulae proceeds not from aggregations of
stars, but from glowing gas in a condition of no great density.
Huggins, in 1864, first made the decisive observation by
finding
bright lines in their spectra.
So far the spectra of all the nebulae that show lines at all
appear to be substantially the same. Four lines are usually
easily observed, two of which are due to hydrogen; but the
other two, which are brighter than the hydrogen lines, are not
yet identified, and are almost certainly due to some element
not yet detected on the earth or sun, and are apparently peculiar
to the nebulae. At one time the brightest of the four lines
was thought to be due to nitrogen, and even yet the statement
that this is the case is found in many books
;
but it is now
certain that whatever it may be, nitrogen is not the substance.
Mr. Lockyer has ascribed this line to magnesium in connection with
his
"
meteoric hypothesis
"
;
but elaborate observations of Huggins
and others show conclusively that this identification also is incorrect.
Fig. 119 shows the position of the principal lines so far observed :
in the brighter nebulae a number of others are also sometimes seen,
348 DISTANCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF NEBULA.
[473
and over seventy lines have been photographed in the spectra of differ-
ent nebulae : the lines of helium are generally found to be present.
One of Mr. Huggins's photographic spectra of the nebula of Orion
shows, in addition to those that are visible to the eye, a considerable
number of bright lines in the ultra-violet ; and, what is interesting,
these lines seem to pertain also to the spectrum of the stars in the
so-called "Trapezium" (Theta Orionis), as if, which is very likely,
the stars themselves were mere condensations of the nebulous matter.
Fig. 119.

Spectrum of the Gaseous Nebulae.

Not all nebulae show the bright-line spectrum. Those which
do

probably only a few hundred

are of a greenish tint,

at once recognizable in a large telescope. The white nebulae,
most of them spiral in form and greatly outnumbering the
green, or gaseous ones, seem to present a continuous spectrum
crossed by dark absorption lines. It would appear, therefore,
that the quality of their light is the same as that of the stars,
and the possibility of distant galaxies is suggested. But the
telescopic evidence as to the non-stellar constitution of nebulae
is the same for all : no nebula resists all attempts at resolution
more stubbornly than that of Andromeda, the largest one of
this type.
Heeler at the Lick Observatory has very recently observed a num-
ber of the brighter nebulae with a spectroscope of high dispersive
powers, and has been able to detect and to measure the motion of
several of them along the line of sight. The velocity of their motion
appears to be of the same order as that of the stars, the nebulae ob-
served giving results ranging from zero up to about 40 miles a second
some approaching and others receding. The spiral nebulae appear
to have much greater velocities.

474
3
THE SIDEREAL HEAVENS. 349
As to the real constitution of these bodies, we can only
speculate. The fact that the matter which shines is mainly
gaseous does not make it certain that they do not also contain
dark matter, either liquid or solid. What proportion of it
there may be we have at present no means of knowing.
474. Distance and Distribution of Nebulae.

As to their
distance, we can only say that the gaseous nebulae seem to lie
within the stellar universe, and not beyond its boundaries, as
is clearly shown by the nebulous stars first pointed out and
discussed by the older Herschel, and by such peculiar associa-
tion of stars and nebulae as we find in the Pleiades.
Moreover, in certain curious luminous masses known as the
"Nubeculae" (near the south pole), we have stars, star-clus-
ters, and nebulae intermingled promiscuously.
In the sky generally, however, the distribution of the nebulae
is in contrast with that of the stars. The stars crowd together
near the Milky Way : the white nebulse
x
seem to be most
numerous just where the stars are fewest, as if the stars had
somehow consumed in their formation the substance of which
the nebulae are made ; or as if, possibly, on the other hand,
the nebulae had been formed by the disintegration
of
stars,
as a few astronomers have maintained, in opposition to the
more common view.
THE CONSTITUTION OF THE SIDEREAL HEAVENS.
475. The Galaxy or Milky Way.

This is a luminous belt

of irregular width and outline, which surrounds the heavens
nearly in a great circle. It is very different in brightness in
different parts, and in several constellations it is marked by
dark bars and patches which make the impression of overlying
clouds : the most notable of them is the so-called
"
Coal-sack,"
near the southern pole. For about a third of its length (from
Cygnus to Scorpio) it is divided into two roughly parallel
streams. The telescope shows it to be made up almost wholly
1
Most of the gaseous nebulae are near the plane of the Milky Way.
350 DISTRIBUTION OF THE STARS.
[476
of small stars, from the eighth magnitude down; it contains
also numerous star-clusters, but very few white nebulae.
The galaxy intersects the ecliptic at two opposite points
not far from the Solstices, and at an angle of nearly 60, its
"
northern pole
"
being, according to Herschel, in the constel-
lation of Coma Berenices.
As Herschel remarks, "the 'galactic plane' is to the sidereal
universe much what the plane of the ecliptic is to the solar
system,
a plane of ultimate reference, and the ground plan
of the stellar system."
476. Distribution of the Stars in the Heavens.

It is obvious
that the distribution of the stars is not even approximately
uniform : they gather everywhere in groups and streams. But
besides this the examination of any of the great star-catalogues
shows that the average number to a square degree increases
rapidly and pretty regularly from the galactic pole to the
galactic circle itself, where they are most thickly packed.
This is best shown by the
"
star-gauges
"
of the elder Herschel,
each of which consisted merely in an enumeration of the stars
visible in a single field of view of his 20-foot reflector, the
field being
15'
in diameter.
He made 3400 of these "gauges," and his son followed up the work
at the Cape of Good Hope with 2300 more in the south circumpolar
regions. From the data of these star-gauges, Struve has deduced the
following: figures for the number of stars visible in one field of view
:
Distance from Galactic Circle. Average No. of Stars in Field
-
90 . 4.15
75
. 4.68
60
. 6.52
45
. 10.36
30
17.68
15
, . 30.30
, 122.00
477. Structure of the Stellar Universe. ^Herschel, starting

477
]
DO THE STARS FORM A SYSTEM? 351
from the unsound assumption that the stars are all of about
the same size and brightness, and separated by approximately
equal distances, drew from his observations certain untenable
conclusions as to the form and structure of the
"
galactic clus-
ter," to which the sun was supposed to belong,

theories for
a time widely accepted and even yet more or less current,
though in many points certainly incorrect.
But although the apparent brightness of the stars does not
thus depend mainly upon their distance, it is certain that, as a
class, the faint stars are smaller, darker, and more remote than
the brighter ones ; we may, therefore, safely draw a few con-
clusions, which, so
far
as they go, substantially agree with
those of Herschel.
478. I. The great majority of the stars we see are con-
tained within a space having roughly the form of a rather
thin, flat disc, with a diameter eight or ten times as great as
its thickness, our sun being not very far from its centre.
II. Within this space the naked-eye stars are distributed
rather uniformly, but with some tendency to cluster, as shown
in the Pleiades. The smaller stars, on the other hand, are
strongly
"
gregarious," and are largely gathered in groups and
streams, which have comparatively vacant spaces between them.
III. At right angles to the "galactic plane" the stars are
scattered more evenly and thinly than in it, and we find here
on the sides of the disc the comparatively starless region of
the nebulae.
IV. As to the Milky Way itself, it is not certain whether
the stars which compose it are ranged in a kind of ring, with
a comparatively empty space in the middle where the sun is
placed, or whether it is spiral in form.
As to the size of the disc-like space which contains most of
the stars, very little can be said positively. Its diameter must
be as great as 20,000 or 30,000 light years, how much greater
we cannot even guess ; and as to
"
the beyond
"
we are still
more ignorant. If, however, there are other stellar systems
352
COSMOGONY. [
479
of the same order as our own, it may be they are neither the
nebulae nor the clusters which the telescope reveals, but are
far beyond the reach of any instrument at present existing.
479. Do the Stars form a System?

It is probable that
gravitation
1
operates between the stars (as indicated by the
motions of the binaries), and they are certainly moving very
swiftly in various directions. The question is whether these
motions are governed by gravitation, and are
"
orbital " in the
ordinary sense of the word.
There has been a very persistent belief that somewhere
there is
"
a great central sun/' around which the stars are all
circling. As to this, there is no longer any question

the
"
central sun " speculation is certainly unfounded, though we
have not space for the demonstration of its fallacy.
Another less improbable doctrine is that there is a general revolu-
tion of the mass of stars around the centre
of
gravity of the whole, a
revolution nearly in the plane of the Milky Way. Some years ago,
Maedler, in his speculations, concluded that this centre of gravity of
the stellar universe was not far from Alcyone, the brightest of the
Pleiades, and that therefore this star was in a sense the "central sun."
The evidence, however, is entirely inconclusive, nor is there yet proof
of any such general revolution.
480. On the whole, the most probable view seems to be that
the stars are moving much as bees do in a swarm, each star
mainly under the control of the attraction of its nearest neigh-
bors, though influenced more or less, of course, by that of the
general mass. If so, the paths of the stars are not
"
orbits
"
in any periodic sense; i.e., they are not paths which return
into themselves. The forces which at any moment act upon a
given star are so nearly balanced that its motion must be
sensibly rectilinear for thousands of years at a time.
1
It must be remembered, however, that Hall and others have shown
that the motion of the binaries does not absolutely prove the operation of
gravitation.

481]
THE PLANETARY
SYSTEM.
353
From a study of both proper
and radial motions it has been
found that the stars are not moving at random, but there
are apparently within what we call our universe two swarms,
or streams of stars, moving in opposite directions. The stars
in each swarm are flying about in every direction, but all
share in the motion common to the swarm.
481. Cosmogony.

One of the most interesting and one of

the most baffling topics of speculation relates to the process
by which the present state of things has come about. In a
forest, to use an old comparison of Herschel's, we see around
us trees in all stages of their life history, from the sprouting
seedlings to the prostrate and decaying trunks of the dead. Is
the analogy applicable to the heavens, and if so which of
the heavenly bodies are in their infancy, and which decrepit
with age ?
At present many of these questions seem to be absolutely
beyond the reach of investigation even. Others, though at
present unsolved, appear approachable, and a few we can
already answer. In a general way we may say that the con-
densation of diffuse, cloud-like masses of matter under the
force of gravitation, the conversion into heat of the energy
of motion and of position (the "kinetic" and "potential"
energy

Physics,
p. 73)
of the particles thus concentrated,
the effect of this heat upon the mass itself, and the effect of
its radiation upon surrounding bodies,

these principles cover

nearly all the explanations that can thus far be given of the
present condition of the heavenly bodies.
482. Genesis of the Planetary System.

Our planetary sys-

tem" is clearly no accidental aggregation of bodies. Masses of
matter coming haphazard to the sun would move (as the comets
actually do move) in orbits which, though always conic sec-
tions, would have every degree of eccentricity and inclination.
In the planetary system this is not so. Numerous relations
354
THE NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS.
[482
exist for which, the mind demands an explanation, and for
which gravitation does not account.
We note the following as the principal :

1. The orbits of the planets are all nearly circular.

2. They are all nearly in one plane (excepting those of some of the
asteroids)
.
3. The revolution of all, without exception, is in the same direction.
4. There is a curious and regular progression
of
distances (expressed
by Bode's Law; which, however, breaks down with Neptune).
As regards the planets themselves :

5. The plane of the planet's rotation nearly coincides with that of

the orbit (probably excepting Uranus).
6. The direction of rotation is the same as that of the orbital revo-
lution (excepting probably Uranus and Neptune).
7. The plane of the orbital revolution of the planet's satellites
coincides nearly with that of the planet's rotation, wherever this can
be ascertained.
8. The usual direction of the satellites' revolution is the same as
that of the planet's rotation.
9. The largest planets rotate most swiftly.
Now this arrangement is certainly an admirable one for a
planetary system, and therefore some have argued that the
Deity constructed the system in that way, perfect from the first.
But to one who considers the way in which other perfect works
of nature usually attain to their perfection,

their processes
of growth and development,

this explanation seems improb-

able. It appears far- more likely that the planetary system
was formed by growth than that it was built outright.
483. The Nebular Hypothesis.

The theory which in its

main features is now generally accepted, as supplying an in-
telligible explanation of the facts, is that known as
"
the neb-
ular hypothesis." In a more or less crude and unscientific
form, it was first suggested by Swedenborg and Kant, and after-
wards, about the beginning of the present century, was worked
out in mathematical detail by La Place. He maintained

483
3 THE NEBULAE
HYPOTHESIS.
355
(a) That at some time in the past * the matter which is now
gathered into the sun and planets was in the form of a nebula.
(6)
This nebula, according to him, was a cloud of intensely
heated gas. (As will be seen, this postulate is questionable.)
(c) Under the action of its own gravitation, the nebula as-
sumed a form approximately globular, with a motion
of
rotation,
the rotational motion depending upon accidental differences in
the original velocities and densities of different parts of the
nebula. As the contraction proceeded, the swiftness of the
rotation would necessarily increase for mechanical reasons :
since every shrinkage of a revolving mass implies a shortening
of its rotation period.
(d) In consequence of the rotation, the globe would neces-
sarily become flattened at the poles, and ultimately, as the
contraction went on, the centrifugal force at the equa,tor would
become equal to gravity, and rings
of
nebulous matter, like the
rings of Saturn, would be detached
from the central mass. In
fact, Saturn's rings suggested this feature of the theory.
(e) The ring thus formed would for a time revolve as a
whole, but would ultimately break, and the material would col-
lect into a globe revolving around the central nebula as a planet.
2
La Place supposed that the ring would revolve as if solid, the
particles at the outer edge moving more swiftly than those at
the inner. If this were always so, the planet formed would
necessarily rotate in the same direction as the ring had revolved.
(/)
The planet thus formed might throw off rings of its
own, and so form for itself a system of satellites.
1
As to the origin of the nebula itself, he did not speculate. There was
no assumption, as is often supposed, that matter was first created in the
nebulous condition. It was only assumed that, as the egg may be taken
as the starting-point for the life history of an animal, so the nebula is to
be regarded as the starting-point of the life history of the planetary system.
2
It has been suggested by Huggins and others that the small nebulae
near the great nebula of Andromeda (see Fig. 118) may be "planets" in
process of formation.
356 lockyer's meteoric hypothesis. [
483
The theory obviously explains most of the facts of the so-
lar system, which were enumerated in the preceding article,
though some of the exceptional facts, such as the short periods
of the satellites of Mars, and the retrograde motions of those
of Uranus and Neptune, cannot be explained by it alone in its
original form. Even they, however, do not contradict it, as is
sometimes supposed.
Many things also make it questionable whether the outer plan-
ets are so much older than the inner ones, as the theory would
indicate. It is not impossible that they may even be younger.
484. On the whole, we may say that while in its main out-
lines the theory may perhaps be true, it certainly needs serious
modifications in details. It is rather more likely, for instance,
that the original nebula was a cloud of ice-cold meteoric dust
than an incandescent gas, or a "fire-mist," to use a favorite ex-
pression
;
and it is likely that planets and satellites were often
separated from the mother-orb otherwise than in the form of
rings. Nor is it possible that a thin, wide ring could revolve
in the same way as a solid, coherent mass : the particles near
the inner edge must make their revolution in periods much
shorter than those upon the circumference.
A most serious difficulty arises also from the apparently
irreconcilable conflict between the conclusions as to the age
and duration of the system, which are based on the theory of
heat (see Art.
489)
and the length of time which would seem
to be required by the nebular hypothesis for the evolution of
our system.
Our limits do not permit us to enter into a discussion of Darwin's
"tidal theory" of satellite formation, which may be regarded as in a
sense supplementary to the nebular hypothesis ; nor can we more than
mention Faye's proposed modification of it. According to him, the
inner planets are the oldest.
485. The Planetesimal, or Spiral Nebula, Hypothesis.
According to a theory recently proposed and developed by
485]
STARS, STAR-CLUSTERS, AND NEBULA. 357
Chamberlin and Moulton, the solar system was at one time
in the form of a spiral nebula. Such a nebula is supposed to
have been made up of discrete particles ("planetesimals")
revolving in elliptical orbits about the central nucleus and
across the arms of the spiral rather than along them. The
arms show simply the distribution of matter at a given time.
It is supposed that spiral nebulae may be developed by tidal
disruption when two suns pass near each other.
According to this hypothesis the sun was formed from the
central mass, the planets from the local condensations or nuclei
in the coils of the spiral, their masses having been increased
by the sweeping up of the scattered particles whose orbits
they crossed. In a similar way satellites were formed from
smaller nuclei.
While it is obviously impossible to prove absolutely a theory
of so wide application, the Planetesimal Hypothesis offers some
decided advantages over the Laplacian. It accounts satis-
factorily for the facts in harmony with the older theory and
also for the direct rotation of the planets, the large eccentrici-
ties of the orbits of Mercury, Mars, and the asteroids, and the
present distribution of the moment of momentum of the solar
system. The retrograde motions of the satellites of Uranus
and Neptune offer no difficulty, neither do the rapid revolu-
tions of Phobos and the inner portion of Saturn's ring.
The fact that photography has shown that the spiral is a
common form of nebula, while none of the Laplacian type has
been found, gives added weight to the hypothesis. We must
remember, however, that the solar nebula was probably much
smaller than any of those photographed.
486. Stars, Star-clusters, and Nebulae.

It is obvious that
the nebular hypothesis in all of its forms applies to the expla-
nation of the relations of these different classes of bodies to
each other. In fact, Herschel, appealing only to the
"
law of
continuity," had concluded, before La Place formulated his
theory, that the nebulae develop sometimes into clusters, some-
358
CONCLUSIONS
FKOM THE THEORY OF HEAT. [487
times into doubled multiple stars, and sometimes into single
stars. He showed the existence in the sky of all the inter-
mediate forms between the nebula and the finished star. For
a time, half a century ago, while it was generally believed
that all the nebulae were nothing but star-clusters, only too re-
mote to be resolved by existing telescopes, his views fell rather
into abeyance ; but they regained acceptance in their essential
features when the spectroscope demonstrated the substantial
difference between gaseous nebulae and the star-clusters.
487. Conclusions from the Theory of Heat. Kant and La
Place, as Newcomb says, seem to have reached their results by
reasoning forwards. Modern science comes to very similar con-
clusions by working backwards from the present state of things.
Many circumstances go to show that the earth was once
much hotter than it now is. As we penetrate below the sur-
face, the* temperature rises nearly a degree (Fahrenheit) for
every 60 feet, indicating a white heat at the depth of a few
miles only; the earth at present, as Sir William Thomson
says,
"
is in the condition of a stone that has been in the fire
and has cooled at the surface."
The moon bears apparently on its surface the marks of the
most intense igneous action, but seems now to be entirely
chilled.
The planets, so far as we can make out with the telescope,
exhibit nothing at variance with the view that they were once
intensely heated, while many things go to establish it. Jupi-
ter and Saturn, Uranus and Neptune, do not seem yet to have
cooled off to anything like the earth's condition.
488. As to the sun, we have in it a body continuously
pouring forth an absolutely inconceivable quantity of heat
without any visible source of supply. As has been explained
1
Dr. See has recently worked out the theory of the development of a
binary pair from a nebula, by a process of tidal evolution. (Art. 466*.)

4
89]
THE PRESENT SYSTEM NOT ETERNAL. 359
already (Art.
219), the only rational explanation of the facts,
1
thus far presented, is that which makes it a huge cloud-mantled
ball of elastic substance, slowly shrinking under its own cen-
tral gravity, and thus converting into the kinetic energy of
heat
2
the potential energy of its particles, as they gradually
settle towards the centre. A shrinkage of 250 feet a year in
the sun's diameter (125
feet in its radius) will account for
the whole annual out-put of radiant heat and light.
489. Age and Duration of the System.

Looking backward,
then, and trying to imagine the course of time and of events
reversed, we see the sun growing larger and larger, until at
last it has expanded to a huge globe that fills the largest orbit
of our system. How long ago this may have been, we cannot
state with certainty. If we could assume that the amount of
heat yearly radiated by the solar surface had remained con-
stantly the same through all those ages, and, moreover, that
all the radiated heat came only from one single source, the
slow contraction of the solar mass, apart from any considerable
original capital in the form of a high initial temperature, and
without any reinforcement of energy from outside sources,

if
we could assume these premises, it is easy to show that the
sun's past history must cover about 15,000000 or 20,000000
years. But such assumptions are at least doubtful; and, if
we discard them, all that can be said is that the sun's age
must be greater, and probably many times greater, than the
limit we have named.
Looking
forward, on the other hand, from the present
towards the future, it is easy to conclude with certainty that
if the sun continues its present rate of radiation and contrac-
1
See note
(3)
on page 360 a.
2
So far we have no decisive evidence whether the sun has passed
its maximum of temperature or not. Mr. Lockyer thinks its spectrum
(resembling as it does that of Capella and the stars of the second class)
proves that it is now on the downward grade and growing cooler; but
others do not consider the evidence conclusive.
360 THE PRESENT SYSTEM NOT ETERNAL. [
490
tion, and receives no subsidies of energy from without, it must
within 5,000000 or 10,000000 years become so dense that its
constitution will be radically changed. Its temperature will
fall and its function as a sun will end. Life on the earth, as
we know life, will be no longer possible when the sun has
become a dark, rigid, frozen globe. At least this is the inev-
itable consequence of what now seems to be the true account
of the sun's present activity, and the story of its life.
490. The Present System not Eternal.

One lesson seems

to be clearly taught: That the present system of stars and
worlds is not an eternal one. We have before us every-
where evidence of continuous, irreversible progress from a
definite beginning towards a definite end. Scattered particles
and masses are gathering together and condensing, so that the
great grow continually larger by capturing and absorbing the
smaller. At the same time the hot bodies are losing their heat
and distributing it to the colder ones, so that there is an unre-
mitting tendency towards a uniform, and therefore useless,
temperature throughout our whole universe : for heat is avail-
able as energy {i.e., it can do work) only when it can pass from
a warmer body to a colder one. The continual warming up of
cooler bodies at the expense of hotter ones always means a
loss, therefore, not of energy, for that is indestructible, but of
available energy. To use the ordinary technical term, energy
is continually
"
dissipated " by the processes which constitute
and maintain life on the universe. This dissipation of energy
can have but one ultimate result, that of absolute stagnation
when the temperature has become everywhere the same.
If we carry our imagination backwards, we reach
"
a begin-
ning of things," which has no intelligible antecedent ; if for-
wards, we come to an end of things in dead stagnation. That
in some way this end of things will result in a
"
new heavens
and a new earth
"
is, of course, very probable, but science as
yet can present no explanation of the method.
REMARKABLE SPECTROSCOPIC BINARIES.
360a
Note
(1)
to Art. 465*.
The spectroscopic binaries
Mux Scorpii and
Lac. 3105 (A. G. C. 10534) are of the 4th and 5th magnitudes respectively,
and turn out to be very remarkable for the velocity of their motion.
In the case of Mui Scorpii, the relative velocity is about 300 miles a
second, and since the period is 34
h
42.5
ra
,
the diameter of the relative
orbit is 6,050000 miles, and the mass of the system about 17.6 times that
of the sun.
The other pair has a relative velocity still higher, 385 miles a second.
Taking the period as 74
h
46
m
,
we find that the diameter of the relative
orbit is 16| million miles, and the united mass of the pair is nearly 77
times that of the sun.
A few other spectroscopic binaries of the same class have been detected
lately, Beta Lupi being the only conspicuous one. Details as to its period
and velocity are not yet at hand.
Note on Eros, Page 243. In 1904 Professor Hinks of Cambridge
(England) published the results of a most careful measurement and dis-
cussion of 295 Eros plates made at nine different observatories during the
week in which the planet was nearest the earth in 1900. He obtains for
the solar parallax
8".
7966

0".0047, practically identical with 8".80,
the value generally accepted.
In 1909 he announced as the final result from the measures of photo-
graphs,
8".
806

//
.0027
;
from micrometer measures, 8
//
.802

0".0036.
Note
(3)
to Art. 488.

The discovery of radium and other radio-

active substances has greatly changed the aspect of affairs. If these bodies
are really present in the sun in any considerable quantity, it is quite pos-
sible and not even unlikely that a large part of the solar radiation may be
due to them. In that case all speculations on the age and duration of the
sun and the solar system are simply futile.
Additional Notes on Asteroids and Minor Planets. When first
announced each new object is designated provisionally by letters (two at
present) in a regular alphabetical arrangement following the order of
discovery: thus Eros was for a time known as DQ. ZZ was found in
1907, but the system has been continued, always, however, prefixing the
year. As soon as sufficient observations have been obtained to determine
the planet's orbit the director of the Berlin Eecheninstitut assigns the-
360 b ADDITIONAL NOTES ON THE MINOR PLANETS.
"number" by which it is to be permanently known, and the discoverer
may then, if he chooses, give the planet a name.
Among the recently discovered asteroids Achilles, discovered at Heidel-
berg in February, 1906, is the most interesting. Its mean distance from
the sun, according to the still somewhat uncertain orbit based on the
first observations, far exceeds even that of Thule, being a little greater
than that of Jupiter, and its period is twelve years. Moreover, at the time
of its discovery it was, as pointed out by Charlier, nearly at the vertex of
an equilateral triangle formed by it with Jupiter and the sun. Lagrange
had long ago shown that a body so placed would, under certain condi-
tions, move so as to preserve permanently its configuration with the other
two
;
and now Charlier has found that, even if the necessary conditions
are not exactly met, the result will be nearly the same,

that is, the

body will never get far away from the equilateral vertex, but will travel
around it in a small orbit.
The planet apparently presents, in the "problem of three bodies," a
special case which admits of a rigorous solution, and is therefore of great
mathematical interest.
Three other planets
Hector, Patroclus, and Nestor

have also
been found whose orbits are similar to that of Achilles.
APPENDIX.
CHAPTER XVI.
MISCELLANEOUS AND SUPPLEMENTARY.
celestial latitude and longitude.

corrections
to an altitude measured at sea. calculation
of the local time from a single altitude of the
sun.

determination of azimuth.

theory of
the foucault pendulum.

measurement of mass
independent of gravity.

the equation of time.

how the spectroscope makes the solar prom-

inences visible. the equation of doppler's prin-
ciple.

areal, linear, and angular velocities.

kepler's harmonic law and the law of gravi-

tation.

CORRECTION TO THE HARMONIC LAW.

newton's verification of gravitation by means

of the moon.

the conic sections.

formula for
the mass of a planet.

elements of a planet's
orbit.

danger from comets.

twilight.
491. Relation of Celestial Longitude and Latitude to Right
Ascension and Declination (supplementary to Art. 38). In Fig.
120 EC represents the ecliptic, and EQ the celestial equator,
the point E being the vernal equinox. K is the pole of the
ecliptic, and P that of the equator, KPCQ being an arc of
the solstitial colure, the circle which is perpendicular both
362 APPENDIX. [
491
to the equator and the ecliptic. Let S be any star. Through
it draw KL and PR which will be
"
secondaries
"
respectively
to the ecliptic and equator. Then the star's longitude is EL
or A, and its latitude is SL or
/?.
In the same way the right ascen-
sion is ER or a, and the declina-
tion SR or 8.
When a and 8 are given, to-
gether with the obliquity of the
ecliptic or the angle CEQ, it is a
simple problem of spherical trig-
onometry to find
A. and
ft.
In the
triangle KPS, KP is equal to the
obliquity of the ecliptic; PS
=
90
-8;
KS
=90
-fi;
the angle KPS is (90 +
a),
because
QPR
=
QR
= (90
-
a) ; PKS =CKL=
(90
-X). KP is
always the same
23
28', and so when any two of the other
quantities are given the triangle can be solved.
492. Corrections to an Altitude measured at Sea (supplemen-
tary to Arts. 67-69).

(1)
Correction
for
"
Semi-diameter." Since
the observer measures with his sextant the altitude, not of
the centre, but of the lower edge of the sun's disc (technically
its lower "limb"), it is necessary to add to the measured
height the sun's angular semi-diameter as given in the almanac.
This never differs more than
20"
from
16'.
(2)
Correction
for
"
Dip." This correction results from the
fact that the marine observer measures altitudes from the
visible horizon (Art. 16).
The dip is the angle HOB in Fig.
3,
p. 11,
and depends upon the observer's height above the sea-
level. Its value is given in a little table contained in every
work on navigation, but may be approximately calculated by
the simple formula,

Dip (in minutes of arc)

=
-y/Height in feet.
(For demonstration, see
"
General Astronomy," Art. 81, note.)
492]
CALCULATING THE LOCAL TIME.
363
That is, if the eye is 20 feet above the water the dip by the
formula is
V20
minutes, or 4'.47. (The table makes it
4' 20";
i.e., 4'.33.) The dip is to be subtracted from the measured
altitude, because the visible horizou is always below the true
horizon.
(3)
Refraction. This has already been explained in Art.
50. The amount of the correction for any observed altitude is
found from a table given in all works on navigation or prac-
tical astronomy. Like the dip, the refraction correction must
always be subtracted from the observed altitude.
(4)
Parallax. The declination of the sun is given in the
almanac as it would be if seen
from the centre
of
the earth.
Before we can apply the equation of Art.
51,
we must there-
fore reduce the actually observed altitude to what it would be
if observed from that point : the needed correction is what is
called the geocentric (or diurnal) parallax.
It may be defined as the difference of
direction between two lines drawn to the
body, one from the observer, the other
from the earth's centre : or what comes
to the same thing, it is the angle at the
body made by these two lines. In Fig.
121, where S is the sun, G the earth's
centre, and the observer, it is the angle
OSC, which is the difference between the
observed or "apparent" zenith distance
ZOS, and the "true" zenith distance ZCS.
Since ZCS is always smaller than ZOS, the correction
parallax always has to be added to the observed altitude,
the case of the sun, this correction never exceeds
9".
Fig. 121.
for
In
493. Method of Calculating the Local Time from the Sun's
Altitude (supplementary to Arts. 60 and 69). In Fig. 122 the
circle NZMis the meridian, P being the pole, Z the zenith, and
364 APPENDIX.
[493
EQ the equator. S is the sun, whose altitude SH has been
measured. This altitude (properly corrected for semi-diameter,
dip, refraction, and parallax), and subtracted from 90, gives
ZS, the sun's zenith
distance, as one side of
the triangle. The sec-
ond side ZP is the com-
plement of NP, which
is the observer's lati-
tude. Finally, since
AS is the declination
of the sun (given in the
almanac) the third side
PS is the complement
of the declination. We, therefore, know the three sides of the
spherical triangle, ZPS, and can find either of its angles. The
angle at P is the one we want,

the sun's hour-angle (Art.

32)
; i.e., the apparent time.
The trigonometrical formula ordinarily used in computing it is
Determination of Time by the Sun's Altitude.
sin
J
P
=
Jrin*r+(-)1ain*r-(-8n
,
V
cos
<j>
cos 8
in which z is the sun's zenith distance, 8 its declination, and
<f>
the
latitude of the observer. We may add that the angle PZS is the
sun's azimuth at the time of the observation. The third angle, ZSP,
is called the "parallactic angle
"
for reasons we cannot here stop to
explain.
The observation should be made not near noon , but when the sun
is as near to the prime vertical (Art.
17)
as possible, because when the
angle at Z is nearly
90 any uncertainty in the side PZ (which de-
pends on the ship's latitude) will produce the least possible error in
computing the hour-angle.
The apparent time, corrected
for
the equation
of
time (which
is given in the almanac), gives the local mean time, and the
493]
THEORY OF THE FOUCAULT PENDULUM.
365
difference between this local time and the Greenwich time
(furnished by the chronometer) is the longitude.
494. Theory of the Foucault Pendulum (supplementary to Art
77).

The approximate theory of the experiment is very

simple. A pendulum suspended so as to be equally free to
swing in any plane (unlike the common clock pendulum in
this freedom),
if
set up at the pole
of
the earth would appear to
shift around in 24 hours. Eeally in this case the plane
of
vibration remains fixed, while the earth turns under it.
This can be easily seen by setting up
upon a table a similar apparatus, con-
sisting of a ball hung from a frame
by a thread and then, while the ball
is swinging, turning the table around
upon its castors with as little jar as
possible. The plane of the swing will
remain unchanged by the motion of the
table.
It is easy to see, moreover, that at the
equator there will be no such tendency
to shift ; while in any other latitude the
effect will be intermediate, and the time
required for the pendulum to complete
the revolution of its plane will be longer
than at the pole. The northern edge
of the floor of a room (in the northern hemisphere) is nearer
to the axis of the earth than is its southern edge, and there-
fore is carried more slowly eastward by the earth's rotation.
Hence the floor must
"
skew
''
around continually, like a post-
age-stamp gummed upon a whirling globe anywhere except at
the globe's equator. Every line drawn on the floor, therefore,
continually shifts its direction, and a free pendulum set at
first to swing on any such line must apparently deviate at the
same rate in the opposite direction.
Fig. 123.
Explanation of the Foucault
Pendulum Experiment.
366 APPENDIX. [
494
The total amount of this deviation in a day is easily estimated geo-
metrically. Suppose a parallel of latitude drawn through the place
where the experiment is made, and a series of tangents drawn at
points close together on this parallel. All
these tangents will meet at some point V
(Fig. 123)
which is on the earth's axis pro-
duced, and taken together they form a cone
with its point at V. Now if we suppose
this cone cut down on one side and opened
up (technically, "developed "), it would give
us a sector of a circle, as in Fig. 124,
and the angle of the sector

the unshaded
angle AVA' of Fig. 124
would be the
B sum total of the angles between all the
Fig. 124. Developed Cone,
tangent lines of which the cone is com-
posed. It is easy to prove that ABA' =
360
X
sin lat. (see
"
General Astronomy ").
In the northern hemisphere the plane of vibration of the
Foucault pendulum moves round with the hands
of
a watch;
in the southern, the motion is reversed.
495. Determination of Azimuth (supplementary to Art. 88).
An important problem of practical astronomy, especially in
geodetic work, is that of finding the true bearing or azimuth of
a line on the earth's surface. The process is this :

With
a carefully adjusted theodolite the observer points alternately
upon the Pole-star and upon a distant signal erected for
the purpose, the signal being of course such that it can be
observed at night,

usually it is a small hole in a screen

with a lantern behind it, looking like a star as seen through
the observer's telescope. The readings of the circle of the
theodolite then give directly the angle between the signal and
the Pole-star at the moment of each observation, and if the
Pole-star were exactly at the pole, this angle would be the
azimuth of the signal. In the actual state of the case it is
necessary to note accurately the sidereal time of each observa-
495]
MEASUREMENT OF MASS. 367
tion of the star, and from this its azimuth, at that moment can
easily be calculated, by means of the PZS triangle, Fig. 125.
In this we know the side PZ, the
complement of the observer's latitude;
also the side PS, which is the comple-
ment of the star's declination; and
finally, we know the hour-angle SPZ,
which is simply the difference between
the observed sidereal time at the mo-
ment of observation and the Pole-star's
right ascension. Hence we can easily
compute the angle at Z, which is the
star's azimuth; and when the azimuth
of the star is known, that of the night-
signal follows at once. The results are
N HH'
most accurate when the Pole-star hap-
Fig. 125.Determination of Azimuth.
pens to be near one of its "elonga-
tions," as at S' or S". Then errors of even several seconds in noting
the time are practically harmless.
The azimuth of the night-signal being determined, the ob-
server measures the next day the horizontal angle between it
and the object whose azimuth is required.
496. Measurement of Mass Independent of Gravity (supple-
mentary to Art. 98).

It is quite possible to measure masses

without weighing. In Fig. 126 B is a receptacle carried at
the end of a horizontal arm A, which is itself attached to an
axis MN, exactly vertical and free to turn on pivots at top
and bottom. A spiral spring S, like the hair spring of a
watch, is connected with this axis so that if A is disturbed
it will oscillate back and forth at a rate which depends upon
the stiffness of the spring and the total inertia of the ap-
paratus. If we put into B one standard
"
pound
"
(of mass),
it will vibrate a certain number of times a minute ; if two
pounds, it will vibrate more slowly ; if three, still more slowly;
and so on: and this time of vibration can be determined and
368
APPENDIX.
[496
tabulated. To determine now the mass of a body X, we have
only to put it into the receptacle B, set the apparatus vibrat-
ing, and count the number of swings in a minute. Eeferring
to our table, we find what number of
"
pounds " in B would
have given the same rate of
vibration. We know then
that the "inertia" of X is the
same as that of this number
of "pounds," and therefore
its mass is the same.
This determination is inde-
f
B pendent of all considerations
of weight : the apparatus would
give the same results on the
surface of the moon, or on that
r // of Jupiter, as on the earth. It
l / is obvious, however, that an
Fig. 126.
instrument of this sort could
not compete in accuracy or
convenience with a well-made balance, because of the friction
of the pivots, the resistance of the air, etc. We introduce it
simply to assist in separating in the pupil's mind the idea of
mass from that of weight.
DISCUSSION OF THE EQUATION OF TIME
(Supplementary to Art. 128.)
497. Effect of the Eccentricity of the Orbit.

Near perihelion,
which occurs about Dec. 31st, the sun's eastward motion on the eclip-
tic is most rapid. At this time, accordingly, the apparent solar days
exceed the sidereal by more than the average amount, making the
sun-dial days longer than the mean. The sun-dial will therefore lose
time at this season, and will continue to do so until the motion of the
sun falls to its average value, as it will at the end of about three
months. Then the sun-dial will gain until aphelion ; and at that
time (if the clock and the sun-dial were started together at perihelion)
497]
EQUATION OF TIME.
369
they will once more agree. During the remaining half of the year,
the action will be reversed ; i.e., for the first three months after aphe-
lion the sun-dial will gain, and in the next three lose what it had
gained. Thus, twice a year, so far as the eccentricity of the earth's
orbit is concerned, the clock and the sun-dial will agree,

at the times
of perihelion and aphelion, while half-way between they will differ
by about eight minutes. The equation of time (so far as due to this
cause only) is about
+
8 minutes in the spring, and 8 in the autumn.
498. Effect of the Inclination of the Ecliptic to the Equator.

Even if the sun's motion in longitude, i.e., along the ecliptic, were
uniform, its motion in right ascension would be variable. If the true
and fictitious suns started together at the vernal equinox, one moving
uniformly in the ecliptic and the other in the equator, they would indeed
be together (i.e., have the same
right ascensions) at the two sol-
stices and at the other equinox,
because it is just
180
from
equinox to equinox, and the sol-
stices are exactly half-way be-
tween them; but at any inter-
mediate points their right ascen-
sions would differ. This is easily
seen by taking a celestial globe
and marking on the ecliptic the
point m, Fig. 127,
1
half-way be-
tween the vernal equinox and
the solstice, and also marking a point n on the equator,
45
from the
equinox. It will be seen at once that the former point is west of n
;
so that m in the apparent diurnal revolution of the sky will come
first to the meridian. In other words, when the sun is half-way
between the vernal equinox and the summer solstice, the sun-dial,
so
far
as the obliquity
of
the ecliptic is concerned, is faster than the clock,
and this component of the equation of time is minus. The difference,
measured by the arc of the equator m! n, amounts to nearly 10 minutes.
Of course the same thing holds, mutatis mutandis, for the other quadrants.
Fig. 127.

Effect of Obliquity of Ecliptic

in producing Equation of Time.
1
The figure represents a globe seen from the west side, with the vernal
equinox at E. ECis the ecliptic, and EQ the equator.
370 APPENDIX.
[498
If the ecliptic be divided into equal portions from E to C, and
hour-circles be drawn from P through the points of division, it will at
once be seen that near E the portions of the ecliptic are longer than
the corresponding portions of the equator, the arc of the ecliptic being
the hypothenuse of a right-angled triangle which has the arc of the
equator for its base. On the other hand, near the solstice C, the arc
of the ecliptic is shorter than the corresponding arc of the equator, on
account of the divergence of the hour-circles as they recede from the
pole.
499. Combination of the Effects of the Two Causes. We
can represent the two components of the equation of time and the
result of their combination by a graphical construction

as follows
(Fig. 128):-
The central horizontal line is a scale of dates one year long, the
letters denoting the beginning of each month. The dotted curve
+10*
1
/
W
+5
/'
2"\
\"\
---i
5
\
\
y
i
\
A \
\
\
\
F M
V
\
\
6
J
i
/.
N
A
8 N D
1/
/ 5
m
\
\
\
/
/
/
x
-^
^\
-V
/
-10
4
\ J

15
m
V_/
Fig. 128. The Equation of Time.
shows that component of the equation of time which is due to the
eccentricity of the earth's orbit (Art. 497). Starting at perihelion
on Dec. 31st, this component is zero, rising to a value of about
+
8
minutes on April 2d, falling to zero on June 30th, and reaching the
second maximum of

8 minutes about October 1st. In the same
way the broken-line curve denotes the effect of the obliquity of the
ecliptic (Art. 498),
which, alone considered, would produce an equa-
tion of time having four
maxima of approximately ten minutes each,

4
99]
THE EQUATION OF DOPPLER'S PRINCIPLE. 371
on about the 6th of February, May, August, and November, and
reducing to zero at the equinoxes and solstices. The full-lined curve
represents their combined effect, and is constructed by making its
"ordinate" at each point equal to the sum (algebraic) of the ordinates
of the two other curves.
500. The Equation of Doppler's Principle (supplementary to
Art.
200). If V is the velocity of light (186,330 miles a second), and
r and s are the velocities with which the observer and luminous ob-
ject respectively are receding from each other
;
then, if L be the nor-
mal wave-length of a ray, and L
x
its observed wave-length as affected
by the motions, Doppler's equation is L
x
I\
J,
which holds
good for all values of r and s. When they are small compared with
V, as is always practically the case, the equation becomes, very ap-
proximately, L
x
= L( != -), or
i

. If the bodies
are approaching, r and s become negative
;
i.e. L
1
is less than L. A
ray
of
wave-length L will therefore be found
in the observed spectrum
where a ray
of
ivave-length L
x
would
fall
were it not
for
the motion ; in
other words, the place of the ray will be shifted in the spectrum.
The rate at which the distance between the observer and the body
is increasing is obviously (r
+
s), for which we may put the single
quantity v, since the observations do not decide what part of the whole
change of distance is due to the motion of the observer. We then
have, v =
V
(

^-j

j,
which is the formula generally given.
In this way, with powerful spectroscopes, motions of approach or
recession along the line of sight can be detected if they amount to
more than one or two miles a second, but the exact measurement is
very delicate and difficult, and is embarrassed by the recently discov-
ered fact that the wave-lengths of the rays from a luminous gas are
slightly increased by pressure.
501. How the Spectroscope enables us to see the Chromosphere
and Prominences without an Eclipse (supplementary to Art. 203).

The reason why we cannot see the prominences and chromosphere

at any time by simply screening off the sun's disc, is the brilliant illumi-
nation of our own atmosphere.
372 APPENDIX.
[501
Fig. 129.
Spectroscope Slit ad-
justed for Observation of the
Prominences.
When we point the
"
telespectroscope
"
(Art. 194) so that the sun's
image falls as shown in Fig. 129,
with its limb just tangent to the
edge of the slit, then if there is a prominence at that point we shall
get two overlying spectra ; one, the spectrum of the air light, the other,
that of the prominence itself. The latter
is a spectrum composed of bright lines, or,
if the slit be opened a little, of bright
images of whatever part of the promi-
nences may fall into the jaws of the slit
;
and the brightness of these lines or images
is independent
of
the dispersive power of the
spectroscope, since increase of dispersion
merely sets the images farther apart with-
out making them fainter. The spectrum
of the aerial illumination, on the other hand,
is simply that of sunlight,

a continuous
spectrum showing the usual Fraunhofer lines, and this spectrum is
made faint by its extension. Moreover, it presents dark lines or spaces
just at the very places in the spectrum where the bright images
of
the promi-
nences fall,
so that they become easily visible.
A grating spectroscope of
ordinary power, attached to
a telescope of three or four
inches aperture, gives a very
satisfactory view of these
beautiful and interesting ob-
jects. The red image, which
corresponds to the C line of
hydrogen, is by far the best
for such observations. When
the instrument is properly
adjusted, the slit open a little,
and the image of the sun's
limb brought exactly to its
edge, the observer at the
eye-piece of the spectroscope
will see things about as we
have attempted to represent them in Fig. 130, as if he were looking
at the clouds in an evening sky from across the room through a
slightly opened window blind.
Fig. 130.

The Chromosphere and Prominences

seen in the Spectroscope.
502]
AREAL, LINEAR, AND ANGULAR VELOCITIES. 373
502. Areal, Linear, and Angular Velocities (supplementary to
Art. 249).

The number of units

of
area (acres or square
miles) included in the sector of the orbit described in a unit
of time is called the body's areal velocity. The linear velocity
is simply the
"
speed
"
with which it is moving

the number
of feet or miles per second

and is called
"
linear
"
because
it is measured in
"
linear units." The angular velocity is the
number of angular units (degrees, or
"
radians ") swept over
by the radius vector in a unit of time.
In Fig. 131 the area of the sector ASB is the areal velocity
;
the length of the line AB is the linear velocity ; and the angle
ASB is the angular velocity (A
and B are supposed to be occupied
by the body in two successive
seconds).
Since the area described in a
unit of time is the same all through
the orbit, it can easily be proved,
first, that the linear velocity (usu-
ally denoted by V)
is always in-
FlG 131
versely proportional to Sb, the
Linear and Angular Velocities.
perpendicular drawn from S upon
AB, produced if necessary : secondly, that the angular velocity
(ordinarily denoted by <o) at any point of the orbit is inversely
proportional to the square of AS, the radius vector.
In every case of motion under central force we may say, therefore :
I. The areal velocity (acres per second) is constant.
II. The linear velocity (m i le s per second) varies inversely as the dis-
tance
from
the centre
of
force to the body's line
of
motion at the moment.
III. The angular velocity (degrees per second) varies inversely as
the square
of
the radius vector.
These three statements are not independent laws, but only geomet-
rical equivalents for each other. They hold good regardless of the
nature of the force, requiring only that when it acts it act directly
towards or from the centre, so as to be directed always along the line
374 APPENDIX. [
502
of the radius vector. It makes no difference whether the force varies
with the square or the logarithm of the distance ; whether it is increas-
ing or decreasing, attractive or repulsive, continuous or intermittent,
provided only it be always
"
central."
503. Proof of the Law of Inverse Squares, from Kepler's
Harmonic Law (supplementary to Art. 253).
For circular orbits
the proof is very simple. From equation
(&),
Art.
250, we
have for the first of two planets,
in which
/j
is the central force (measured as an acceleration),
and i\ and
x
are respectively the planet's distance from the sun
and its periodic time.
For a second planet,
h
Dividing the first equation by the second, we get
/i
- Tl
x
(U
/2
r
2 Vi
But by Kepler's third law
t
2
r
3
ti
: t} = r} : r
2
3
;
whence,
f-
2
=
-
2
s
;
t
2
substituting this value of
-^
in the preceding equation, we
have
f\ _ n
v
r
2
s
_
r,
f2
~
X
3 . 2
>
i.e.,
fi :f2
= r
2
: r
2
2
,

which is the law of inverse squares.

In the case of elliptical orbits the proposition is equally
true if, for r, we substitute a, the semi-major axis of the orbit,
but the demonstration is more complicated.
504]
CORRECTION TO KEPLER'S THIRD LAW. 375
504. Correction to Kepler's Third Law (supplementary to Art.
253).

The Harmonic Law as it stands in Art. 251 is not

strictly true : it would be so if the planets were mere particles,
infinitesimal as compared with the sun; but this is not the
case. The accurate statement is
t
Y
\M
+
rnj : t
2
\M
+
m
2)
=
rf:
r
2
3
,
in which Mis the sun's mass, and m
x
and m
2
are the masses of
the two planets compared.
505. Newton's Verification of the Idea of Gravitation by
means of the Moon (supplementary to Art. 255).

Eegarding
the moon's orbit as a circle, we can easily compute how much
she falls toward the earth in
a second.
In Fig. 132 let AE be the
distance the moon travels in
a second, then DE, or its
equal (sensibly) AB, is the
virtual
"
fall
"
of the moon
towards the earth in one sec-
ond; i.e., the amount by
which the earth's attraction
deflects the moon away from
the rectilinear path which it
would otherwise pursue. By
Geometry, since the triangle
AEF (being inscribed in a
semi-circie) is right-angled
at E, we have
Fig. 132.
Verification of the Hypothesis of Gravitation
by Means of the Motion of the Moon.
AB:AE::AE:AF, or AB
=
(AE)''
~2R~
R being the radius of the orbit. Now AE is found by divid-
ing the circumference of the circle 2ttR by T,
the
number of
seconds in a sidereal month;
376 APPENDIX. [
505
A 2
Z?2
whence (AE)
2
=
, and AB, which is found by dividing
this by 2B, comes out =
m2
If for R we put its equiva-
2tt*B
T
lent 60 x r (r being the radius of the earth), we have, finally
120ttV
AB
=
Ji2
Working out this formula with the now known values of r and
T, we get AB = 0.0534 inches

which is quite as near to

193
as could possibly be expected; i.e., the moon does fall
3600
towards the earth in a second just as much as a stone at that
distance from the earth's centre ought to, if the hypothesis of
gravitation is correct.
506. The Conic Sections (supplementary to Art. 256).

(a) If
a cone of any angle (Fig. 133) be cut by a plane which
makes with its axis,
VC,
an angle greater than BVC, the semi-
angle of the cone, the section is an ellipse (as EF). In this
case, the plane of the section cuts completely across the cone.
The ellipse formed will vary in shape and size according to
the position of the plane,

the circle being simply a special

case when the cutting plane is perpendicular to the axis.
(6)
When the cutting plane makes with the axis an angle
less than BVC (the semi-angle of the cone), it plunges contin-
ually deeper into the cone and never comes out on the other side,
the cone being supposed to be indefinitely prolonged. The
section in this case is a hyperbola, GHK. If the plane of
the section be produced upward, however, it encounters
"
the
cone produced," cutting out from it a second hyperbola,
G'H'K', exactly like the original one, but turned in the oppo-
site direction. The axis
of
the hyperbola is always reckoned
as negative, lying outside of the curve itself (in the figure it
is the line HE
1
).
The centre of the hyperbola is the middle
point of this axis, a point also outside the curve.
506] ELEMENTS OF A PLANET S ORBIT. 377
Fig. 133. The Conies.
(c) When the angle made
by the cutting plane with the
axis is exactly equal to the
cone's semi-angle, the plane
will be parallel to a plane
which is tangent to the coni-
cal surface, and we then get
the special case of the parab-
ola, which is, so to speak,
the boundary or partition be-
tween the infinite variety of
ellipses and hyperbolas which
can be cut from a given cone.
All parabolas are
of
the same
shape, just as all circles are,
differing only in size.
This fact is by no means
self-evident, and we cannot
stop to prove it ; but it is true.
It does not mean, of course,
that an arc of a parabola has
the same shape as an arc of
another parabola taken from a
different part of the curve, but
that the complete parabolas,
cut from infinitely extended
cones, are similar, whatever
the angle of the cone.
507. Elements of a Planet's Orbit
(supplementary to Art. 296).

In order to describe a planet's orbit intelligibly, and

to supply the data required for the prediction of its position
at any time, it is necessary to know certain quantities called
the "elements" of its orbit. Those ordinarily employed are
seven in number, as follows :

378
APPENDIX. [
507
1. The semi-major axis ... a.
2. The eccentricity . . . e.
2, The inclination
of
the orbit to the plane
of
the ecliptic . . . i.
4. The longitude
of
the ascending node ...
^.
5. The longitude
of
perihelion . . .
p.
6. The epoch . . . E.
7. The sidereal period {or else the mean daily motion) . . . T,
or else /a.
The first five of these describe the orbit itself ; the two last
furnish the means of finding the planet's place in the orbit.
The semi-major axis determines the orbit's size; the eccen-
tricity defines its shape; the inclination and longitude of the
node, taken together, determine the position
of
the plane
of
the
orbit; and, finally, the longitude of perihelion determines how
the major axis (or line of apsides) of the orbit lies upon this
plane.
To determine the place of the planet in the orbit we need
two more data. One is the starting-point or
"
epoch" which
is simply the longitude of the planet at some given date
(usually Jan. 1st, 1850). The other is commonly the time of
revolution ; though, instead of it, we may use the mean daily
motion.
If Kepler's Harmonic Law were strictly true, the period
could at once be found from the major axis by the proportion
(1
year)
2
: T
2
: : (earth's distance from the sun)
3
: a
3
(Art.
251),
which gives T (in years) =
a, a being expressed
in astronomical units. But as the law is only approximate
(Art.
504),
a and T must be treated as independent quantities
where precision is needed.
Having these seven elements of a planet's orbit, it would be
possible, were it not for perturbations, to compute exactly the
precise place of the planet for any date whatever, either in
the past or future.

507*] THE CRITICAL OR PARABOLIC VELOCITY. 379

507*.
(Supplementary to Art. 259.) The Critical or Parabolic
Velocity, and its Relation to the Major Axis of the Orbit.
If
we let Z7 represent the "critical velocity" due to the attraction be-
tween two bodies, M and m, at the distance r
; Vf
the velocity of m
at that point, relative to M considered as fixed
;
and a, the semi-
major axis of the conic described by m relative to M
;
then it can be
r / U
2
\
proved that a
= -(

)
(1),

a relation of great importance.

If V
=
V, the denominator becomes zero, a becomes infinite, and
the corresponding conic is a parabola. For this reason U is generally
called the "parabolic velocity" corresponding to the distance r.
If V exceeds U, the denominator becomes negative, making a also
negative, and indicating au hyperbolic orbit.
If, however, V is less than U, the denominator will be positive and
finite
;
a will be so also, and the orbit will be an ellipse, in which m
will revolve around Mwith a regular period. Moreover, since only
r, V, and U appear in the equation which gives the value of a, it is
clear that a, and therefore the period also according to Kepler's third
law, are independent of everything else,

as, for instance, of the

direction in which m is moving when its distance from ikf is equal to r.
Finally, if the orbit is circular, a must equal r
;
which requires that
V
2
=
|
U
2
,
and V = U
VJ
= 0.707 x U. In other words, the velocity
of a planet moving in a circular orbit around the sun at a distance r,
is .707 of the
"
parabolic velocity " due to the sun's attraction at
that distance.
This
"
parabolic velocity
"
at the distance r is sometimes also called
the
"
velocity
from infinity"
because it is that which would be ac-
quired by a particle m in falling towards Mfrom an infinite distance
until it reaches a distance equal to r
;
supposing, of course, that M
is fixed and that m starts from rest and is not acted upon during
its fall by any force except the mutual attraction between itself and
M. It might be supposed that this
"
velocity from infinity
"
would
itself be infinite, but it is not. Its value is given by the equation

(2),
in which k is a constant factor depending
upon the units in which velocity, distance, and time are measured.
In the solar system, if we take the mass of the sun as the unit of
mass and the radius of the earth's orbit as the unit of distance, then
380 APPENDIX.
[
507
for the velocity acquired by a particle falling freely towards the sun
from an infinite distance to the distance r, we have
U (miles per second) = 26.156(
-
p r
[f r is unity, U = 26.156 miles per second, so that if the earth's
velocity were increased to this, it would fly off in a parabola. At a
distance one-fourth that of the earth from the sun, U
=
52.3, and at
the surface of the sun (where r =
^^.
)
it is- 383
;
while at Neptune
(r a=
30.05), U = 4.77 miles a second.
Formula
(2)
enables us also to compute the parabolic velocity at
the surface of a planet due to its own attraction. Thus for the earth
we put M= -j-
g
-
T
1
roo,
and r =
^{^
(Art. 178). U then comes out
6.9 miles per second
;
and since this is the velocity which a body
would attain in falling under her attraction from an infinite distance
to her surface, it follows that a body projected from the earth with
this or any higher velocity would never return, unless brought back
by other forces than her attraction. At the surface of the moon the
"parabolic velocity" due to the moon's attraction is only 1.48 miles,
or less than 8000 feet
;
and this probably explains (Art. 161)
why
she has lost her atmosphere.
508. Formula for the Mass of a Planet (supplementary to
Art. 309).

The derivation of the formula for a planet's mass is very

simple in the case of circular orbits. From the law
of
gravitation we
have the accelerating force with which the planet and satellite attract
each other (Art
102),
given by the equation,
f-Eih
J
Rf
'
in which P
x
and s

are the masses of the planet and satellite, and R

x
the radius of its orbit. Also from equation b (Art.
250),
for a body
moving in a circle,
Equating these values of/, we get
t
2
iifB,
=
C. + ',)
.
whece (P,
+
h
)
=
***.

508]
FORMULA FOR THE MASS OF A PLANET. 381
For a second planet and satellite we should get similarly
(P
,q
WxR
2\
h
whence we have
7?
3 P 3
2
/
2
"1
H
This is equally true of elliptical orbits, provided we put a
x
and a
2
for
it
x
and R
2
;
but the
proof
of that statement is beyond our reach here.
509. Danger from Comets.

It has been supposed that a comet

might damage the earth in either of two ways,

by actually striking
us, or by falling into the sun and so causing a sudden and violent
increase of solar radiation.
There is no question that a comet may strike the earth, and it is
very probable that one will do so at some time. Biela's Comet is not
the only one whose orbit passes ours at a distance less than the comet's
semi-diameter. Such encounters will be rare, however, Babinet says
once in about 15,000000 years in the long run.
As to the consequences of a comet's striking the earth, everything,
so far as the earth is concerned (it will certainly be bad for the comet),
depends upon the size of the
"
particles
"
of which it is composed. If
they weigh tons, the bombardment will be serious ; if only pounds,
they will perhaps do some mischief. If only ounces or grains, they
would burn in the air like shooting stars, and we should simply have
a beautiful meteoric shower,

and this is decidedly the most probable,

as well as the most comfortable, hypothesis.
As regards the fall of a comet into the sun, it is practically certain
that it will do us no harm whatever. The total amount of energy
due to the striking of the sun by a comet having a mass
jo oSro o
^at
of the earth would be only about as much as the sun radiates in eight
or nine hours ; and the transformation of this energy into heat would
take place almost entirely beneath, or at least within, the photosphere,
and would appear not so much in a rise of temperature and increase
of radiation as in an expansion
of
the sun's volume. Probably if a
comet were to strike the sun, we should know nothing of it, unless
some observer happened to be watching the sun at the moment. He
might see a sudden increase of brilliance on a certain portion of the
surface, lasting for a few minutes, and very likely our magnetometers
would show a disturbance.
382 TWILIGHT.
[
509*
509*. Twilight.

This is caused by the

reflection of sunlight
from the upper portions of the earth's atmosphere. After the sun has
set, its rays, passing over the observer's head, still continue to shine
through the air above him, and twilight continues as long as any por-
tion of this illuminated air remains visible from where he stands. It
is considered to end when stars of the sixth magnitude become visible
near the zenith, which does not occur until the sun is about
18
below
the horizon : but this is not strictly the same for all places.
The length of time required by the sun after setting to reach this
depth of
18
below the horizon, varies with the season and with the
observer's latitude. In latitude
40
it is about 90 minutes on March
1st and Oct. 12th ; but more than two hours at the summer solstice.
In latitudes above 50, when the days are longest, twilight never quite
disappears, even at midnight. On the mountains of Peru, on the
other hand, it is said never to last more than half an hour.

510]
SUN'S DISTANCE.
383
CHAPTER XVII.
METHODS OF DETERMINING THE PARALLAX AND DIS-
TANCE OF THE SUN AND STARS.
IMPORTANCE AND DIFFICULTY OF THE PROBLEM.

HIS-
TORICAL.

CLASSIFICATION OF METHODS.

GEOMETRI-
CAL METHODS.

OPPOSITIONS OF MARS AND TRANSITS

OF VENUS.

GRAVITATIONAL METHODS.

DETERMI-
NATION OF STELLAR PARALLAX.
510. In some respects the problem of the sun's distance is
the most fundamental of all that are encountered by the as-
tronomer. It is true that many important astronomical facts
can be ascertained before it is solved : for instance, by methods
which have been given in Arts. 299 and 300, we can determine
the relative distances of the planets and form a map of the solar
system, correct in all its proportions, although the unit of meas-
urement is still undetermined,

a map without any scale

of
miles.
But to give the map its use and meaning, we must ascertain
the scale, and until we do this we can have no true conception
of the real dimensions, masses, and distances of the heavenly
bodies. Any error in the assumed value of the astronomical
unit propagates itself proportionally through the whole system,
not only solar but stellar.
The difficulty of the problem is commensurate with its im-
portance. It is no easy matter, confined as we are to our little
earth, to reach out into space and stretch a tape-line to the
sun. In Arts. 127 and 355 we have already given the two
methods of determining the sun's distance, which depend on
384 APPENDIX. [
510
our experimental knowledge of the velocity of light. They
are satisfactory methods and sufficient for the purposes of the
text. But methods of this kind have become available only
since 1849. Previously astronomers were confined entirely to
purely astronomical methods, depending either upon geomet-
rical measurement of the distance of one of the nearer planets
when favorably situated, or else upon certain gravitational re-
lations which connect the distance of the sun with some of
the irregular motions of the moon, or with the earth's power
of disturbing her neighboring planets, Venus and Mars.
511. Historical.

Until nearly 1700 no even approximately

accurate knowledge of the sun's distance had been obtained.
Up to the time of Tycho it was assumed (on the authority of
Ptolemy, who rested on the authority of Hipparchus, who in his
turn depended upon an erroneous observation of Aristarchus)
that the sun's horizontal parallax is 3', a value more than 20
times too great. Kepler, from Tycho's observations of Mars,
satisfied himself that the parallax certainly could not exceed
1', and was probably much smaller ; and at last, about
1670,
Cassini, also by means of observations of Mars made in France
and South America for the purpose, showed that the solar
parallax could not exceed
10".
He set it at 9".5,
the first
reasonable approximation to the true value, though still about
eight per cent too large.
The transits of Venus in 1761 and 1769 furnished data that
proved it to lie between
8"
and 9", and the discussion of all
the available observations, published by Encke about 1824,
gave as a result for the parallax, 8".5776, corresponding to a
distance of about 95,000000 miles. The accuracy of this de-
termination was, however, by no means commensurate with the
length of the decimal, and its error began to be obvious about
1860
; since then it has been practically settled that the true
value of the sun's parallax lies somewhere between
8".75 and
8".85, its distance being between 92,400,000 and 93,500,000
511]
PARALLAX OF THE SUN. 385
miles. Indeed it is now certain that the figure 8 ".8, adopted
in the text, must be extremely near the truth.
512. The methods available for determining the distance of
the sun may be classified under three heads,geometrical,
gravitational, and physical. The physical methods (by means
of the velocity of light) have been already discussed (Arts.
127 and 355). We proceed to present briefly the principal
methods that belong to the two other classes.
GEOMETRICAL METHODS.
513. The direct geometrical method of getting the sun's
parallax (by observing the sun itself at stations widely sepa-
rated on the earth, in the same way that the parallax of the
moon is measured Art. 149)
is practically worthless, the
inevitable errors of observation being too large a fraction of
the quantity sought. We may add that the sun, on account
of the effect of its heat upon an instrument, is a very intracta-
ble subject for observation.
Since, however, ive know at any time the distance
of
the planets
in astronomical units, our end will be just as perfectly obtained
by measuring the distance (in miles) of one of them.
514. Observations of Mars. In the case of Mars at the time
of its nearest approach to the earth this "can be done satisfac-
torily. There are two ways of proceeding :

1. By observations made from two or more stations widely

separated in latitude.
2. By observations from a single station near the equator.
In the
first
case the observations may be (a) meridian circle
observations of the planet's zenith distance, precisely such as
are used for getting the moon's parallax in Art.
149,
just
cited ; or they may be
(6)
micrometer measurements of the dif-
ference of declination between the planet and the surrounding
stars.
386 APPENDIX.
[|6H
Since, however, different observers and different instruments
are concerned in the observations, the results of both these
processes seem to be less trustworthy than those obtained by
the second method.
M
515. In the second case, a single observer, by
measuring with a heliometer (Art. 543)
the ap-
parent distance between the planet and small
stars nearly east and west of it, can determine
its parallax, and hence its distance, with great
accuracy. Fig. 134 exhibits the principle in-
volved. When the observer is at A (a point on
or near the earth's equator), the planet M is
just rising to him, and he sees it at a, a point in
the sky which is east of c, the point where it
would be seen from the centre of the earth, the
angle CMA being its horizontal parallax. On
the other hand, 12 hours later, when the rota-
tion of the earth has taken the observer to B
and the planet is setting, its parallax will dis-
place it to the west of c, and by the same amount.
When the planet is rising, its parallax increases
its right ascension ; when setting, it diminishes
*it.
Fig. 134.
Suppose for the moment that the orbital mo-
tions of Mars and the earth are suspended, the
planet being at opposition and as near as pos-
sible to us. If, then, when the planet is rising we measure
carefully its distance
MJS,
Fig. 135,
from a star which is west
of it, and 12 hours later measure it again, the planet being
now at M
w
,
the difference of the two measures will give the
distance M
e
M
w
,
which is twice the parallax
of
the planet.
The earth's rotation will have performed for the observer the
function of a long journey, by transporting him in 12 hours,
free of expense and trouble, from one station to another 8000
miles away.
515]
TRANSITS OF VENUS. 387
In practice the observations are not limited to the moment
when the planet is exactly on the horizon, and measures are
made not from one star alone, but from a number. Moreover,
the orbital motions, both of the earth and the planet, during
the interval between the observations, must be taken into
account; but this presents no considerable difficulty.
w
*s,
*
\
M
w
s
2
p
; Me
>
s
*s
3
\
N
On the whole, this method of
determining the astronomical
unit is about the most accurate
of all the geometrical methods.
Though long ago suggested by
Flamsteed, it was first thorough-
ly carried out by Gill at Ascension
Island, in 1877. His result fixed
the solar parallax at
8".783

CT.015. The size of the planet's
disc, however, interferes some-
what with the precision of the
necessary measurements, and it is
found that even more accurate re-
sults can be obtained from some
of the asteroids which at oppo-
sition come nearest to us. The
observations of Iris, Sappho,
and Victoria, made in 1889-91,
by Gill at the Cape of Good Hope, in concert with other observers in
Europe and America, give 8".802

0".005. The observations of
Eros for this purpose, made in 1900-1901, have already been
mentioned on page 243.
The method cannot be used with Venus because when nearest
she is visible only in the daytime.
516. Transits of Venus.

Now and then, however, Venus

passes between us and the sun and
"
transits
"
the disc, as ex-
plained in Art. 326. Her distance from the earth is then only
about 26,000000 miles, and her horizontal parallax is between
three and four times as great as that of the sun. If viewed
E
Fig. 135.

Micrometric Comparison of
Mars with Neighboring Stars.
388
APPENDIX. [516
by two observers at different stations on the earth, she will
therefore be seen at different points on the sun's disc, and her
apparent displacement on the disc will be the
difference between
her own parallactic displacement (corresponding to the dif-
ference in distance between the two stations) and that of the
snn itself. This relative displacement is more than
2\
times
the parallax of the sun, or, more exactly,
-J|-f-
as great.
In other words, if two observers
are situated so far apart that the
distance between them would sub-
tend an angle of 8", as seen from
the sun, then the apparent dis-
placement of Venus on the sun's
disc, as seen from their two sta-
tions, would be 2.61 times 8", or
nearly 21", a quantity quite meas-
urable.
To determine the solar parallax
then, by means of a transit of Ve-
nus, we must find the means of somehow measuring the
angular distance between the two positions which Venus occu-
pies on the sun's disc, as seen simultaneously from two widely
distant stations of known latitude and longitude. The meth-
ods earliest proposed and executed depend upon observations
of the times
of
contact between the planet and the edge of the
sun's disc. There are four of these contacts, as indicated in
Fig. 136,
the first and fourth being
"
external," the second and
third "internal."
Fig. 136.
Contacts in a Transit of Venus.
517. Halley's Method, or the Method of Durations.

The
method suggested by Halley, who first noticed, in 1679, the
peculiar advantages that would be presented by a transit of
Venus as a means of finding the sun's distance, consists in
observing the duration of the transit at two stations differing
greatly in latitude, and so chosen that the difference of dura-

517]
halley's method.
389
tions will be as large as possible. It is not necessary to know
the longitude of the stations very accurately, since absolute
time does not come into the question. All that is necessary
is to know the latitudes accurately (which were easily obtained
even in Halley's time), and the clock-rates for the four or five
hours between the beginning and end of the transit. Halley
expected to depend mainly on the second and third contacts,
which he supposed could be observed within a single second.
If so, the sun's parallax could easily be determined within
-g-^j-
of its true value.
Having the durations of the transit at the two stations, and know-
ing the angular motion of Venus in an hour, we have at once very
accurately the length of the two chords a c and
df
(Fig.
137) de-
scribed by Venus upon the sun, expressed in seconds
of
arc

more
accurately than they could be measured by any micrometer. We also
*=
B
(Earth)
Fig. 137.

Halley's Method.
know the sun's semi-diameter in seconds, and hence in the triangles
Sab and Sde, we can compute the length (in seconds still) of Sb and
Se. Their difference, be, is the displacement due to the distance
between the stations on the earth. The virtual base line is of
course not the direct distance between B and E, because that line is
not perpendicular to the line of sight from the earth to Venus, but
the true value to be used is easily found by Trigonometry. Calling
this true base line m, and putting p" for the sun's horizontal parallax,
we have
*"=M"x(l)x(^
r being the radius of the earth. The rotation of the earth of course
comes in to shift the places of E and B during the transit, but the
shift is easily allowed for.
390
APPENDIX.
[' 517
In order that the method may be practically successful, it is also
necessary that the transit tracks should lie near the edge of the sun.
for obvious reasons. If they crossed near the centre of the disc, it
would be impossible to compute the distances, Sb and Se, with much
accuracy.
Halley died before
the transits of 1761-
69,
but his method
was thoroughly tried,
and it was found that
the observations of
contact, instead of be-
ing liable to an error
of a single second, are
uncertain to fully 10
times that amount.
This is due to the
fact that at the time
of internal contact the
planet does not pre-
sent the appearance
of a round, black disc
neatly touching the
edge of the sun, but
is slightly distorted by optical imperfections of the telescope
and of the observer's eye ; and, moreover, it is surrounded by
an undefined, luminous ring, caused by the refraction of sun-
light through its atmosphere,

a very beautiful phenomenon,

but quite incompatible with accurate observation of "con-
tacts." Fig. 138 illustrates the appearances seen by Vogel
during the transit of 1882.
518. De l'lsle's Method.

Halley's method requires stations

in high latitudes, uncomfortable and hard to reach, and so
chosen that both the beginning and end shall be visible. More-
Fig. 138.

Atmosphere of Venus as seen during a

Transit. (Vogel, 1882.)

518]
HELIOMETRIC OBSERVATIONS.
391
over, if the weather prevents the end from being visible after
the beginning has been observed, the method fails.
De l'Isle's method, on the other hand, employs pairs of
stations near the equator, and does not require that the ob-
server should see both the beginning and end of the transit.
Observations of either phase can be utilized, which is a great
advantage. But it does require that the longitudes of the
stations should be known with extreme precision, since it con-
sists essentially in observing the absolute time of contact {i.e.,
Greenwich or Paris time) at both stations.
Suppose that an equatorial observer, E, Fig.
139, on one
side of the earth notes the moment of internal contact in
Greenwich time, the planet being then at
Fi;
when Wnotes
the contact (also in Greenwich time), the planet will be at
V
2
,
and the angle
ViDV
2
is the earth's apparent diameter as
seen
from
the sun
;
i.e., twice the sun's horizontal parallax. Now
Fig. 139. De I'lale's Method.
the angle at D is at once determined by the time occupied by
Venus in moving from
V\
to V
2
. It is simply just the same
fraction of 360, that the time is of 584 days, the planet's syn-
odic period. If, for example, the time were 12 minutes, we
should find the angle at D to be about
18".
519. Heliometric and Photographic Observations. Instead
of observing merely the four contacts and leaving the rest of
the transit unutilized, we may either keep up a continued
series of measurements of the planet's position upon the sun's
disc with a heliometer, or we may take a series of photo-
graphs to be measured up at leisure. Such heliometer meas-
392
APPENDIX. [519
ures or photographs, taken in connection with the recorded
Greenwich times at which they were made, furnish the means
of determining just where the planet appeared to be on the
sun's disc at any given moment, as seen from the observer's
station. A comparison of these positions with those simulta-
neously occupied by the planet, as seen from another station,
gives at once the means of deducing the parallax.
In 1874-82 several hundred heliometer measures were made,
mostly by German parties, and several thousands of photo-
graphs were obtained at stations in all quarters of the earth
where the transits could be seen. The final result of all these
observations
x
is given by Newcomb as 8".857 0.23,
differing
to an unexpected degree from the figures given by other
methods, and rather discordant among themselves. It would
almost seem that measurements of this sort must be vitiated
by some constant source of error.
520. Gravitational Methods. These hardly admit of ele-
mentary discussion. We merely mention them.
1. By the moon's parallactic inequality. This is an irregu-
larity in the moon's motion, which depends simply on the ratio
between the distance of the sun and the radius of the moon's
orbit. If, what is practically very difficult, we could determine
by observation exactly the amount of this inequality (which
reaches about
2'
at its maximum), we could at once get the
solar parallax.
2. The perturbations produced by the earth in the motions
of Mars and Venus give the means of determining the ratio
between the mass of the sun and that of the earth. Now
from Art.
309,
1
The more than 2000 photographs which were made during the two
transits at the stations occupied by American parties give a solar parallax
of
8".
84.

520]
MEASURING STELLAR PARALLAX.
393
in which & and E are respectively the masses of the sun and
earth, R and r are the radii of the orbits of the earth and
moon, T is the length of the sidereal year, and t that of the
sidereal month, corrected for perturbations. Hence
5
"-?*!
If, then, Mis known from planet observations, R is at once
deducible in terms of r (moon's distance).
There are also other equations available which do not in-
volve the moon at all, but substitute measurements of gravity
by the pendulum.
Even at present this method approaches closely in value to
the others. Ultimately, it must supersede them all, because
as time goes on and the secular perturbations of our two
neighboring planets accumulate, the precision with which M
is determined continually improves, and apparently without
limit.
METHODS OF MEASURING STELLAR PARALLAX.
521 (supplementary to Art. 432) . The determination of stellar
parallax had been attempted over and over again from the
time of Tycho Brahe down, but without success, until in 1838
Bessel at last demonstrated and measured the parallax of 61
Cygni ; and the next year Henderson of the Cape of Good
Hope, determined that of Alpha Centauri. The operation of
measuring the parallax of a star is on the whole the most
delicate in the whole range of practical astronomy. Two
methods have been successfully employed so far, known as the
absolute and the differential.
(a) The first method consists in making meridian observations of
the star's right ascension and declination with the extremest possible
accuracy, at different times of the year, applying rigidly all the known
394 APPENDIX. [
521
corrections (for precession, nutation, proper motion, etc.) and then
examining the deduced positions. If the star is without parallax,
they will all agree. If it has sensible parallax, they will show, when
plotted on a chart, an apparent annual orbital motion of the star and
will determine the size of its "parallactic orbit" (Art.
432). Theo-
retically this method is perfect : practically it seldom gives satisfactory
results, because the annual changes of temperature and moisture dis-
turb the instrument in such a way that its errors intertwine themselves
with the parallactic displacement of the star in a manner that defies
disentanglement. No process of multiplying observations and taking
averages helps the matter very much, because the instrumental errors
involved are themselves annually periodic, just as is the parallax itself.
Still, in a few cases, the method has proved successful, as in the case
of Alpha Centauri, above cited.
522.
(6)
The Differential Method.

This consists in meas-

uring the change of position of the star whose parallax we are
seeking, with respect to other small stars, near it in apparent
position {i.e., within a few minutes of arc), but presumably so
far beyond as to nave no sensible parallax of their own. The
great advantage of the method is that it avoids entirely the
difficulties due to the uncertainty in respect to the precise
amount of the corrections for precession, aberration, nutation,
etc., since these are almost the same for the principal star
as for the comparison stars ; to a considerable extent also, the
method evades the effects of refraction and temperature dis-
turbances. But per contra, it measures not the whole parallax
of the star investigated, but only the difference between its par-
allax and that
of
the stars ivith which it is compared.
Suppose, for instance (see Fig.
140),
that in the same telescopic
field of view, we have the star a, which is near us, the stars c, d, and
,
which are so remote that they have no sensible parallax at all, and the
star b, which is about twice as far away as a. a and b will describe
their parallactic orbits every year, just alike in form, but a's orbit
twice as large as 5's. If now, during the year, we continually measure
the distance (in seconds of arc) and the direction from c or e to a and
b, the results will give us the true dimensions of their parallactic
522]
STELLAR PARALLAX.
395
orbits. If, however, we had taken b as the starting point to measure
a's motion, we should have found only half the true value. It follows
that if the measurements are absolutely accurate, the parallax deduced
by this method can never be too large, but may be too small : the dis-
tance of the star will certainly be more or less exaggerated.
--i-
--?c
/
y
2
\(a)
\
I
\
\
\
\
\ \
\ \
\ V
\
\
N
\ \
\ \
\\
\V
\
e
Fig. 140. Differential Method of determining Stellar Parallax,
The necessary measurements, if the comparison stars are
within a minute or two of arc from the star under investiga-
tion, may be made with the wire micrometer ; but if the
distance exceeds a few minutes, we must resort to the
"
helio-
rneter" (Appendix, Art.
543) with which Bessel first suc-
ceeded. The best results are obtained from measures of
photographs taken six months apart, just when the parallactic
displacements of the star are greatest and in opposite direc-
tions. If several comparison stars are used, any having a
sensible parallax of its own may be detected.
523. Selection of Stars to be examined for Parallax.
It is
obviously necessary to choose for observations of this sort stars that
are presumably near. The most important indication of proximity is
a large proper motion. Brightness also is of course confirmatory. Still,
neither of these indications is certain. A star which happens to be
moving directly towards or from us shows no proper motion at all,
however near ; and among the millions of faint stars it is quite likely
that some few individuals, at least, are nearer than Alpha Centauri.
396
APPENDIX. [
524
CHAPTER XVIII.
ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS.
THE CELESTIAL GLOBE.

THE TELESCOPE: SIMPLE, ACHRO-

MATIC, AND REFLECTING.

THE EQUATORIAL.

THE
FILAR MICROMETER.

THE HELIOMETER.

THE TRAN-
SIT INSTRUMENT.

THE CLOCK.

THE CHRONOGRAPH.

THE MERIDIAN CIRCLE. THE SEXTANT.

THE PYR-
HELIOMETER.
524. The Celestial Globe.

The celestial globe is a ball,

usually of papier-mache, upon which are drawn the circles of
the celestial sphere and a map of the stars. It is mounted in
a framework which represents the horizon and the meridian,
in the manner shown by Fig. 141.
The "Horizon" JEW in the figure, is usually a wooden ring
three or four inches wide and perhaps three-quarters of an inch
thick, directly supported by the pedestal. It carries upon its
upper surface at the inner edge a circle marked with degrees for
measuring the azimuth of any heavenly body, the graduation
beginning at the south point where the horizon is intersected
by the metal circle which represents the meridian. Next
comes the zodiacal circle, containing in order the names of the
12 signs of the zodiac. Outside of this is a narrow circle
marked with the degrees of celestial longitude, the zero of this
graduation being made to correspond with the sign Aries in
the zodiacal circle. Just outside of this circle is a second sim-
ilar one, marked with the months of the year and the days of
the month, the days being set against the longitude gradua*
THE CELESTIAL GLOBE.
397
tion so that each day is opposite to the degree of longitude
occupied by the sun on that day of the year. In the circle of
the months is also given at different points the equation
of
time for corresponding days.
525. The Meridian Ring, MM\ is a circular ring of metal
which carries the bearings of the axis on which the globe
revolves. Things are so arranged, or ought to be, that the
mathematical axis of the globe is exactly in the same plane as
Fig. 141. The Celestial Globe.
the graduated face of the ring, which is divided into degrees
and fractions of a degree. The meridian ring fits into two
notches in the horizon-circle, and is held underneath the globe
398 APPENDIX. [
525
by a support with a clamp, which enables us to fix it securely
in any desired position, the mathematical centre of the globe
being precisely in the planes both of the meridian ring and
the horizon.
526. The Surface of the Globe is marked first with the celes-
tial equator (Art.
27),
next with the ecliptic (Art.
38),
cross-
ing the equator at an angle of 23 (at V
in the figure), and
each of these circles is divided into degrees and fractions.
The equinoctial and solstitial Colures (Art.
113),
are also
always represented. As to the other circles, usage differs.
The ordinary way at present is to mark the globe with 24
hour-circles, 15 degrees apart (the Colures being two of them),
and with parallels
of
declination 10 degrees apart.
On the surface of the globe are plotted the positions of the
stars and the outlines of the constellations.
527. The Hour Index is a small metal circle three or four
inches in diameter, which is fitted to the northern pole of
the globe with stiffish friction, so that it can be set like the
hands of a clock, but once set will turn with the globe without
shifting its adjustment.
528. To Rectify a Globe,

that is, to set it so as to show

the aspect of the heavens at any given time :

(1)
Elevate the North Pole of the globe to an angle equal
to the observer's latitude by means of the graduation on the
meridian ring, and clamp the ring securely.
(2)
Look up the day of the month on the
"
horizon
"
of the
globe, and opposite to the day find, on the longitude circle, the
sun's longitude for that day.
(3)
On the ecliptic (on the surface of the globe) find the
degree of longitude thus indicated and bring it to the gradu-
ated face of the meridian ring.
The globe is then set to correspond to (apparent) noon of

528]
THE TELESCOPE. 399
the day in question. (It may be well to mark the place of the
sun temporarily with a bit torn from the corner of a postage-
stamp, and gummed on at the proper place in the ecliptic : it
can easily be wiped off with a damp cloth, after using.)
(4)
Holding the globe fast, so as to keep the place of the
sun on the meridian, turn the hour index until it shows at the
edge of the meridian ring the mean time of apparent noon;
i.e., 12
h
the equation of time given for the day on the hori-
zon ring. If standard time is used, the hour index must be
set to the standard time of apparent noon.
(5)
Finally, turn the globe until the hour for which it is
to be set is brought io the meridian, as indicated on the hour
index. The globe will then show the true aspect of the
heavens.
The positions of the moon and planets are not given by this
operation, since they have no fixed places in the sky and there-
fore cannot be put in by the globe-maker. If one wants them
represented, he must look up their right ascensions and decli-
nations for the day in some almanac, and mark the correspond-
ing places on the globe with bits of wax or paper.
TELESCOPES.
529. Telescopes are of two kinds, refracting and reflecting.
The refractor was first invented, early in the 17th century,
and is much more used ; but the largest instruments ever made
are reflectors. In both, the fundamental principle is the same.
The large lens of the instrument (or else its concave mirror)
forms a real image of the object looked at, and this image is
then examined and magnified by the eye-piece, which in prin-
ciple is only a magnifying glass.
In the form of instrument, however, which was originally devised
by Galileo and is still used as the
"
opera-glass," the rays from the
object-glass are intercepted, and brought to parallelism by the concave
lens, which serves as an eye-glass, before they form the image. Tele-
400 APPENDIX. [
529
scopes of this construction are never made of any considerable power,
being very inconvenient on account of the smallness of the field of
view.
530. The Simple Refracting Telescope.

This consists es-

sentially, as shown in Fig.
142, of two convex lenses ; one, the
object-glass A, of large size and long focus ; the other, the
eye-glass B, of short focus,

the two being set at a distance

nearly equal to the sum of their focal lengths. Recalling the
optical principles relating to the formation of images by lenses
(Physics,
p. 310),
we see that if the instrument is pointed
towards the moon, for instance, all the rays that strike the
object-glass from the top of the crescent will be collected to a
focus at a, while those from the bottom will come to a focus at
b
;
and similarly with rays from the other points on the surface
a
1 I
^
T7_1 B
f\
&2
I

'
W~ryP^=
J
-''
\
Fig. 142.
7c'"'

The Simple Refracting Telescope.

of the moon. We shall, therefore, get in the
"
focal plane
"
of
the object-glass a small inverted "image" of the moon. The
image is a real one; i.e., the rays really meet at the focal points,
so that if we insert a photographic plate in the focal plane at
ab and properly expose it, we shall get a picture of the object.
The size of the picture will depend upon the apparent angular
diameter of the object and the distance from the object-glass
to tlie image ab, and is determined by the condition that, as
seen
from
the point (the "optical centre" of the object-glass),
the object and its image subtend equal angles, since rays which
pass through the point O suffer
no sensible deviation.
If the focal length of the lens A is 10 feet, then the image>of the
moon formed by it will appear, when viewed from a distance of 10
feet, just as large as the moon itself : viewed from a distance of one

530]
MAGNIFYING POWER. 401
foot, the image will, of course, appear 10 times as large. With such an
object-glass, therefore, even without an eye-piece, one can see the
mountains of the moon and the satellites of Jupiter by simply putting
the eye in the line of the rays, at a distance of 10 or 12 inches back of
the eye-piece hole (the eye-piece having been, of course, removed).
531. Magnifying Power.

If we use the naked eye, we

cannot see the image distinctly from a distance much less
than a foot, but if we use a magnifying lens of, say, one inch
focus, we can view it from a distance of only an inch, and it
will look correspondingly larger. Without stopping to prove
the principle, we may say that the magnifying power is sim-
ply equal to the quotient obtained by dividing the focal length
of
the object-glass by that
of
the eye-lens; or, as a formula
M=
-
;
that is, in the figure.
/
cd
If, for example, the focal length of the object-glass be four
feet and that of the eye-lens one-quarter of an inch, then
M=~
= 192.
i
It is to be noted, however, that a magnifying power of unity is
sometimes spoken of as no magnifying power at all, since the image
appears of the same size as the object.
The magnifying power of a telescope is changed at pleasure by
simply interchanging the eye-pieces, of which every telescope of any
pretensions always has a considerable stock, giving various powers.
532. Brightness of the Image. This depends not upon the
focal length of the object-glass, but upon its diameter ; or,
more strictly, its area. If we estimate the diameter of the
pupil of the eye at one-fifth of an inch, as it is usually reck-
oned, then (neglecting the loss from want of perfect transpar-
ency in the lenses) a telescope one inch in diameter collects
into the image of a star 25 times as much light as the naked
402 APPENDIX. [
532
eye receives; and the great Lick telescope of 36 inches in
diameter, 32,400 times as much, or about 25,000 after allow-
ing for the losses. The amount of light is proportional to the
square of the diameter of the object-glass.
The apparent brightness of an object which, like the moon or
a planet, shows a disc, is not, however, increased in any such
ratio, because the light gathered by the object-glass is spread
out by the magnifying power of the eye-piece. In fact, it can
be demonstrated that no optical arrangement can show an ex-
tended surface brighter than it appears to the naked eye. But
the total quantity of light in the image of the object greatly
exceeds that which is available for vision with the naked eye,
and objects which, like the stars, are mere luminous points,
have their brightness immensely increased, so that with the
telescope millions otherwise invisible are brought to light.
With the telescope, also, the brighter stars are easily seen in
the daytime.
533. The Achromatic Telescope.

A single lens cannot

bring the rays which emanate from a single point in the object
to any exact focus, since the rays of different color (wave-
length) are differently refracted, the blue more than the green,
and this more than the red (Physics,
p. 315). In consequence
of this so-called
"
chromatic aberration," the simple refracting
telescope is a very poor
1
instrument.
About 1760, it was discovered in England that by making
the object-glass of two or more lenses of different kinds of
glass, the chromatic aberration can be nearly corrected. Ob-
ject-glasses so made

none others are now in common use

are called achromatic, and they fulfil with reasonable approxi-

1
By making it extremely long in proportion to its diameter, the indis-
tinctness of the image is considerably diminished, and in the middle of the
17th century instruments more than 200 feet in length were used by Cas-
sini and others. Saturn's rings and several of his satellites were discov-
ered by Huyghens and Cassini with instruments of this kind.
533]
THE ACHROMATIC OBJECT-GLASS.
403
Gauss
Littrow
LfUUSS
Clark
Fig. 143.
Different Forms of the Achromatic
Object-glass.
mation the
"
condition of distinctness
"
; viz., that the rays
which emanate from any single point in the object should be col-
lected to an absolute mathematical point in the image. In prac-
tice, only two lenses are
ordinarily used in the con-
struction of an astronomi-
cal glass,

a convex of
crown glass, and a concave
of
flint
glass, the curves of
the two lenses and the dis-
tances between them being so chosen as to give the most per-
fect possible correction of the "spherical" aberration (Phys-
ics,
p. 311) as well as of the chromatic. Many forms of object-
glass are made : three of them are shown in Fig. 143.
534. Secondary Spectrum.

It is not possible with the

kinds of glass hitherto available to obtain a perfect correction
of color. Even the best achromatic telescopes show a purple
halo around the image of a bright star, which, though usually
regarded as
"
very beautiful " by tyros, seriously injures the
definition : it is especially obnoxious in large instruments.
This imperfection of achromatism makes it impossible to get satis-
factory photographs with an ordinary object-glass, corrected for vision.
An instrument for photography must have an object-glass specially
corrected for the purpose, since the rays which are most efficient in
making the image upon the photographic plate are the blue and violet
rays, which in the ordinary object-glass are left to wander very wildly.
Bright objects may, however, be photographed with a visual tele-
scope if a color filter which absorbs these blue and violet rays is
used with special plates made sensitive to the less refrangible light
rays. The method cannot be used successfully for the nebulae, be-
cause their light is deficient in the red, yellow, and green rays, which
are the only ones that can pass through the filter.
When the photographic lens is used, red stars appear relatively
faint; but with a certain combination of color filter and prepared
plate, photographs may be taken upon which the relative magnitudes
of the stars agree with what is seen with the eye.
404 APPENDIX. [
534*
534*. Diffraction and Spurious Discs. Even if a lens were
absolutely perfect as regards the correction of aberrations,
both spherical and achromatic, it would still be unable to fulfil
strictly "the condition of distinctness." Since light consists
of waves of finite length, the image of a luminous point can
never be also a point, but must of mathematical necessity ac-
cording to the laws of diffraction be a disc of finite diameter
surrounded by a series of interference rings ; and the image of
a line will be a streak and not a mathematical line. The diam-
eter of the
"
spurious disc
"
of a star, as it is called, varies in-
versely with the diameter of the object-glass, and the larger
the telescope the smaller the image of a star with a given
magnifying power.
With a good telescope and a power of about 30 to the inch of aper-
ture (120 for a 4-inch telescope) the image of a small star, when the
air is steady (a condition unfortunately seldom fulfilled), should be a
clean, round disc with a bright ring around it, separated from the disc
by a clear black space. According to Dawes, the image of a star
with a 4^-inch telescope should be about l"in diameter; with a 9-inch
instrument 0".5, and
I"
for a 36-inch glass.
If too deep an eye-piece be used, raising the power of the telescope
too high (more than about 60 to the inch), the spurious disc of the star
will become hazy at the edge, so that there is very little use with most
objects in pushing the magnifying power any higher.
This effect of diffraction has much to do with the superiority of
large instruments in showing minute details ; no increase of magnify-
ing power on a small telescope can exhibit the object as sharply as the
same power on a large one, provided, of course, that the object-glasses
are equally good in workmanship and that the. atmospheric conditions
are satisfactory. (But a given amount of atmospheric disturbance
injures the performance of a large telescope much more than that of
a small one.)
535. Eye-pieces. For some purposes the simple convex
lens is the best
"
eye-piece " possible ; but it performs well
only for a small object, like a close double star, exactly in the
535]
EYE-PIECES.
405
centre of the field of view. As soon as the object is a little
away from the centre, the image becomes hideous. Generally,
therefore, we employ
"
eye-pieces
w
composed of two or more
lenses, which give a larger field of view than a single lens and
define satisfactorily over the whole extent of the field. They
fall into two general classes, the positive and the negative.
The positive eye-pieces are much more generally useful.
They act as simple magnifying glasses, and can be taken out
of the telescope and used as hand-magnifiers if desired. The
image of the object formed by the object-glass lies outside
of
this kind of eye-piece, between it and the object-glass.
In the negative eye-piece, on the other hand, the rays from
the object-glass are intercepted by the so-called "field lens"
before reaching the focus, and the image is formed between
Steinheil ' Monocentric'
(Positive)
Fig. 144.

Various Forms of Telescope Eye-piece.

the two lenses of the eye-piece. It cannot therefore be used
as a hand-magnifier.
Fig. 144 shows the two most ordinary forms of eye-piece,
and also the
"
solid eye-piece
"
constructed by Steinheil ; but
there are a multitude of other kinds.
The ordinary eye-pieces show the object in an inverted
position, which is of no importance as regards astronomical
observations.
The erecting eye-piece used in spy-glasses is constructed differently,
having in it four lenses. It is essentially a compound microscope,
and produces erect vision by inverting a second time the already
inverted image formed by the object-glass.
406 APPENDIX. [
535
It is evident that in an achromatic telescope, the object-glass is by-
far the most important and expensive member of the instrument. It
costs, according to size, from $100 or $200 up to $50,000, while the
eye-pieces cost from $5 to $25 apiece.
536. Reticle.

When the telescope is used for pointing

upon an object, as it is in most astronomical instruments, it
must be provided with, a
"
reticle
"
of some sort. The simplest
form is a metallic frame with, spider lines stretched across it,
the intersection of the spider lines being the point of reference.
This reticle is placed not at or near the object-glass, as is often
supposed, but in its focal
plane, as a b in Fig. 142. Of course,
positive eyepieces only
l
can be used in connection w
r
ith such a
reticle. Sometimes a glass plate with fine lines ruled upon it
is used instead of spider lines. Some provision must be made
for illuminating the lines, or
"
wires," as they are usually
called, by reflecting into the instrument a faint light from a
lamp suitably placed.
537. The Reflecting Telescope.

About 1670, when the

chromatic aberration of refractors first came to be understood
(in consequence of Newton's discovery of the
"
decomposition of
light"), the reflecting telescope was invented. For nearly 150
years it held its place as the chief instrument for star-gazing,
until about 1820, when large achromatics began to be made.
There are several varieties of reflecting telescope. They differ
in the way in which the image formed by the mirror is brought
within reach of the magnifying eye-piece. Fig. 145 illustrates
three of the most common forms. The Herschelian form is
practicable only with very large instruments, since the head
of the observer cuts off part of the light. The Newtonian is
the one most used, but one or two large reflectors now in use
are of the Cassegrainian form, which is exactly like the G-rego-
1
In sextant telescopes a negative eye-piece is sometimes used> with the
wires between the two lenses.
537]
LARGE TELESCOPES.
407
rian shown in the figure, with the exception that the small
mirror is convex instead of concave.
Until about 1870, the large mirror (technically
"
speculum
")
was always made of speculum metal, a composition of copper
and tin. It is now usually made of glass, silvered on the front
by a chemical process. When new, these silvered films reflect
much more light than the old speculum metal : they tarnish
rather easily, but fortunately they can be easily renewed.
O
JL
9:
A
~B
Fig. 145.

Different Forms of Reflecting Telescope.

1. TheHerschelian; 2. The Newtonian ; 3. The Gregorian.
538. Large Telescopes.

The largest telescopes ever made have

been reflectors. At the head stood the enormous instrument of Lord
Rosse of Birr Castle, Ireland, six feet in diameter and 60 feet long,
made in 1842, and still used. One still larger, 100 inches in diameter,
was mounted in 1917 at the Carnegie Solar Observatory on Mt.
Wilson, where a five-foot reflector was mounted in 1908. Another
five-foot reflector, made by Mr. Common, in England, in 1889, was
acquired by the Harvard College Observatory in 1905. The Crossley
reflector at the Lick Observatory, with which Keeler made his won-
derful photographs, has an aperture of three feet.
Of the refractors, the largest is that of the Yerkes Observatory, of
the Chicago University. It has an aperture of 40 inches- and a focaL
408 APPENDIX. [538
length of 6 5 feet. Next follows that of the Lick Observatory (see Fron-
tispiece), which has a diameter of 36 inches and a length of 57 feet.
The next in size is the 32
-inch (visual) telescope at Meudon, which
is followed by the Potsdam telescope, SI
J
inches in diameter; and
this is nearly equalled by the telescopes at Pulkowa, Nice, Allegheny
and Paris (291 to 30 inches). Then come the new Greenwich tele-
FlG. 146.

The Melbourne Reflector.

Scope, 28 inches
;
the Vienna telescope, 27 inches
;
the two telescopes
at Washington and the University of Virginia,
26i
inches
;
and the
Newall telescope (lately presented to the University of Cambridge,
England), 25 inches. This list includes most of the refractors which
have an aperture exceeding two feet, but a number of others are now
538]
REFLECTORS VS. REFRACTORS. 409
under construction. The two largest of these object-glasses, and
those of the Pulkowa, Washington, and University of Virginia tele-
scopes, were made by the Clarks, as well as the 24-inch telescope of
the Lowell Observatory and the 23-inch instrument at Princeton.
539. Relative Advantages of Reflectors and Refractors.

There is much earnest discussion on this point, each form of

instrument having its earnest partisans. In favor of the reflec-
tors we may mention
1. Ease
of
construction and cheapness : the speculum has but
one surface to be worked, while the object-glass has four of
them. Moreover the material of the speculum is much more
easily obtained, since the light does not go through it as in the
case of a lens ; so that slight imperfections of internal struc-
ture and homogeneity are not very important.
2. Reflectors can he made larger than refractors.
3. Eeflectors are perfectly achromatic: this is an immense
advantage, especially in photographic and spectroscopic work.
On the whole, however, the balance of advantage is now
generally considered to lie with the refractors.
1. The refractor gives a brighter image than a reflector of
the same size. A heavy percentage of the light is lost by the
two reflections, while in a refractor much less is lost in pass-
ing through the lenses.
2. Eefractors generally define much better. Any error of
form at a point in the surface of a lens, whether it be due to
distortion by the weight of the lens or to the fault of the
workmanship, affects the rays passing through that point only
one-third as much as in the case of a speculum. Moreover,
when a lens is slightly distorted by its weight, its two oppo-
site surfaces are affected in a nearly compensatory manner.
In a mirror there is no such, compensation ; the slightest dis-
tortion of a speculum is fatal to its performance.
3. A lens once made and fairly taken care of does not dete-
riorate with age. A speculum, on the other hand, must be
re-silvered or re-polished every few years.
410 APPENDIX. [539
4. As a rule, refractors are much, more convenient to use
than reflectors, being lighter and less clumsy.
540. Mounting of a Telescope,

the Equatorial.

A tele-
scope, however excellent optically, is not good for much unless
firmly and conveniently mounted.
1
At present some form of equatorial
mounting is practically universal.
Eig. 147 represents schematically
the ordinary arrangement of the
instrument. Its essential feature
is that its
"
principal axis " {i.e.,
the one which turns in fixed bear-
ings attached to the pier and is
called the polar axis) is placed par-
allel to the earth's axis, pointing to
the celestial pole, so that the circle
H, attached to it, is parallel to the
celestial equator. This circle is
sometimes called the hour-circle,
sometimes the right-ascension circle.
At the extremity of the polar axis
a
"
sleeve
"
is fastened, which carries the declination axis D,
and to this declination axis is attached the telescope tube
T, and also the declination circle C.
$41. The advantages of this mounting are very great. In
the first place, when the telescope is once pointed upon an
object it is not necessary to move the declination axis at all
in order to keep the object in the field, but only to turn the
Fig. 147.
The Equatorial (Schematic).
1
We may add that it must, of course, be mounted where it can be
pointed directly at the stars, without any intervening window-glass be-
tween it and the object. We have known purchasers of telescopes to
complain bitterly- because they could not see Saturn well through a closed
window. .,_-.
'._
. ....

641
] THE EQUATORIAL. 411
polar axis with, a perfectly uniform motion, which can be, and
usually is, given by clock-work (not shown in the figure).
In the next place, it is very easy to
find
an object even if
invisible to the eye (like a faint comet, or a star in the day-
time), provided we know its right ascension and declination,
and have the sidereal time,

a sidereal clock or chronometer

being an indispensable accessory of the equatorial. We simply
set the declination circle to the declination of the object, and
then turn the polar axis until the hour-circle shows the proper
hour-angle, which hour-angle is simply the difference between
the right ascension of the object and the sidereal time at the
moment. When the telescope has been so set, the object will
be found in the field of view, provided a low-power eye-piece is
used. On account of refraction, the setting does not direct
the instrument precisely to the apparent place of the object,
but only very near it : near enough for easy finding, however.
The equatorialMoes not give very accurate positions of heav-
enly bodies by means of the direct readings of its circles, but
it can be used, as explained in Art.
71, to determine very pre*
cisely the difference between the position of a known star and
that of a comet or planet.
The frontispiece shows the actual mounting of the Lick telescope.
Fig. 105,
Art. 425,
represents another form of equatorial mounting,
adopted for several of the instruments of the photographic cam-
paign, and Fig. 146 is a view of the great Melbourne reflector. Lord
Rosse*s six-foot telescope is not equatorially mounted.
542. Micrometer.

Micrometers of various forms are em-

ployed in connection with the equatorial, the most common and
generally useful micrometer being that known as the filar-posi-
tion micrometer (shown in Fig. 148) a small instrument
which screws into the eye end of the telescope. It usually
contains a set of fixed wires, two or three of them parallel to
each other (only one, e, is shown in Fig. 149,
which represents
1
For
the EquatoriaL
Coud6, Siderostat, and Coelostat see Arts. 557.,
and 558,
412 APPENDIX.
[542
the internal construction of the instrument), crossed at right
angles by a single line or set of lines. Over the plate which
carries the fixed threads lies a fork, moved by a carefully made
screw with a graduated
head, and this fork carries
one or more wires parallel
to the first set, so that the
distance between the wires
e and d, Fig. 149, can be
adjusted at pleasure and
"
read off
"
by means of
the scale that is shown
and the screw-head grad-
uation. The box, B, Fig.
148, containing the wires
and micrometer, is so ar-
ranged that it can itself
be rotated around the op-
tical axis of the telescope
and set in any desired
"
position,"

for example, so that the movable wire d shall

be parallel to the celestial equator. When so set that the
Fig. 148.

The Filar Position-Micrometer.

Fig. 149. Construction of the Micrometer.
movable wire points from one star to another in the field of
view, the
"
position angle
"
is then read off on the circle, A.
With such a micrometer we can measure at once the distance
in seconds of arc between any two stars which are near enough

542]
THE HELIOMETER.
413
to be seen in the same field of view, and can determine the posi
tion angle of the line joining them. The available range in a
small telescope may reach
30'.
In large ones, which with the
same eye-pieces give mnch higher magnifying powers, the
range is correspondingly less

from
5'
to
10'.
When the dis-
tance between the objects exceeds
1'
or 2', however, the filar-
micrometer becomes difficult to use and inaccurate, and we
have to resort to instruments of a different kind.
543. The Heliometer.

This instrument, as its name im-

plies, was originally designed to measure the apparent diameter
of the sun, and is capable of measuring with extreme precision
angular distances ranging all the way from a few seconds up
to two or three degrees. It is a form of "double-image"
micrometer, the measurement of the
distance between two objects being
made by superposing the image
of
one
of
them upon that
of
the other. In using
the filar-micrometer we have to look
"
two ways at once
"
to be sure that
each of the two wires accurately bisects
the star upon which it is set : with a
m
x
M M
2
double-image micrometer, the observer's
*
Si
O
attention is concentrated upon a single
FlG. 150
._
T

he Heliometer.
point without distraction.
The heliometer is a complete telescope, equatorially mounted,
and having its object-glass (usually from four to six inches in
diameter) divided along its diameter, as shown in Fig. 150.
The semi-lenses are so mounted that they can slide past each
other for a distance of three or four inches, the distance being
accurately measured by a delicate scale, which is read by a
long microscope that comes down through the telescope-tube
to the eye end. The tube is mounted in such a way that it
can be turned around in its cradle, so as to make the line of
division of the lenses lie at any desired position angle.
414
APPENDIX.
[$543
When the two halves of the object-glass are so placed that
their optical centres, and 1 or and
2,
coincide, they act as a
single lens, and form but a single image for each object in the
field of view : but as soon as they are separated, each half-lens
forms its own image. The distance between any two objects
in the field of view is measured by making their images co-
incide, as indicated in the lower part of the figure, where M
Q
and S are the images of Mars and of a star, formed by the
stationary half, B, of the object-glass, which has its centre
at 0. M
1
and S
x
are the images formed by the other half
lens, A, when its centre is
1,
and M
2
and S
2
are the images when
its centre is 2. The distance between the images of S and
M is therefore either 1 or 2, read off on the sliding scale.
The direction in which the line 10 2 has to be set to effect the
coincidence, gives the direction, or position angle, fromilf to S.
544. The Transit Instrument. This instrument has already
been mentioned, and figured in outline in Art.
58,
Fig. 14. It
consists of a telescope carrying at the eye end a reticle, and
mounted on a stiff axis that turns in Y's which can have
their position adjusted so as to make the axis exactly perpen-
dicular to the meridian. A delicate spirit level, which can be
placed upon the pivots of the axis to ascertain its horizon-
tality, is an essential accessory, and it is practically necessary
to have a graduated circle attached to the instrument in order
to
"
set it " for a star, in readiness for the star's transit across
the meridian. It is very desirable also that the instrument
should have a
"
reversing apparatus," by which the axis may
be easily and safely reversed in the Y's.
The reticle usually contains from five to fifteen vertical
"
wires," crossed by two horizontal ones. Eig. 151 shows the
reticle of a small transit intended for observations by
"
eye
and ear." When the chronograph is to be used, the wires are
made more numerous and placed nearer together. In order to
make the wires visible at night, one of the pivots of the in-
544]
THE ADJUSTMENTS OF THE TRANSIT.
415
stmment is pierced (sometimes both, of them) so that the light
from a lamp will shine through the axis upon a small reflector
placed in the central cube of the instrument, where the axis
and the tube are joined. This little reflector sends sufficient
light towards the eye to illuminate
the field, while it does not cut off any
considerable portion of the rays from
the object.
The instrument must be thoroughly
stiff andrigid, without any loose joints
or shakiness, especially in the mount-
ing of the object-glass and reticle.
Moreover, the two pivots must be
accurately round, without taper, and
precisely in line with each other, in
other words, they must be portions of
one and the same geometrical cylinder
tion, with errors nowhere exceeding
yqitoto
^ an incn
>
taxes
the highest skill of the mechanician. When accurately con-
structed and adjusted, the middle wire of the instrument
always exactly coincides with the meridian, however the in-
strument may be turned on its axis ; and the sidereal time
when a star crosses that wire is therefore the star's right
ascension (Art.
37).
Fig. 151. Reticle of the Transit
Instrument.
To fulfil this condi-
545. The Adjustments of the Transit.

These are four in

number
:
1. The reticle must be exactly in the
focal
plane of the object-glass,
and the middle wire truly vertical.
2. The line of collimation (i.e., the line which joins the optical
centre of the object-glass to the middle wire) must be exactly perpen-
dicular to the axis
of
rotation. This may be tested by pointing the
instrument on a distant object, and then reversing the instrument. If
the adjustment is correct, the middle wire will still bisect the object
after the reversal. If it does not, the reticle must be set right by
adjusting screws provided for the purpose.
416
APPENDIX.
[
545
3. The axis must be level. This adjustment is made by the help of
the spirit-level. One of the Y's has a screw by which it can be slightly
raised or lowered, as may be necessary.
4. The azimuth of the axis must be exactly 90; i.e., it must point
exactly east and west. This adjustment is made by means of star
observations with the help of the sidereal clock. Without going into
detail, we may say that if the instrument is correctly adjusted, the time
occupied by a star near the pole in passing from its transit across the
middle wire, above the pole, to its next transit across the same wire,
below the pole, must be exactly 12 sidereal hours. Moreover, if two
stars are observed, one near the pole and another near the equator,
the difference between their times of transit ought to be precisely equal
to their difference of right ascension. By availing himself of these
principles, the astronomer can determine the errors of adjustment in
azimuth and correct them.
An observation with the instrument consists in noting the
precise moment by the clock when the object observed crosses
each wire. The mean is taken to give the time of transit
across the middle wire. If the "error" of the clock is known
and the instrument is in exact adjustment, the moment of
crossing the middle wire will, as already said, give the right
ascension of the object ; or, if the right ascension of the
object is already known (if, for instance, the object is an
"almanac star "), the difference between this and the clock-
face indication will give the "clock error" (Art.
58).
546. Astronomical Clock.

Obviously a good clock or chro-

nometer is an essential adjunct of the transit, and equally so
of most other astronomical instruments. The invention of the
pendulum clock by Huyghens was almost as important for the
advancement of Astronomy as the invention of the telescope
by Galileo ; and the improvement of the clock and chronometer
in the invention of temperature compensation by Harrison
and Graham in the 18th century, is fully comparable with the
improvement of the telescope by the invention of the achro-
matic object-glass.
546]
THE CHRONOGRAPH.
417
The astronomical clock differs in no respect from any other
clock, except that it is made with extreme care, and has a pen-
dnlnm so compensated that its rate will not be sensibly affected
by changes of temperature. The pendulum usually beats
seconds, and the clock-face ordinarily has its second-hand,
minute-hand, and the hour-hand, each moving on a separate
centre, while the hours are numbered from to 24.
Excellence in an astronomical clock consists in its maintain-
ing a constant rate; i.e., in gaining or losing precisely the
same amount each day ; and for convenience, the rate should
be small. It is adjusted by raising or lowering the pendulum
bob, and is generally made less than a second a day. The
clock error or
"
correction
"
can of course be adjusted at any
time by merely setting the hands.
The old-fashioned method of time observation consisted
simply in noting by
"
eye and ear
"
the moment (in seconds
and tenths of a second) when the phenomenon occurred ; as,
for instance, when a star passed the wire: the tenths, of course,
were merely estimated, but the skilful observer seldom makes
a mistake of a whole tenth in his estimation.
547. The Chronograph. At present such observations are
usually made by the help of electricity. The clock is so
arranged that at every other beat of the pendulum an electric
circuit is made or broken for an instant, and this causes a
sudden sideways jerk in the armature of an electric magnet,
like that of a telegraph sounder. This armature carries a
pen, which writes upon a sheet of paper moving beneath it.
The sheet is wrapped around a cylinder six or seven inches
in diameter, and the cylinder itself turns uniformly once a
minute : at the same time the pen-carriage is drawn slowly
along, so that -the marks on the paper form a continuous
spiral, graduated off into two-second spaces by the clock
beats. When taken off the cylinder, the paper presents the
appearance of an ordinary page crossed by parallel lines,
418
APPENDIX.
[547
spaced off into two-second lengths, as shown in Fig.
152, which
is a part of an actual record.
n rvuuuuuuwwuuiA.
n n
Fig. 152.
A Chronograph Record.
9 h. 36 m. 00.0 s.
A_n
Fig. 153. A Chronograph hy Warner & Swasey.
The observer at the moment of a star-transit merely presses
a key. which he holds in his hand, and thus interpolates a mark
of his own among the clock beats on the sheet ; as, for instance,
547]
THE MERIDIAN CIRCLE.
419
at Xand T in the figure. Since the beginning of each minute
is indicated on the sheet in some way by the mechanism of
the clock beats, it is very easy to read the time of X and Yby
applying a suitable scale, the beginning of the mark being the
true moment of observation. In the figure, the initial minute,
marked when the chronograph was started, happened to be 9
hours, 35 minutes, the zero in the case of this clock being
indicated by a double beat. The signal at X, therefore, was
made at 9
h
35
m
55
8
.45, and that of T at 9
h
36
m
58
s
.63. The
"
rattle " just preceding X was the signal that a star was
approaching the transit wire. Fig. 153 is a representation of
a complete chronograph.
548. The Meridian Circle. This has already been briefly
described in Art.
49, but not in sufficient detail to give much
real understanding of its construction and appearance. It is
a transit instrument of large size and most careful construc-
tion, plus a large graduated circle (or circles), attached to the
axis and turning with it. The utmost resources of mechanical
art are expended in graduating this circle with accuracy. The
divisions are now usually made either two minutes or five
minutes, and the farther subdivision is effected by the so-
called
"
reading microscopes/' four or six of which are always
used in the case of a large instrument. Since
1"
on the cir-
cumference of a circle is
ytbt 6T P
ar
^ ^
^
s ra-dius, it follows
that on a circle two feet in diameter
1"
is only about
17 Q
-g- of
an inch. An error of that amount is now very seldom made by
reputable constructors in placing any graduation line. Fig. 154
represents a rather small instrument of this kind, having circles
two feet in diameter, with a four and a half inch telescope.
Our limits do not permit a description of the reading micro-
scopes seen at A, B, C, and D, by means of which the circle is
read. For these, see works on Practical Astronomy.
549. Zero Points.

The instrument is used to measure the

altitude or else the polar distance of a heavenly body at the time
420 APPENDIX.
[549
when it is crossing the meridian. As a preliminary, we must
determine a zero point upon the circle,

the nadir point if we

wish to measure altitudes or zenith distances, the polar point
if polar distances or declinations.
Fig. 154.

A Meridian Circle.
The polar point is determined by taking the circle reading
for some star near the pole when it crosses the meridian above
the pole, and then doing the same thing again twelve hours
later when it crosses it below. The mean of the two readings,
corrected for refraction, will be the reading the circle would

549]
COLLIMATING EYE-PIECE. 421
give when the telescope is pointed exactly to the pole
;
tech-
nically, the "polar point."
The nadir point is the reading of the circle when the tele-
scope is pointed vertically downward. It is determined by
means of a basin of mercury underneath the instrument,- the
telescope being so set that the image of the horizontal wire of
the reticle, as seen by reflection from the mercury, coincides with
the wire itself. Since the reticle is exactly in the principal
focus of the object-glass, the rays emitted from any point in
the reticle will form a parallel beam after passing through the
lens, and if this beam strikes perpendicularly upon a plane
mirror, it will be returned as if from an object in the sky, and
the lens will re-collect the rays to a focus in the focal plane.
When, therefore, the image of the central wire of the reticle
formed by reflection from the mercury coincides with the wire
itself, we know that the line of collimation of the telescope
is exactly perpendicular to the surface of the mercury ; i.e.,
precisely vertical.
550. Collimating Eye-Piece.

To make this reflected image

visible, it is necessary to illuminate the reticle by light thrown towards
the object-glass from behind the wires, for the ordinary illumination
used during observations comes from the op-
j
posite direction. This peculiar illumination
is effected by what is known as the Bohnen-
berger "collimating eye-piece," shown in Fig.
Jf--

^-
sJr
155. A thin glass plate inserted at an angle
of
45
between the lenses of a Ramsden eye-
piece throws down sufficient light, and yet
permits the observer to see the wires through
the glass.
FlG- 155-
The Collimating Eye-piece.
Of course the zenith point is just
180
from the nadir point,
so that the zenith distance of any star is found by merely taking
the difference between its circle reading (corrected for re-
fraction) and the zenith reading.
^Reticle
422 APPENDIX. [
550
Obviously the meridian circle can be used simply as a tran-
sit, if desired, so that with this instrument and a clock, the
observer is in a position to determine both the right ascension
and the declination of any heavenly body that can be seen when
it crosses the meridian.
551. There are a number of other instruments which are more or
less used in special observations. Our space barely permits their
mention. The principal among them are the so-called "Universal
Instrument," or Astronomical Theodolite; the " Prime Vertical " in-
strument (simply a transit faced
east and west instead of moving in
the meridian)
;
the
"
Zenith Telescope
"
; and a new instrument by
Chandler, known as the
"
Almucantar," which is used to observe the
time when certain known stars reach a fixed altitude, usually that
of the pole, an observation from which the time and the latitude of
the place can be very accurately determined. It is simply a telescope
carried on a
"
raft," so to speak, which floats on mercury, the telescope
being pointed upwards at an angle approximately equal to the latitude
and keeping automatically always precisely the same elevation.
552. The Sextant. All the instruments so far mentioned,
except the chronometer, require firmly fixed supports, and are
therefore absolutely useless at sea. The sextant is the only
one upon which the mariner can rely. By means of it he can
measure the angular distance between two points (as, for in-
stance, the sun and the visible horizon), not by pointing first
on one and afterwards on the other, but by sighting them both
simultaneously and in apparent coincidence, a "double-image"
measurement ; in that respect the sextant is analogous to the
heliometer. This measurement can be accurately made even
when the observer has no stable footing.
Pig. 156 represents the instrument. Its graduated limb is
usually about a sixth of a complete circle (as its name indi-
cates) with a radius of from five to eight inches. It is graduated
in half-degrees which are numbered as whole degrees, and so
can measure any angle not much exceeding
120.
The index
552]
THE SEXTANT.
423
arm, or
"
alidade/' MN in the figure, is pivoted at the centre
of the arc, and carries a "vernier," which slides along the
limb and can be fixed at any point by a clamp with an attached
tangent screw, T. The reading of this vernier gives the angle
measured by the instrument ; the best instruments read to
10".
Just over the centre of the arc the
"
index-mirror," M, about
Fig. 156. The Sextant.
two inches by one and one-half in size, is fastened securely
to the index-arm, so as to move with it, keeping always per-
pendicular to the plane of the limb. At H, the "horizon-
glass" about an inch wide and about the same height as the
index-glass, is secured to the frame of the instrument in such
a position that when the vernier reads zero the index-mirror
and horizon-glass will be parallel to each other. Only Jialf
of the horizon-glass is silvered, the upper half being left
transparent. E is a small telescope screwed to the frame
and directed towards the horizon-glass.
424
APPENDIX. [
553
553. If the vernier stands near zero (but not exactly at
zero) an observer looking into the telescope will see together
in the field of view two separate images of the object towards
which the telescope is directed ; and if, while still looking, he
slides the vernier, he will see that one of the images remains
fixed while the other moves. The fixed image is formed by
the rays which reach the object-glass directly through the un-
silvered half of the horizon-glass ; the movable image, on the
other hand, is produced by the rays which have suffered two
reflections, being reflected from the index-mirror to the hori-
zon-glass and again reflected a second time at the lower half
of the horizon-glass. When the two mirrors are parallel, the
two images coincide, provided the object is at a considerable
distance.
If the vernier does not stand at or near zero, an observer
looking at an object directly through the horizon-glass will see
not only that object, but also, in the same field of view, what-
ever other object is so situated as to send its rays to the tele-
scope by reflection from the mirrors ; and the reading
of
the
vernier will give the angle at the instrument betiveen the two
objects whose images thus coincide; the angles between the
planes of the two mirrors being just
half
the angle between
the two objects, and the half-degrees on the limb being num-
bered as whole ones.
554. Use of the Instrument.

The principal use of the in-

strument is in measuring the altitude
of
the sun. At sea, an
observer, holding the instrument in his right hand and keep-
ing the plane of the arc vertical, looks directly towards the
visible horizon through the horizon-glass (whence its name) at
the point under the sun ; then by moving the vernier with his
left hand, he inclines the index-mirror upward until one edge
of the reflected image of the sun is brought down to touch the
horizon line. He also notes the exact time by the chronom-
eter, if necessary. The reading of the vernier, after due
554]
USE OF THE SEXTANT.
425
correction (Art.
492),
gives the sun's true altitude at th&
moment.
On land we have recourse to an "artificial horizon." This
is merely a shallow basin of mercury, covered with a roof
made of glass plates having their surfaces accurately plane
and parallel. In this case, we measure the angle between the
sun's image reflected in the mercury and the sun itself. The
reading of the instrument corrected for index-error gives
twice the sun's apparent altitude.
The skilful use of the sextant
requires considerable dexterity,
and from the small size of the
telescope the angles measured are
less precise than those deter-
mined by large fixed instruments.
J2_
But the portability of the instru-
ment and its applicability at sea
render it absolutely invaluable.
It was invented by Godfrey of
Philadelphia in 1730.
Fig. 157.
Principle of the Sextant.
555. The principle that the
angle between the objects whose images coincide in the sex-
tant is twice the angle between the mirrors (or between their
normals) is easily demonstrated as follows (Fig.
157) :

The ray SMcoming from an object, after reflection first at

M (the index-mirror) and then at H (the horizon-glass) is
made to coincide with the ray OH, coming from the horizon.
.-
From the law of reflection, we have the two angles SMP
and PMHequal to each other, each being x. In the same way,
the two angles marked
y
are equal. From the geometric prin-
ciple that the angle SMH, exterior to the triangle HME
y
is equal to the sum of the opposite interior angles at H and
E
y
we get E = 2 x

2
y.
In the same way,
Q

y
;
whence
E
=
2Q
= 2Q'.
426 APPENDIX.
[556
THE PYRHELIOMETER.
556. The pyrheliometer is an instrument devised by Pouillet
for measuring the amount of heat received from the sun, and he
made with it, in 1838, some of the earliest determinations of
the
"
solar constant." In Fig. 158 aa' is a little snuff-box-like
capsule, made of thin silver, and con-
taining 100 grams of water. The bulb
of a delicate thermometer is inserted
in the water, and the temperature is
read at a point m, near the middle
of the stem. The disc, ss', enables us
to point the instrument exactly to-
wards the sun by making the shadow
of aa' fall concentrically upon it. The
upper surface of the box is just one
decimeter in diameter, and is carefully
coated with lampblack. The instru-
ment is used by pointing it towards
the sun, and first holding an umbrella
over it until the temperature becomes
stationary or nearly so, after which
the umbrella is taken away, and the
sun allowed to shine squarely upon
the blackened surface for five minutes
or so, the apparatus being occasionally
turned on dm as an axis, to stir up the
water in the box. The rise of temper-
ature in a minute would give the solar
constant directly, were it not for the
troublesome and uncertain corrections depending upon the
continually varying absorption of the solar heat by our
atmosphere.
For a description of Violles's actinometer (used for the same
purpose), see
"
General Astronomy," Art. 341.
Fig. 158.
Pouillet's Pyrheliometer.
557] THE EQUATORIAL COUDE.
426 a
557. The Equatorial Coude. A great telescope
mounted in
the usual manner is very unwieldy, and various
arrangements
have been devised for relieving the difficulties. In the Equa-
torial Coude, or "Elbowed Equatorial," now in use at Paris
and in several other observatories, the inconveniences
are
overcome by the use of two mirrors, one outside of the object-
glass, the other in the angle where the tube joins the polar
axis, as shown in the figure. The observer sits in a fixed posi-
Fig. 159. The Equatorial Coude.
tion, under shelter, looking down through the polar axis, which
is hollow and forms part of the telescope tube. The instru-
ment is of course much more expensive than the usual form
;
but the costly revolving dome is dispensed with.
There is a considerable loss of light by the two reflections, and
another, much simpler form with only one mirror is now in use at
Cambridge (England). It commands, however, only a limited
portion of the heavens, from
30
to 4-
75
of declination.
426 b
APPENDIX. [558
558. The
Siderostat.

In various lines of astronomical

work,
photographic and spectroscopic especially, there are
great
advantages in having the telescope and its accessories
mounted solidly upon
independent piers in a convenient posi-
tion, the object under observation being reflected into it steadily
by a plane
mirror suitably moved by clock-work. The Sidero-
stat of Foucault consists of a mirror with a cylindrical stem
projecting from its back, and so mounted that it can be turned
in any direction. The stem is engaged in a sliding sleeve at the
end of an arm, which is attached to a polar axis and moved
around by it once in 24 hours like a clock-hand. The angle
which the arm makes with the stem is adjustable to corre-
spond with the declination of the object observed. The mir-
ror can be made to throw the reflected ray in any desired
direction
(horizontally towards the south in most cases), and
means are provided by which the observer can adjust it from
his distant position. This is perfectly satisfactory for all work
which requires merely a fixed and convenient direction for the
central line of the reflected beam,

as for the study of star-

spectra or the general spectrum of the sun. But if the instru-
ment is used to photograph the sun or a group of stars, it has
the serious disadvantage that the image revolves around its cen-
tral point, and with a speed which varies continually in a manner
which cannot be followed by any automatic arrangement.
559. The Ccelostat. The Coelostat differs in that the polar
axis, to which the mirror is directly attached, turns once in 48
hours instead of 24. The reflected image in this case does not
revolve. But the direction in which it can be thrown is not
arbitrary, as with the Siderostat, but is different for objects of
different declination, and sometimes very* inconvenient. The
difficulty can be overcome by using a second mirror which can
be moved so as to receive the reflected ray and send it in
the desired direction ; but this of course adds materially to
the expense, and involves loss of light.
TABLES.
427
TABLE I. ASTRONOMICAL CONSTANTS.
TIME CONSTANTS.
The sidereal day = 23
h
56
m
4
S
.090 of mean solar time.
The mean solar day = 24
h
3
m
56
s
.556 of sidereal time.
To reduce a time interval expressed in units of mean solar
time to units
of
sidereal time, multiply by 1.00273791
j
Log.
of
0.00273791=
[7.4374191].
To reduce a time interval expressed in units of sidereal
time to units of mean solar time, multiply by 0.99726957
=
(1
-
0.00273043)
;
Log. 0.00273043 =
[7.4362316].
Tropical year (Levender, reduced to
1900),
365
d
5
h
48
m
45
s
. 51.
Sidereal year
" "
"
365 6 9 8.97.
Anomalistic year
"


365 6 13 48.09.
Mean synodical month (new moon to new), 29
d
12
h
44
m
2
3
.864.
Sidereal month, . . . . . 27 7 43 11.545.
Tropical month (equinox to equinox) , .27 7 43 4.68.
Anomalistic month (perigee to perigee), . 27 13 18 37.44.
Nodical month (node to node), . . 27 5 5 35.81.
Obliquity of the ecliptic (Newcomb),
23 27' 08".26

0".4685 (t
-
1900).
Constant of precession (Newcomb),
50".248
+
0.000222 (-1900).
Constant of nutation (Astron. Conference,
1896),
9".21.
Constant of aberration (Astron. Conference,
1896),
20".47.
Equatorial semi-diameter of the earth (Clarke's spheroid of
1878),

20 926 202
feet
=
6 378 190
metres
=
3963.296
mnes
.
Polar semi-diameter,

20 854 895
feet
=
6 356 456
metres
=
3949.790
mUes
.
Oblateness (Clarke),
^^^.73
-
;
(Harkness),
^-$.
428 APPENDIX.
^
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TABLES. 429
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480
APPENDIX.
TABLE IV. THE PRINCIPAL VARIABLE STARS.
A selection from S. C. Chandler's third catalogue of variables ("Astronomical
Journal," July, 1896),
containing such as, at the maximum, are easily visible to the
naked eye, have a range of variation exceeding half a magnitude, and can be seen
in the United States.
Name.
Place, 1900.
Range of
Variation.
Period (days). Remarks.
a 8
1 R Andromedae
h m
18.8 +
38 1'
5.6 to 13
411
( Mira. Varia-
2
3
4
oCeti. . . .
p
Persei . . .
Persei . . .
2
2
3
14.3
58.7
1.6
-
3 26
+ 38 27
+ 40 34
1.7
3.4
2.3
9.5
4.2
3.5
331.6

33
2
d
20>>
48
m
55^.43
]
tions in length
(
of period,
j
Algol. Period
/
now shortening.
5 ATauri . . . 3 55.1 + 12 12 3.4 4.2
3d
22* 52"
12s
( Algol type, but
6 e Aurigae . . 4 54.8 + 43 41 3 4.5 Irregular
\
irregular,
7 a Orionis . . 5 49.7 + 7 23 1 1.6 196? Irregular.
8
7)
Geminorum
.
6 8.8 + 22 32 3.2 4.2 229.1
9

Geminorum . 6 58.2 + 20 43 3.7 4.5
10d 3h
41" 30*
10 R Canis Maj. . 7 14.9 -16 12 5.9 6.7
Id
3k
15 55* Algol type.
11
R Leonis . . 9 42.2 + 11 54 5.2 10 312.87
12 U Hydras . . 10 32.6 -12 52 4.5 6.3 194
13 R Hydrae . . 13 24.2 -22 46 3.5 9.7 425 Period short'ing
14 8 Libra? . . . 14 55.6 -87 5.0 6.2
2d 7b
5
im 22*.8 Algol type.
15 R Coronas . . 15 44.4 + 28 28 5.8 13 Irregular
16 R Serpentis . 15 46.1 + 15 26 5.6 13 357
17 a Herculis . . 17 10.1 + 14 30 3.1 3.9 Two or three mon ths, but very irreg.
18 U Ophiucbi . 17 11.5 + 1 19 6.0 6.7
20h 7m
42^.6
19 X Sagittarii . 17 41.3 -27 48 4 6 7.01185
20 W Sagittarii . 17 58.6 -29 35 5 6.5 7.59445
21 R Scuti . . . 18 42.1
-
5 49 4.7 9 71.10
( Secondary rnini-
22 /SLyrae . . . 18 46.4 + 33 15 3.4 4.5 12
d
21
h
47
m
23
s
.7
\ mum about mid-
23
24
x
Cygni. . .
7}
Aquilae . .
19
19
46.7
47.4
+ 32 40
+ 45
4.0
3.5
13.5
4.7
406
7d 4h 14m 3
.0
(
way.
Period length'ng
25 S Sagittae . . 19 51.4 + 16 22 5.6 6.4 8
d
9
h Urn 4
8
3.5
26 T Vulpeculae . 20 47.2 + 27 52 5.5 6.5
4d
iob
27
m
50^.4
27 T Cephei . . 21 8.2 + 68 5 5.6 9.9 383.20
28 ju. Cepbei . . 21 40.4 + 58 19 4 5 432?
29 8 Cephei . . 22 25.4 + 57 54 3.7 4.9
5d
8
h 47m 39S.3
30 /3 Pegasi . . . 22 -58.9 + 27 32 2.2 2.7
Irregular
31 R Cassiopeiae . 23 53.3 + 50 50 4.8 12
429
TABLES.
431
TABLE V. STELLAR PARALLAXES AND PROPER MOTIONS.
(From Oudeman's Table, Ast. Nach., Aug., 1889.)
No. Name. Mag. Proper Motion.
Annual
Parallax.
Distance
Light Years.
1 a Centauri 0.7 3".67 0".75
4
2 LI. 21185 6.9 4.75 0.50 6.5
3 61 Cygni . 5.1 5.16 0.40 8
4 Sirius .
-1.4
1.31 0.39 8.3
5 28 2398
.
8.2 2.40 0.35 9.3
6 LI. 9352 7.5 6.96 0.28 12
7 Procyon 0.5 1.25 0.27 12.3
8 LI. 21258 8.5 4.40. 0.26 12.5
9 Altair . 1.0 0.65 0.20 16.3
10 e Indi . 5.2 4.60 0.20 16.3
11 o
2
Eridani 4.5 4.05 0.19 17
12 Yega . . 0.2 0.36 0.16 20
13
(3
Cassiopeia 2.4 0.55 0.16 20
14 70 Ophiuchi 4.1 1.13 0.15 21
15 e Eridani . 4.4 3.03 0.14 23
16
Aldebaran 1.0 0.19 0.12 27
17
Capella 0.2 0.43 0.11 29
18 Regulus . 1.4 0.27 0.10 32
19 Polaris 2.1 0.05 0.07 47
These are not all the stars upon Oudeman's list which are given as hav-
ing parallaxes exceeding 0'M ; but they are probably the best determined
432
APPENDIX.
v
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THE GBEEK ALPHABET.
Letters. Name. Letters. Name. Letters. Name.
A, a, Alpha. I,L, Iota. P
> P, Q,
Bho.
B,
A
Beta. K,K, Kappa.
%
<r,
S,
Sigma.
r,y, Gamma. A,\, Lambda. %r, Tan.
A,
8,
Delta. M,
ix,
Mu. Y,v, Upsilon,
E, e, Epsilon.
N,v,
Nu.
*/*
Phi.
z,t
Zeta.
HU
Xi. x
> X^
Chi.
H
>
V)
Eta. O, o, Omicron.
*f*
Psi.
, 0,
&,
Theta. IIj 7T
?
TO,pi. Oj 0), Omega.
MISCELLANEOUS SYMBOLS.
6
, Conjunction.
,
Quadrature.
<?
, Opposition.
Q,
Ascending Node.
13,
Descending Node.
A.R., or a, Bight Ascension.
Decl.
?
or
8,
Declination.
\,
Longitude (Celestial).
p,
Latitude (Celestial).
<f>,
Latitude (Terrestrial).
(o, Angle between line of nodes and line of apsides
the obliquity of the ecliptic.
also
SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS. 435
SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS
FOR USE IN REVIEWS.
To many of these questions direct answers will not be found
in the book; but the principles upon which the answers depend
have been given, and the student will have to use his own
thinking in order to make the proper application. They are
inserted at the suggestion of an experienced teacher, who has
found such exercises useful in her own classes.
1. What point in the celestial sphere has both its right ascension
and declination zero ?
2. What are the hour angle and azimuth of the zenith ?
3. What angle does the (celestial) equator make with the horizon?
4. Name the (fourteen) principal points in the celestial sphere
(zenith, etc.).
5. What important circles in the heavens have no correlatives on
the surface of the earth ?
6. If Vega comes to the meridian at 8 o'clock to-night, at what
time (approximately) will it transit eight days hence ?
7. What bright star can I observe on the meridian between 4 and
5 p.m., in the middle of August? (See star-maps.)
8. At what time of the year will Sirius be on the meridian at mid-
night ?
9. The declination of Vega is
38 41'
; does it pass the meridian
north of your zenith, or south of it ?
10. What are the right ascension and declination of the north
pole of the ecliptic ?
11. What are the longitude and latitude (celestial) of the north
celestial pole (the one near the Pole-star) ?
436 APPENDIX,
12. Can the sun ever be directly overhead where you live? If not,
why not ?
13. What is the zenith distance ^f the sun at noon on June 22d in
New York City (lat.
40
42') ?
14. What are the greatest and least angles made by the ecliptic
with the horizon at New York ? Why does the angle vary ?
15. If the obliquity of the ecliptic were 30, ho\/ wide would the
temperate zone be? How wide if the obliquity were
50?
What
must the obliquity be to make the two temperate zones each as wide
as the torrid zone ?
16. Does the equinox always occur on the same days of March and
September? If not, why not; and how much can the date vary?
17. Was the sun's declination at noon on March 10th, 1887, pre-
cisely the same as on the same date in 1889?
18. In what season of the year is New Year's Day in Chili?
19. When the sun is in the constellation Taurus, in what sign of
the zodiac is he ?
20. In what constellation is the sun when he is vertically over the
tropic of Cancer ? Near what star ? (See star-map.)
21. When are day and night most unequal?
22. In what part of the earth are the days longest on March 20th?
On June 20th? On Dec. 20th ?
23. Why is it warmest in the United States when the earth is
farthest from the sun ?
24. What will be the Russian date corresponding to Feb. 28th,
1900, of our calendar? To May 1st?
25. Why are the intervals from sunrise to noon and from noon to
sunset usually unequal as given in the almanac (For example, see
Feb. 20th and Nov. 20th.)
26. At what rate does a star change its azimuth when rising or
setting? (See Arts. 77 and 494, last paragraph.)
27. If the earth were to shrink to half its present diameter, what
would be its mean density?
28. Is it absolutely necessary, as often stated, to find the diameter
of the earth in order to find the distance of the sun from the earth ?
(See Arts. 127 and 355.)
29. How will a projectile fired horizontally on tho earth deviate
from the line it would follow if the earth did not rotate on its axis ?
SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS. 437
30. If the earth were to contract in diameter, how would the weight
of bodies on its surface be affected ?
31. What keeps up the speed of the earth in its motion around the
sun?
32. How many forces are necessary to keep the moon in its orbit?
33. Why is the sidereal month shorter than the synodic ?
34. Does the moon rise every day of the month?
35. If the moon rises at 11.45 Tuesday night, when will it rise
next?
36. How many times does the moon turn on its axis in a year?
37. What determines the direction of the horns of the moon?
38. Does the earth rise and set for an observer on the moon ? If so,
at what intervals ?
39. How do we know that the moon is not self-luminous?
40. How do we know that there is no water on the moon ?
41. How much information does the spectroscope give us about the
moon?
42. What conditions must concur to produce a lunar eclipse?
43. Can an eclipse of the moon occur in the day-time?
44. WTiy can there not be an annular eclipse of the moon ?
45. Which are most frequent at New York, solar eclipses or lunar ?
46. Can an occultation of Venus by the moon occur during a lunar
eclipse? Would an occultation of Jupiter be possible under the same
circumstances ?
47. How much difference would it make with the tides if the moon
were one-fourth nearer? (Art. 271, note.)
48. WTiich of the heavenly bodies are not self-luminous?
49. When is a planet an evening star ?
50. What planets have synodic periods longer than their sidereal
periods ?
51. When a planet is at its least distance from the earth, what is
its apparent motion in right ascension ?
52. A planet is seen 120 distant from the sun
;
is it an inferior or
a superior planet ?
53. Can there be a transit of Mars across the sun's disc?
54. When Jupiter is visible in the evening, do the shadows of the
satellites precede or follow the satellites themselves as they cross the
planet's disc ?
438 APPENDIX.
55. Can the transits of Mercury be utilized to determine the dis-
tance of the sun, like the transits of Venus?
56. What would be the length of the month if the moon were four
times as far away as now ? (Apply Kepler's third law.)
57. What is the mass of a planet which has a satellite revolving in
one-fifth of a lunar month, at a distance equal to that of the moon
from the earth V (See Art. 309.)
58. What is the distance from the sun of an asteroid which has a
period of eight years V
59. How much would the mass of the earth need to be increased to
make the moon at its present distance revolve in one-fourth its present
period? (See Arts. 309 and 508.)
60. Upon what circumstances does the apparent length of a comet's
tail depend ?
61. How can the distance of a meteor from the observer, and its
height above the earth, be determined ?
62. What heavenly bodies are not included in the solar system ?
63. How do we know that stars are suns? How much is meant by
the assertion that they are ?
64. Suppose that in attempting to measure the parallax of a bright
star by the differential method (Art. 522) it should turn out that the
small star taken as the point to measure from, and supposed to be far
beyond the bright one, should really prove to be nearer. How would
the measures show the fact ?
65. If a Centauri were to travel straight towards the sun with a
uniform velocity equal to that of the earth in its orbit, how long
would the journey take, on the assumption that the star's parallax
is0".75?
66. If Altair were ten times as distant from us, what would be its
apparent "magnitude"? What, if it were a thousand times as
remote? (See Arts. 436, 437; and remember that the apparent
brightness varies inversely with the square of the distance.)
SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW AND EXAMINATION.
This synopsis is intended to facilitate the work of teacher
and pupil in reviews and in preparation for examination.
A student who has been reasonably faithful in the original
class work generally needs, in review, to look up only a com-
paratively small proportion of the topics he has studied ; the
difficulty is to know beforehand just what those topics are
without going over the whole ground.
By an intelligent use of the synopsis he will be able at
once to discriminate those with respect to which his memory
and understanding are clear from those with respect to which
he is consciously doubtful. He can thus avoid much waste of
time and labor by confining his attention to the points that
require it, and in this way will find it possible to deal as
easily with a review lesson of fifty pages as he could with one
of half the length without some such guide. The synopsis is
made very full, and includes references to the appendix as
well as to the body of the text. Of course it is not expected
that pupils whose course has been limited to the text will
look up these appendix articles unless time is specially
allowed them for the purpose.
In a few instances, also, topics not mentioned in the book
at all are introduced (as in article
17),
with "teacher's notes
"
added ; in hopes that the instructor will look up some of these
subjects, and supplement the necessarily scanty information
of the book. The interest and value of text-book work is
greatly increased by the occasional introduction of something
fresh from outside sources.
440 APPENDIX.
The numbers refer to articles. Articles numbered above 490 are in the
appendix. Topics italicized are specially important.
1. The subject-matter and utility of astronomy, 1-5. Conception
of
the celestial sphere as infinite : the
"
place
"
of a heavenly body,
7-9. Angular measurements and units : relation
of
the radian to de-
grees, minutes, and seconds: the number 206264-8, 10, 11. Relation
between the distance and apparent diameter of a sphere, 12.
2. Definition of the Zenith (astronomical and geocentric)
;
the
Nadir and the Horizon, 14, 15. The
"
visible horizon
"
and dip of
the horizon, 16. Vertical circles, the Meridian, and parallels of
altitude, 17, 18. Altitude ; Azimuth or "true bearing," 19-22.
3. Definition of the celestial Poles and the celestial Equator,
26,
27. Hour-circles and the Meridian, 29, 30. Hour-angle and Declina-
tion, 31-33. The Vernal Equinox, or First of Aries, 34. Sidereal
time, 35. Definitions of Right Ascension, 36, 37. Celestial Latitude
and Longitude, 38, 491.
4. Relation
of
the place
of
the celestial pole to the observer's latitude,
40. The right, parallel, and oblique spheres, 41-44.
5. Definitions of the Latitude
of
a place, 47. Two methods
of
deter-
mining the latitude by observation, 48, 51. The Meridian Circle, 49.
Astronomical Refraction, 50. Variation
of
Latitude, 71*.
6. The three kinds of Time

Sidereal, Apparent Sola?-, and Mean

Solar

defined as Hour-angles, 53-56. Relative length of the Sidereal

and Solar Days, 54. The Civil day and the Astronomical day, 57.
Methods of determining the time, i.e., of finding the "error" of a
time-piece, 58, 60, 493. The Transit Instrument, 544, 545. The
Clock, 545. The Chronograph, 546. Personal Equation, 59.
7. Definitions of the Longitude of a place and its relation to
"
local
time," 61. Methods
of
determining the longitude, (a) by the Telegraph,
62
;
(b) by the Chronometer, 63
;
(c) other methods, 64. Local and
"
Standard
"
times, 65. Beginning of the day, and change of
"
date
"
when a ship crosses the 180th meridian.
8. Methods of determining the place
of
a ship at sea, 67-69. The
Sextant, 552. Corrections to sextant observations, 492. (Sumner's
method, teacher's notes.)
9. Methods of determining the "place" of a heavenly body (i.e.,
its right ascension and declination)
;
(a) by the Meridian Circle,
70;
SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW AND EXAMINATION. 441
(b) by the Equatorial and Micrometer, 71. The Meridian Circle,
548-550. The Equatorial, 540, 541. The Micrometer, 542.
10. Principal facts relating to the Earth considered astronomically,
73. Approximate determination
of
its form
and size,
74, 75.
11. The Rotation of the Earth : demonstrations of the rotation by
the Foucault pendulum, and other phenomena,
77, 78, 494. Possible
variability of the rate of rotation, 79. Changes in the position of
the axis within the Earth, 71*.
12. Centrifugal force due to the Earth's rotation, and its effect
upon gravity, 80, 82. Effect in modifying the form of the Earth, 81.
13. Accurate determination of the dimensions and form
of
the earth
by the combination
of
geodetic and astronomical measurements (measure-
ments
of
the length
of
degrees in different latitudes), 86-89. The
"
oblateness," or
"
ellipticity," of the Earth (about
^-
5
),
90. Station
Errors, 92.
14. The
form
of the Earth determined by pendulum observations, 91.
Loss of weight between pole and equator,

its amount
(y^y)*
and
explanation, 91. Other methods, 91. Distinction between Astro-
nomical, Geographical, and Geocentric latitudes, 93, 94.
15. The Mass and Density of the Earth : definition
of
mass and
units
of
mass, 96, 97. Distinction between mass and weight, 97.
Measurement of mass without weighing, 496. Scientific units
of
force,
the dyne, and megadyne, 97.
M v M
16. The Law
of
Gravitation:
f=G
l
x
2
,
99-102. The Con-
stant
of
Gravitation, and its value
(0.000,000,066,6 dynes) in C. G. S.
system, 101.
17. Experimental determination of the mass and density of the
Earth by the Torsion Balance, 104-108. (Other methods, teacher's
notes.) Mean density of the Earth about
5.55,
107, 108. Central
density and probable constitution of the Earth's interior, 109.
. 18. The Earth's Orbital Motion : The Sun's apparent motion on the
celestial sphere, 110, 111. The Ecliptic, Equinoxes, and Solstices, 112,
113. The Zodiac and its signs, 114.
19. The Earth's orbit, distinguished from the Ecliptic, 115. Method
of
finding the form
of
the Earth's orbit, 115, 116. Definitions of peri-
helion and aphelion
;
semi-major axis, radius-vector, and eccentricity;
442
APPENDIX.
anomaly, 117. Law
of
the orbital motion (equal areas), 118. Changes
in the orbit : secular constancy of major axis and period
;
oscilla-
tion of inclination and eccentricity, 120.
20. Precession
of
the Equinoxes : the phenomenon itself and its dis-
covery, 122. Effect upon the place of the pole among the stars, 123.
Physical explanation, 124. (Illustration by gyroscope, teacher's
notes.)
21. The Aberration
of
Light : the phenomenon denned and illus-
trated, 125. Effect upon the place of a star, 126. Determination
of
the Sun's distance by means
of
aberration, 127.
22. Apparent and Mean Solar time, 128. The Equation
of
time,
128,
497-499.
~}
23. The Seasons, 129-132.
24. The three kinds of year, Sidereal, Tropical, and Anomalistic,
124. The Julian and Gregorian Calendars, 134-138. The Metonic
Cycle, 135.
25. The Moon : her apparent motion in the heavens, 140. Defini-
tions of Conjunction, Opposition, Syzygy, and Quadrature, 140.
The Sidereal and Synodic months, and the relation between them
(
-~
=
-rz.

r=,
),
141. The Moon's path among the stars
;
its inclina-
tion
;
the nodes and their regression, 142. Interval between transits,
etc., 143. Harvest and hunter's moon, 144. The Moon's orbit, and
method of rinding its form, 145. Definitions of perigee, apogee, and
apsides, 145.
26. Parallax (geocentric and heliocentric)
defined, 146, 147. Hori-
zontal parallax, 147. Relation between the horizontal parallax
of
a body
, / ~
206265 \
Htn
and its distance, [R =r
-
J, 148.
27. A method of finding the Moon's distance and parallax, 149.
(Other methods, teacher's notes). The result : mean distance of
Moon =60.3 times the radius of the Earth, or 238,840 miles, 150.
Variation of distance, 150. Form of Moon's path relative to the
Sun, 150.
28. The Moon's diameter, area of surface, and volume, 152. Her
mass, density, and surface-gravity, 153. Her axial rotation, 154.
Librations, 155. (Probable cause of the coincidence of the axial
SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW AND EXAMINATION. 443
and orbital revolution, teacher's notes
;
see also
"
tidal evolution,"
281).
29. The Moon's phases, 156. The Terminator and the direction
of the horns of the crescent, 157. Earth-shine on the Moon, 158.
The Moon's atmosphere, and the probable explanation
of
its low density or
absence, 161. Its light and albedo, 162. Heat received from
the Moon,
and probable temperature
of
its surface, 163, 164. Lunar influences
upon the Earth, 165.
30. Character of the Moon's surface, and its telescopic features,
166-169. Question of Changes now in progress, 172.
31. The Sun : its parallax and distance, 175. Its diameter, sur-
face, and volume, 176. Its mass and method
of
determining it, 178,
179. Its rotation, 180. The equatorial acceleration, 181.
32. Methods of studying the solar surface, 182, 183. The photo-
sphere : its appearance : its constitution as a stratum of cloud, 184,
222. The faculae, 184. Sun spots : their appearance and nature, 185,
186. Their dimensions, development, and duration, 187, 188. Their
distribution and periodicity, 189, 190. Theoretical explanations of sun
spots, 191. Influence upon the Earth, 192.
33. The Spectroscope, and its astronomical importance, 193.
Principles upon which its action depends, 193. Construction of the
Spectroscope, 194. The Solar spectrum and the Fraunhofer lines,
194*.
34. Kirchhoff's Laics, 195. Explanation
of
the Fraunhofer lines,
195. The
"
Reversing Layer," 198, 223. Identification
of
chemical
elements present in the Sun, 196, 197. Caution as to negative con-
clusions, 197.
35. The sun-spot spectrum, 199. Distortion of lines, 200. Dop-
pler's principle (extremely important), 200, 500.
36. The Chromosphere and Prominences, 201, 202, 224. Their
spectrum and discovery
of
Helium, 202,
202*. Prominences observed
and photographed with the spectroscope, 203, 501. Different kinds of
prominences, 204.
37. The Corona, 205, 206, 225. Its spectrum and
"
Coronium,"
207. Its nature, 208,
225*.
38. The Sun's light, 209. Brightness of different parts of its disc,
210. (Method of measuring the Sun's light, teacher's notes.)
444 APPENDIX.
39. The Sun's heat : definition
of
the
"
solar constant
"
and method
of
determining it, 211, 212. The Pyrheliometer, 556. The solar radi-
ation expressed in terms of melting ice, 213; in terms of energy, 214.
Radiation at the Sun's surface, 215. The question of the Sun's tem-
perature, 216, 217. Constancy of the solar radiation, 218. Helm-
holtz's theory
of
its maintenance by slow contraction, 219. Age and
duration of the Sun, 220.
40. Summary of received theories as to the constitution of the
Sun,
221-225*.
41. Eclipses : dimensions of the Earth's shadow, 227. The pe-
numbra, 228. Lunar eclipses, their cause and varieties, 229. Dura-
tion, 230. Lunar ecliptic limit, 231. Phenomena of a lunar eclipse
and explanation of the Moon's ruddy illumination during eclipse,
232.
42. Solar eclipses : dimensions
of
the Moon's shadow, especially its
length, compared with the distance
of
the Moon
from
the Earth, 234. . Ex-
planation of total, annular, and partial eclipses, 235, 236. Velocity
of the shadow over the Earth's surface and duration of the different
kinds of solar eclipses, 237. Phenomena of a total solar eclipse, 239.
43. The solar ecliptic limits, 238. Number of eclipses (both solar
and lunar) in a year, 242. Frequency of various kinds of eclipses,
243. Recurrence
of
eclipses : the Saros, 244. Occultations of stars,
245, 246.
44. Celestial mechanics : motion of a body not acted on by any
force, 247. Motion under the action
of
a force,
248. "Law
of
equal
areas," etc., when the force
is central, 249, 502. The case of motion in
/ 47r
2
r\
a circle
(
/=
J
, 250. Kepler's Laws, 251-253, 503. Inferences
from those laws, 254.
45. Newton's verification of the hypothesis of gravitation from the
motion of the Moon, 255, 505.
46. The conies, 257, 506.
"
The problem
of
two bodies," 258, 259.
The criterion which determines the species
of
the orbit, 259,
507*. The
"
parabolic velocity," or
"
velocity from infinity," 507*. Intensity
of the Sun's attraction on the Earth, 260.
47. The "problem
of
three bodies," as yet solved only for special
cases, 261. The
"
disturbing force
"
only a small component of the
SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW AND EXAMINATION. 445
attraction of the disturbing body, 262.
"
Perturbations," and the
"
instantaneous eHipse," 263, 264. Lunar perturbations due only to
action of the Sun, 265.
48. The tides : the phenomenon itself, 266. Definition of technical
terms, flood and ebb, spring and neap, etc., 267. The tide-raising
force explained, 268-271. Relative efficiency of the Sun and Moon,
271.
49. Motion of tides as it would be if the Earth were a liquid globe,
272. High water then under the Moon, 272. Free and forced oscilla-
tions, 273. Cotidal lines and actual course of tide-wave, 274, 275.
Height of tides under various circumstances, 277-279.
50. Theoretical effect of tides on the Earth's rotation, 280. Effect
on Moon's motion, 281. Tidal evolution, 281.
51. The planets : their names, approximate periods and distances
from the Sun : Bode's Law, and its failure in the case of Neptune,
282-285.
52. Definition of sidereal and synodic periods, and the relation
between them, 286.
53. The general law
of
relative motion, and the apparent epicycloidal
motion of planets with reference to the earth, 287, 288. Definitions
of terms, opposition, elongation, etc., 289.
54. The apparent alternate direct and retrograde motions of the
planets in Longitude and Right ascension, 290. Motion in Latitude,
293.
55. Motions of the planets with respect to the Sun's place in the
sky, i.e., in
"
elongation
"
: difference between superior and inferior
planets in this regard, 291, 292.
56. The Ptolemaic and Copernican systems, 294, 295. (The
Tychonic system, teacher's notes.)
57. The
"
elements
"
of a planet's orbit, 296, 507.
58. Observations necessary for their determination, 296. (How to
determine a planet's place at a given moment from observations made
for several days about that time : interpolation of observations, teach-
er's notes.)
59. Method
of
determining the period
of
a planet, 297.
60. Geometrical method
of
determining a planet's distance
from the Sun
in astronomical units. 298-301.
446 APPENDIX.
61. Planetary perturbations : periodic and secular, 302-304.
Effect of secular perturbations on major axes and periods, on inclina-
tions and eccentricities, on nodes and lines of apsides, 304. Sta-
bility of the system, 305.
62. Method of finding the diameter, surface, and volume or bulk of
a planet, 307, 308, 542.
63. Determination
of
the mass
of
a planet, 309, 508
;
of its density
and surface-gravity, 309.
64. Determination of a planet's axial rotation and other data
connected with it, 310.
65. Physical data characteristic of the planet, 311. Satellite sys-
tems, 312. Relative accuracy
of
different
data, 314.
66. Humboldt's Classification
of
the planets and the leading character-
istics
of
each class, 313.
67. Mercury : peculiarities of its orbit, 316, 317. Its magnitude,
mass, and density, 318. Telescopic appearance, phases, atmosphere,
and albedo, 319. Its axial rotation, 319. Transits, 326, 327.
68. Venus: peculiarities of its orbit, 321. Magnitude, mass, density,
etc., 322. Brightness, phases, atmosphere, etc., 323, 324. Surface
markings and axial rotation, 325,
325*. Transits, 326, 327.
69. Mars : peculiarities of its orbit, 328. Magnitude, mass, density,
and surface gravity, 329. General telescopic aspect, phase, atmosphere,
albedo, 330. Axial rotation, 331. Surface markings, canals and
their gemination, seasonal changes, 332,
333*. Maps of the planet,
334. Temperature, 335. Satellites, 336. Habitability, 337.
70. The asteroids : their discovery and nomenclature, 338. Their
orbits, 339. Their number, size, and probable aggregate mass, 340.
Their probable origin, 341. Eros, note,
p.
243.
71. Possible intra-mercurial planets, 342. The Zodiacal light,
343.
72. Jupiter : its orbit and period, 344. Its magnitude, mass, and
density, 345. Telescopic appearance, albedo, atmosphere, etc., 346,
347. Axial rotation, 348. Surface markings (belts, red spot, etc.),
probable temperature and physical condition, 346, 349. Its satellites
and the phenomena they present, 350, 351. Discovery
of
the
fifth
satellite, 350.
73. The "Equation
of
light"
defined,
352. Value
of
the
"
Constant
SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW AND EXAMINATION. 447
of
the light equation
"
(499
s
)
and its determination by means
of
the
eclipses
of
the Jupiter's satellites, 352-354. Determination
of
the Sun's
distance by this means, 355. (How the velocity
of
light is measured,
teacher's notes.)
74. Saturn : its orbit, 356. Dimensions, mass, density, surface-
gravity, and rotation, 357. Surface markings, albedo, and spectrum,
358. Its rings, discovery, dimensions, phases, and periodic disappear-
ance, 360. Their constitution and structure, 361. Keeler's spectro-
scopic demonstration
of
the relative rate
of
rotation
of
the outer and inner
edges
of
the ring, 361. Its satellite system, 362.
75. Uranus : its discovery by Herschel, 363. Orbit and period
;
diameter, mass, and density
;
albedo, color, and spectrum, 363. Its
satellites and the peculiarity
of
their orbital motion, 364.
76. Neptune : its discovery, by Leverrier, Adams, and G-alle, 365,
366. Its orbit and period; diameter, mass, and density
;
albedo and
spectrum, 367. Its satellite, 368. The Sun and solar system as seen
from Neptune, 369. Possible ultra-neptunian planets, 370.
77. Comets : their general aspect, numbers, and designation, 371,
372. Brightness and duration of visibility, 373. Their orbits, and
the relative number
of
hyperbolas, ellipses, and parabolas, 374, 375.
Comets as "visitors," 379.
78. Elliptic comets, and the relation between the short-period comets
and Jupiter, 376. Comet "families," 392. Comet "groups," 377.
The
"
Capture theory," 392. Comet 1889 V. (at one time called the
Lexell Brooks Comet) as illustrating this theory, 399*.
79. Physical characteristics of comets : their constituent parts
(coma, nucleus, tail, etc.), 381. Dimensions and change of dimen-
sions, 382. Mass and density of comets, 383, 384. Character
of
their
light and its spectrum
;
presence
of
carbon and hydrogen, 386. Phe-
nomena in the head
of
a comet which accompany approach to the Sun,
387. The tail and its
formation, 388, 389. Anomalous phenomena,
390, 399. Nature
of
comets, 391. Remarkable comets, 394-399*.
Photography of comets, 399**.
Danger from comets, 509.
80. Meteorites : circumstances of their fall, 400. Their number,
size, and constitution (stones and irons), 401. Path, velocity, etc.,
402. Method of observation, 403. Explanation
of
their light and
heat, 404. Their probable origin, 405.
448 APPENDIX.
81. Shooting stars : their nature and number ; difference between
hourly number in evening and morning, 406, 407. Elevation, path, and
velocity, 408. Brightness, material, probable mass, etc., 409, 410.
Insignificance of effects due to their fall en the Earth, 411.
82. Meteoric showers : general character of the phenomenon
;
"
the radiant" 412. Explanation
of
such showers and the Jixity
of
date, 413. Designation and peculiarities o4ifferent meteoric swarms,
412, 413. The Mazapil meteorite, 414. Tlie connection between comets
and meteoric showers, 415-417. Lockyer's
"
meteoritic hypothesis,"
418.
83. The fixed stars : their nature and number,
419, 420. The
constellations, 421. Names and designations, 422. Star catalogues
and charts, 423-425. Stellar photography, 425.
84. Star motions : common motions and proper motions : maximum
and ordinary amounts
of
proper motion, 426, 427. Relation of a star's
proper motion to its real motion, 428. Radial motion (approach or
recession) measured by the spectroscope, 429, 500. Motion
of
the Sun in
space (the
"
Sun's way "), 430.
85. Distance of the stars : heliocentric, or annual, parallax and its
relation to the star's distance, 431. Principle on which measurement
of
stellar distances depends, 432. Methods of measuring stellar parallax,

the absolute method, 521

;
the differential, 522. (Method by spectro-
scopic observations on a binary star, teacher's notes). The
"
Light-
year
"
as the unit of stellar distance, 433.
86. Light of the stars : star magnitudes, 434, 435. The
"
light-
ratio," and
"
absolute
"
scale
of
magnitudes, 436, 437. Relation between
size of telescope and smallest magnitude visible with it (mag.
=
9-f
5x
log. of diameter of object glass in inches), 438. Starlight
compared with sunlight, 440, 441, 443. Why stars
differ
in brightness,
444. Heat from the stars, 442. Size
of
stars (case of Algol), 445.
87. Variable stars: different
classes, 446-448. Temporary stars or
"
Novoe," 450. Periodic stars
of
the
"
Mira
"
type, 451. Short-period
variables
of fi
Lyrce type, 452. The
"
Algol" type, 453. Explanations
of variability : gaseous eruptions, meteoritic collisions, eclipses, 454,
454*. Number and designation of variables, 455. Variable-star
clusters, 455*.
88. Star-spectra : early work and identification of chemical ele-
SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW AND EXAMINATION. 449
ments present in stars, 456. Secchi's classification
of
stellar spectra,
457. Photography of stellar spectra : the
"
slitless
"
spectroscope, its
advantages and disadvantages, 458, 459. Scintillation of the stars,
460.
89. Double and multiple stars, their number, color, etc., 461. Dis-
tance and position angle, 461, 542. Distinction between pairs optically
and physically double, 462. Binary stars and the nature of their
orbits, 463, 464. Dimensions and periods of their orbits, 465. (Pos-
sible spectroscopic determination of the actual size of the orbit and
so of the distance of the pair from the Sun, teacher's notes.) Spec-
troscopic binaries (detected by shift of lines or by doubling of lines),
465*. Masses
of
binary stars, how determined, 466. Evolution of
binary systems, 466*. Question of planets attending stars, 467.
90. Multiple stars, 468. Star clusters, the Pleiades, etc., 469,
455*. Probable distance of clusters and size of the stars that com-
pose them, 469.
91. The nebulae : number and general characteristics, 470. Forms
of nebulae, variability of some, drawings and photographs, 470, 471.
Changes in them, 472. Their characteristic spectrum and its evidence
as to their constitution, and essential difference from clusters, 473.
Motions of approach and recession, 473*. Distance and distribution
of nebulae, 474.
92. Distribution of stars in the heavens : the galaxy, 475.
"
Star
gauges
"
and relation
of
stars to the plane
of
the galaxy, 476. Distri-
bution of stars in space, the stellar universe, 477, 478. Question of
a
"
stellar system
"
: no central Sun, 479, 480.
93. Cosmogony : general considerations, 481, 482. Statement
of
Laplace's "nebular hypothesis," 483. Necessary modifications, 484.
(Difficulties from retrograde revolution of satellites of Uranus and
Neptune, and possible explanations, teacher's notes.) Tidal evolu-
tion, 281,
466*
(and teacher's notes). Lockyer's
"
meteoritic
hypothesis," 485.
94. Bearing of the theory of heat upon theories of cosmogony,
487, 488. Indications as to the age and duration of the system,
489. The
"
dissipation of energy and non-eternity of the present
system, 490.
95. Methods of determining the parallax and distance of the Sun :
450 APPENDIX.
General and historical remarks,
510, 511. Classification
of
methods,
as geometrical, gravitational, and physical, 512.
96. Geometrical methods : Observations of Mars near opposition
from two or more widely separated stations, 514. From a single equa-
torial station, 515. Parallax
from observations
of
the nearer asteroids,
515. By transits of Venus : Halley's method, 517. Be VIsle's method,
518. Heliometric and photographic observations, 519.
97. Gravitational methods : the
"
parallactic inequality
"
of the
Moon, 520. Perturbations of Mars and Yenus by the Earth, 520.
98. Physical methods :
"
aberration
"
and the velocity of light,
127. The velocity of light and the equation of light, 355.
99. The telescope : simple refracting, 530. Magnifying power and
brightness of image, 531, 532. The achromatic object glass, 533, 534.
Diffraction and
"
spurious discs," 534*. Eyepieces, positive and
negative, 535. The reflecting telescope : various forms, 537. Rela-
tive advantages of refractors and reflectors, 539. Great telescopes,
538. The equatorial mounting, 540, 541.
100. The micrometer, 542. The heliometer, 543. The transit
instrument and its adjustment, 544, 545. The clock and chronograph,
546, 547. The meridian circle, 548-550. The sextant and the princi-
ple
of
its operation, 552-554.
INDEX.
[All references, unless expressly stated to the contrary, are to articles, not to pages.]
A.
Aberration of light, 125-127 ; of light
determining distance of sun, 127.
Absolute scale of star magnitudes, 436.
Acceleration of Encke's comet, 380;
of rotation at the sun's equator, 181.
Achromatic telescope, 533.
Adams, J. C. (and Leverrier), dis-
covery of Neptune, 365 ; orbit of the
Leonids, 415.
Aerolite. See Meteorite.
Age of the sun and planetary system,
220, 489.
Albedo defined, 162, 311 ; of the moon
(Zollner), 162; of the planets (Zoll-
ner), 319, 323, 330, 346, 358, 363, 367.
Algol, or Persei, 453.
Almagest, Ptolemy's, 294.
Almucantar, Chandler's instrument,
551.
Almucantars defined, 18.
Alphabet, the Greek, page 434.
Altitude defined,
19;
parallels of, 18;
of the pole equals latitude, 40.
Amplitude defined, 20.
Andromeda, nebula of, 470, 471; 483
note; nebula of, temporary star in,
450.
Andromedes, or Bielids, 396,
412-414.
Angular measurement, units of, 10, 11.
Annual or heliocentric parallax de-
fined, 147, 431, 432 -methods of deter-
mining it for the stars by observa-
tion, 521-523.
Annular eclipses, 235.
Anomalistic year, 133.
Anomalous phenomena in comets, 390
;
phenomena in occultations of stars,
246.
Anomaly defined, 117.
Apex of the sun's way, 430.
Aphelion defined, 117.
Apogee defined, 145.
Apparent motion of a planet, 287-293;
motion of the sun, 110; solar time,
54, 128.
Apsides, line of, defined, 117; line of,
of earth's orbit, its revolution, 120
of the moon's orbit, 145.
Arcs of meridian, measurement of,
86-90.
Areas, equal, law of, 249.
Ariel, a satellite of Uranus, 364.
Aries, first of, defined, 34.
Asteroids, or minor planets, 338-341
;
their probable origin, 341.
Astronomical constants, table of, page
427;
day, beginning of, 57 ; latitude,
distinguished from geographical and
geocentric, 93, 94 ; symbols, page
434
;
unit,

see Distance of the sun.

Astronomy, subject-matter of, 3; util-
ity of, 4.
Atmosphere of the moon, 159 ; of Mars,
330; of Mercury, 319; of Venus, 324,
517.
Attraction of gravitation, its law, 99-
102 ; solar, on the earth, its intensity,
260.
Azimuth defined,
20; determination
of, 495 ; of a transit instrument, how
adjusted, 545.
451
452 INDEX.
[All references, unless expressly stated to the contrary, are to articles, not to pages\
Balance, torsion, and the mass of the
earth, 104, 105.
Bayer, his system of lettering the
stars, 422.
Beginning of the century (Ceres dis-
covered), 338; of the day, 57, 66.
Bessel, dark stars, 444 ; first measures
stellar parallax, 521.
Bethlehem, the star of, 450.
Biela's comet, 394-396, 416.
Bielids, or Andromedes, 396,
412-
414,416,417.
Binary stars, 463-465; their masses,
466 ; their orbits, 464, 465.
Bissextile year, 136.
Bode's law, 284.
Bond, W. C, discovery of the
"
gauze
ring" of Saturn, 359; discovery of
Hyperion, 362.
Bredichin, his theory of comets' tails,
389.
Brightness of comets, 373; of mete-
ors, 409 ; of stars, and causes of dif-
ference, 439-441, 444.
Cesar, Julius, reformation of the
calendar, 136.
Calendar, the, 134-138.
Calory, the, denned, 211.
Canals of Mars, 333.
Capture theory of comets, 393.
Cardinal points denned, 30.
Cassegrain, his form of reflecting
telescope, 537.
Cassini, J. D., discovers division in
Saturn's ring, 359; discovers four
satellites of Saturn, 362.
Catalogues of stars, 423.
Cavendish, his experiment for find-
ing the earth's density, 104, 105.
Celestial globe described, 524-528;
sphere, infinite, 7.
Central force, motion under it, 249,
250, 502.
Centrifugal force due to earth's rota-
tion, 80-82.
Ceres, the first of the asteroids, 338.
Chandler, S. C, his almucantar,
551;
his catalogue of variable stars, 455.
Changes, gradual, in the brightness
of stars, 447; on the surface of the
moon, 172.
Chemical constitution of the sun, 196-
198.
Chromosphere of the sun, 201, 224;
and prominences, how made visible
by the spectroscope, 501.
Chronograph, the, 547.
Chronometer, longitude by, 63, 69;
rate and error of, 58, 546.
Circle, meridian, the, 548-550.
Circles, hour, defined, 29.
Circular motion under central force,
250.
Circumpolar stars, latitude by, 48.
Civil day and astronomical day, 57.
Classification of the planets, Hum-
boldt, 313 ; of stellar spectra, Secchi,
457 ; of variable stars, 446.
Clock, the astronomical, 546; its rate
and error, 58, 546.
Clusters of stars, 469.
Collimating eye-piece, 550.
Collimation, line of, 545.
Comet, Biela's, 394-396, 416; Donati's,
371, 387 ; Encke's, 376, 380 ; Halley's,
376; of 1882,397-399.
Comets, anomalous phenomena shown
by, 390; attendant companions, 399
;
brightness and visibility, 373; cap-
ture theory of their origin, 393 ; cen-
tral stripe in tail, 390 ; connection
with meteors, 415-417; constitution
of, 381, 391; danger from, 509; den-
sity of, 384 ; designation and nomen-
clature, 372 ; dimensions of, 382 ; el-
liptic, 376; envelopes in head, 381,
387; families of, 392; formation of
the tail, 388
;
general features of,
371; their light and spectra, 386;
mass of, 383 ; nature of, 391 ; num-
ber of, 371 ; orbits of, 374, 375
;
peri-
odic, their origin, 392; sheath of
comet of 1882, 399; tails or trains,
388, 389 ; visitors to the solar system,
379.
INDEX.
453
[All references, unless expressly stated to
Comet-groups, 377.
Common, A. C, photographs of the
moon, 174.
Conic sections, the, 257, 506.
Conjunction defined, 140, 289.
Constant, solar, defined and discussed,
211, 212.
Constellations, the, 421. (For detailed
description see
"
Uranography.")
Constitution of comets, 381; of the
sun, 221-225.
Contraction of a comet nearing the
sun, 382; of the sun, Helmholtz's
theory, 219.
Copernicus, his system, 295.
Correction or error of a time-piece, 58,
546.
Corrections to a measured altitude,
492.
Corona, the solar, 205-208, 22*.
Coronium, hypothetical element of the
corona, 207, 225.
Cosmogony, 481-488.
Cotidal lines, 274.
Cycle, the Metonic, 135.
Dark stars, 444, 464.
Darwin, G. H., demonstrates that a
meteoric swarm behaves like a gas-
eous nebula, 485 ; tidal evolution, 281.
Day, beginning of, 66 ; civil and astro-
nomical, 57.
Declination defined, 31; determined
by the meridian circle,
70;
parallels
of, 28.
Deferent defined, 294.
Deimos, a satellite of Mars, 336... .
De l'Isle, his, method of observing a
transit of Venus, 518.
Density of comets, 384; of the earth,
its determination, 107, 108; of the
moOn, 153; of the sun, 178.
Designation and nomenclature of
comets, 372; and nomenclature of
the stars, 422; and nomenclature
'
of variable stars, 455.
Diameter of a planet, how determined,
307.
the contrary, are to articles, not to pages.]
Disc, spurious, of a star, 534.
Difference of brightness in stars, its
causes, 444.
Diffraction, telescopic, 534*.
Diffraction grating, the, 193.
Dimensions of the stars, 445.
Dione, a satellite of Saturn, 362.
Dip of the horizon, 16, 492.
Displacement of spectrum lines by
motion in line of sight,
200, 429, 500.
Distance of a body as depending on
its parallax, 148; of the nebulae,
474 ; of a planet from the sun, how
determined, 298-300; of the stars,
432, 433; of the sun, by aberration
of light, 127; of the sun, by the equa-
tion of light, 355; of the sun, by its
parallax, 513-520.
Distribution of the nebulae, 474; of
the stars in the heavens, 476; of sun
spots, 190.
Disturbing force, the, 262.
Diurnal or geocentric parallax defined,
147; rotation of the heavens, 23,
24.
Doppler's principle, 200, 429, 500.
Double stars, 461-466; measurement
of, 461; optical and physical, dis-
tinguished, 462.
Draper, H., photograph of the nebu-
la of Orion,
471;
photographs of star
spectra, 458.
Duration of solar eclipses, 237
;
prob-
able, of the solar system, 489.
Earth, the, astronomical facts relating
to it, 73; its density, 103-108 ; dimen-
sions of, 74, 75, 84, Table I.; ellip-
ticity or oblateness determined;
85-91; its interior constitution, 109;
mass determined, 103-108; orbital
motion of, 110-118 ; its orbit, changes
in, 120 ; its rotation affected by the
tides, 280; its rotation, proofs of, 76-
78;
shadow of, its dimensions, 227;
surface area and volume,
95 ; veloci-
ty in its orbit, 175.
Earth-shine on the moon, 158.
454
INDEX.
[All references, unless expressly stated to the contrary, are to articles, not to pages.]
Eastward deviation of falling bodies,
78.
Ebb denned, 267.
Eccentricity of a conic, 257; of the
earth's orbit, 116, 117; of the earth's
orbit, variation of, 120; of an ellipse
denned, 117, 257.
Eclipses, frequency of, 243; of Jupi-
ter's satellites, 351-354 ; lunar, 229
;
Oppolzer's canon of, 241 ; number in
a year, 242 ; recurrence of, 244 ; so-
lar, duration of, 237; solar, phenom-
ena of, 239; solar, varieties of, total,
annular, aild partial, 235, 236.
Ecliptic, the, defined, 112; obliquity
of, 112; poles of, 113; variation of its
obliquity, 120.
Ecliptic-limits, lunar, 231 ; solar, 238.
Effect of tides on the rotation of the
earth, 280.
Effects of meteors and shooting stars,
411; of wind and barometric pres-
sure on the tides, 278.
Elements, chemical, recognized in the
stars, 456; chemical, recognized in
the sun, 197 ; of a planet's orbit, 296,
507; of the planets, Table II., page
428.
Ellipse, the, defined and described,
117, 257.
Elliptic comets, 376.
Ellipticity, or oblateness, of the earth
defined, 90; of the earth measured,
89-91.
Elongation defined, 140, 289.
Enceladus, a satellite of Saturn, 362.
Encke, J. F., his value of the solar
parallax, 511.
Encke's comet, 376, 380.
Energy of the solar radiation, 214,
215.
Enlargement, apparent, of the discs
of sun and moon near the horizon,
11, note.
Envelopes in the head of a comet, 381,
387.
Epicycle defined, 294.
Equation of light, 352, 353;
personal,
59; of time, 128, 497-499.
Equator, celestial or equinoctial, de-
fined, 27.
Equatorial acceleration of the sun's
surface rotation, 181; instrument,
the, 540, 541 ; use iu determining the
place of a heavenly body, 71.
Equinoctial, the, or celestial equator,
defined, 27.
Equinox, vernal, defined, 34.
Equinoxes, precession of, 122-124.
Erecting eye-piece, 535.
Error or correction of a timepiece, 58,
546.
Eruptive prominences on the sun, 204.
Establishment of a port, 267.
Evolution, tidal, 281.
Eye-piece, collimating, 550; solar, or
helioscope, 182.
Eye-pieces, telescopic, various forms,
535.
K.
Faculse, solar, 184.
Families of comets, 392.
Filar micrometer, the, 542.
Flood tide, 267.
Force, disturbing, the, 262; units of,
distinguished from mass-units, 97.
Form of the earth's orbit determined,
116.
Foucault, his gyroscope experiment,
78; his pendulum experiment, 77,
494 ; theory of the pendulum experi-
ment, 494.
Fourteen hundred and seventy-four
line in the spectrum of the corona,
207.
Fraunhofer lines in the solar spec-
trum, 196, note.
Frequency of eclipses, 243.
Galaxy, the, 475.
Galileo, his discovery of Jupiter's
satellites, 350; discovery of phases
of Venus, 321 ; discovery of Saturn's
ring, 359 ; his telescope, 529.
Gemination of the canals of Mars, 333.
Genesis of the planetary system, 482-
485,
INDEX.
455
[All references, unless expressly stated to the contrary, are to articles, not to pages.]
Geocentric latitude,
94;
parallax, 147.
Geographical latitude, 93.
Gibbous phase defined, 156.
Gill, D., his determination of the solar
parallax, 515.
Globe, the celestial, described, 524-528.
Golden number, the, 135.
Grating, diffraction, 193.
Gravitation between bodies free to
move, 102 ; between bodies not free,
101; proved by Kepler's third law,
503; statement of the law, 99-102;
verified by motion of the moon, 255,
505.
Gravitational methods of finding the
solar parallax, 520.
Gravity distinguished from gravita-
tion, 83; at the moon's surface, 153;
at the pole and equator of the earth,
91 ; at the sun's surface, 179 ; super-
ficial, of a planet, how determined,
309.
Greek alphabet, the, page 434.
Gregorian calendar, the, 137, 138 ; tele-
scope, the, 537.
Groups, cometary, 377.
Gyroscope illustrating precession, 124
;
proving rotation of the earth, 78.
H.
Hall, A., determines the rotation of
Saturn, 357; discovery of the satel-
lites of Mars, 336.
Halley discovers the proper motion
of stars, 427 ; his method of observ-
ing the transit of Venus, 517; his
periodic comet, 376.
Harmonic law, Kepler's, 251-253,
503,
504.
Harvest and hunter's moons, the, 144.
Heat of meteors, its explanation,
404
;
from meteors, its total amount, 411
;
from the moon, 163, 164; from the
stars, 442; of the sun, its constancy,
218; of the sun, its intensity, 217;
of the sun, its maintenance, 219; of
the sun, its quantity, 211.
Heavenly
bodies defined and enumer-
ated, 2,
Heliocentric, or annual parallax, de-
fined, 147, 431.
Heliometer, the, described,
543 ; used
in observing the parallax of Mars,
515 ; used in observing the parallax
of stars, 522; used in observing a
transit of Venus, 519.
Helioscopes, or solar eye-pieces, 182.
Helium, hypothetical element in the
sun, 202.
Helmholtz, his theory of the sun's
heat, 219.
Herschel, Sib J., illustration of the
solar system, 315.
Herschel, Sir "W., discovery of two
satellites of Saturn, 362: discovery
of Uranus by, 364 ; his great tele-
scope, 538.
Herschelian telescope, 537.
Herschels, the, their star-gauges,
476.
Hipparchus, 117, 122, 423, 511.
Horizon defined, rational, sensible,
and visible, 15, 16 ; dip of, 16, 492.
Horizontal parallax, 147, 148.
Hour-angle defined, 32.
Hour-Circles defined, 29.
Hourly number of meteors, 407.
Huggins, W., observes spectrum of
Mars, 330
;
observes spectrum of
Mercury, 319
;
observes spectrum
of nebulae, 473; observes spectrum
of stars, 456; observes spectrum ef
temporary star of 1866, 450 ; spectro-
scopic measures of star motions, 429.
Humboldt, his classification of the
planets, 313.
Hunter's moon, the, 144.
Huyghens, his discovery of Saturn's
ring, 359 ; discovery of Titan, 362 ; in-
vention of the pendulum clock, 546.
Hyperbola, the, 257. 506.
Hyperion, a satellite of Saturn, 362.
I.
Iapetus, the remotest satellite of Sat-
urn, 362.
Identification of the orbits of certain
comets and meteors, 416.
456 INDEX.
[All references, unless expressly stated to the contrary, are to articles, not to pages.]
Illuminating power of a telescope,
532.
Illumination of the moon's disc dur-
ing a lunar eclipse, 232.
Illustration of the proportions of the
solar system, 315.
Inferences from Kepler's laws, 254.
Influence of the moon on the earth,
165; of sun spots on the earth, 192.
Intensity of the sun's attraction on the
earth, 260; of the sun's heat, 217;
of the sun's light, 209.
Intra-Mercurial planets, 342.
Iron in comets, 386, 398 ; in meteorites,
401 ; in stars, 456 ; in the sun, 197.
Janssen (and Lockyer), method of
observing the solar prominences, 203.
Jena, new optical glass made there, 534.
Julian calendar, the, 136.
Juno, the third asteroid, 338.
Jupiter (the planet) , 344, 345 ; his belts,
red spot, and other markings, 349 ; his
rotation, 348; his satellites, and their
eclipses, 350-354.
Jupiter's family of comets, 376, 392.
K.
Kant, a proposer of the nebular hy-
pothesis, 483.
Kepler, his laws of planetary motion,
251-254 ; his third law, correction of,
504; his third law proving gravita-
tion, 503.
Kepler's problem, 119.
Kirchhoff, fundamental principles of
spectrum analysis, 195.
Langley, S. P., observations on the
moon's heat, 164; observations on
the sun's heat, 212, note.
La Place, his nebular hypothesis,
483-
488; stability of the solar system,
305.
Lassell, his discovery of Ariel and
Umbriel, 364; his discovery (inde-
pendent) of Hyperion, 362.
Latitude (celestial) defined and dis-
cussed, 38, 491
;
(terrestrial), defined,
40, 47; distinction between astro-
nomical, geographical, and geocentric
latitude, 93, 94
;
(terrestrial) , length
of degrees,
89;
(terrestrial), methods
of determining, 48-51, 68.
Law, Bode's, 284; of the earth's orbital
motion, 118; of equal areas under
central force, 249, 502; of gravita-
tion, 99-102, 255, 503, 505.
Laws, Kepler's, 251-253, 502, 503.
Leap-year, 136, 137.
Leonids, the, 412, 413, 415-417.
Leverrier (and Adams), discovery
of Neptune, 365 ; on the origin of the
Leonids, 417.
Librations of the moon, 155.
Lick telescope, the, 538.
Light, aberration of, 125-127 ; of com-
ets, 386; equation of, the, 352, 353;
of the moon, 162; of the sun, its
intensity, 209, 210 ; velocity of, used
to determine the distance of the
sun, 127, 355 ; the zodiacal, 343.
Light-ratio of the scale of stellar mag-
nitude, 436.
Light-year, the, 433.
Limb defined, 492.
Limits, ecliptic, the lunar, 231; eclip-
tic, the solar, 238.
Local time, 65; time from altitude of
the sun, 493; time by transit instru-
ment, 58-60.
Lockyer, J. N., on compound char-
acter of so-called elements, and the
reversing layer, 197, 198; his mete-
oric hypothesis, 418; on spectra of
comets, 386; on spectra of nebulae,
473;
(and Janssen), spectroscopic
method of observing the solar prom-
inences, 203, 501.
Longitude and latitude (celestial) , 38,
491;
(terrestrial), defined,
61;
(ter-
restrial), methods of determining
it,
62-64, 69.
Lunar. See Moon.
INDEX.
45T
[All references, unless expressly stated to the contrary, are to articles, not to pages.]
Midnight sun, the, 130.
Milky Way, the, 475.
Mimas, the inner satellite of Saturn.362.
Mira Ceti, 451.
Missing and new stars, 448.
Month, sidereal and synodic, 141.
Months, various kinds, Table I., page
427.
Moon, its albedo, 162 ; its atmosphere
discussed, 159-161; changes on its
surface, 172; character of its sur-
face, 167-171; density, 153; diame-
ter, surface area and bulk, 152; dis-
tance and parallax, 149, 150 ; eclipses
of, 229-233; heat, 163; influence on
the earth, 165; librations, 155; light
and albedo, 162; map, 173; mass,
density, and gravity, 153; motion
(in general) , 140-145 ; motion affect-
ed by the tides, 281 ; nomenclature of
objects on surface, 171, 173; paral-
lax of, determined, 149, 150; pertur-
bations of,
265;
phases,
156;
photo-
graphs, 174; rotation, 154; shadow
of, 234; surface structure, 167-171;
telescopic appearance, 166 ; tempera-
ture, 164; water not present, 160;
verification of gravitation by means
of its motion, 255, 505.
Motion, apparent diurnal, of the heav-
ens, 23-25; of the moon, 140-143; of
a planet, 287-291; of the sun, 110-
113; circular, 250; of a free body
acted on by a force, 247-249; in line
of vision, effect on spectrum, 200,
429, 500; of the sun in space, 430.
Motions of stars, 426-429.
Mountains, lunar, 167.
Mounting of a telescope, 540.
Multiple stars, 468.
91.
Magnesium in nebulae (Lockyer) , 473
;
in the stars, 456 ; in the sun, 197.
Magnifying power of a telescope, 531.
Magnitudes, star, 434-438; star, abso-
lute scale of, 436 ; star, and telescopic
power, 438.
Mars (the planet), 328-337; map of
the planet, 334 and page 230; obser-
vation for parallax, 514, 515 ; satel-
lites, 336; Schiaparelli's observa-
tions, etc., 333; telescopic aspect,
rotation, etc., 330-332.
Mass, definition, and distinction from
weight, 96, 97
; of comets, 383 ; of earth,
103-106; measurement of, in general,
98;
measurement independent of
gravity, 496; of the moon, 153; of a
planet, how determined, 309; of a
planet, formula demonstrated, 508;
of shooting stars, how estimated,
410; of the sun determined, 177.
Masses of binary stars, 466.
Mazapil, meteorite of, 414.
Mean and apparent places of stars,
424 ; and apparent solar time, 55, 128,
497^99.
Measurement, angular, units of, 10,
11; of arcs of latitude, 86-88; of a
degree by Picard, 255, note.
Melbourne reflector, 538.
Mercury (the planet), 316-320; tran-
sits of, 320.
Meridian (celestial) defined, 17, 30;
(terrestrial), arcs of, measured,
86-
90; circle, the, 49,
548-550.
Meteoric hypothesis, Lockyer,
418;
showers, 412, 413.
Meteorite of Mazapil, 414.
Meteorites, 400-405; their constitu-
ents, 401; their fall, 400.
Meteors, ashes of, 409; connection
with comets, 415-417 ; heat and light,
404,411; observation of, 403 ; origin
of, 402,
405;
path and velocity, 402;
and shooting stars, their effects on
the earth, 411.
Metonic cycle, the, 135.
Micrometer, the, 542.
Nadir defined, 14.
Nadir-point of meridian circle, 549.
Neap tide, 267.
Nebulas, the, 470-474; changes in, 472;
distance and distribution, 474; spec-
tra of, 473.
Nebular hypothesis, the, 483-488.
458 INDEX.
[All references, unless expressly stated to the contrary, are to articles, not to pages.]
Negative eye-pieces, 535.
Neptune (the planet), 365-369.
Newcomb, S., on the age and duration
of the system, 489; and Michelson,
the velocity of light, 126.
Newton, H. A., estimate of the daily
number of meteors, 407; investiga-
tion of the orbit of the Leonids, 415
;
nature of comets, 391; origin of
meteors, 402.
Newton, Sir Isaac, eastward devia-
tion of falling bodies, 78; law of
gravitation, 99-102; nature of plan-
etary orbits, 256-259
;
precession ex-
plained, 124
;
problem of three bodies,
261; verification of gravitation by
the moon's motion, 255, 505.
Newtonian telescope, 537.
Nodes of the moon's orbit and their
regression, 142; of the planetary
orbits, their motion, 304.
Nordenskiold, ashes of meteors, 409.
Number of comets, 371 ; of eclipses in
a saros, 244; of eclipses in a year,
242
;
of meteors daily, 407 ; ol
nebulae, 470; of the stars,
420;
of double-stars, 461.
O.
Oberon, a satellite of Uranus, 364.
Oblateness or ellipticity of the earth
defined, 90.
Oblique sphere, 43.
Obliquity of the ecliptic, 112, 120.
Occultations of stars, 245.
Olbers, discovers Pallas and Vesta,
338.
Oppolzer, his canon of eclipses, 241.
Opposition defined, 140, 289.
Orbit of the earth, its form, etc., de-
termined, 115-118; of the moon, 145,
151;
parallactic, of a star, 432; of a
planet, its elements, 507.
Orbital motion of the earth, proof of
it, 111.
Orbits of binary stars, 464, 465; of
comets, 374.
Origin of the asteroids, 341 ; of mete-
ors, 402, 405; of periodic comets, 392.
Oscillations, free and forced, 273.
Palisa, discovery of asteroids, 338.
Pallas, the second asteroid, 338, 339.
Parabola, the, 257, 506.
Parallax, annual or heliocentric, of the
stars, 147, 431, 432, 521-523 ; correction
for, 492 ; diurnal or geocentric, 147
;
in general, defined,
147;
(solar), clas-
sification of methods, 512
;
(solar) , by
gravitational methods, 520
;
(solar)
,
historical statement, 511
;
(solar) , by
observations of Mars, 514, 515
;
(so-
lar), by physical method, 127, 355;
(solar) , by transits of Venus, 516-519
;
(stellar), how determined, 521-523.
Parallaxes, stellar, table of, Table V.,
page
431.
Parsec, the, 433.
Pendulum used to determine earth's
form, 91; Foucault, 77, 494.
Perigee defined, 145.
Perihelion defined, 117.
Period of a planet, how determined,
297.
Periods, sidereal and synodic, 141, 286.
Periodicity of sun spots, 190.
Periodic perturbations, 303.
Perseids, the, 412, 416, 417.
Personal equation, 59.
Perturbations, general remarks, 263,
264 ; lunar, 142, 145, 265
;
planetary,
302-304.
Peters, asteroid discoveries, 338.
Phase of Mars, 330.
Phases of Mercury and Venus, 319,
323; of the moon, 156; of Saturn's
rings, 360.
Phobos, a satellite of Mars, 336.
Photographic power of eclipsed moon,
232; star-charts, 425; telescopes, 425,
534.
Photographs of the moon, 174; of
nebulae, 471; of star-spectra, 429,
458.
Photography, solar, 183 ; of transit of
Venus, 519.
Photometry of star magnitudes, 439,
440.
Photosphere, the, 184, 222.
INDEX. 459
[All references, unless expressly stated to the contrary, are to articles, not to pages.]
Physical methods of determining the
sun's parallax, 127, 355.
Piazzi discovers Ceres, 338.
Picard measures arc of meridian,
255, note.
Pickering, E. C, photographs of star-
spectra, 458; photometric observa-
tions of eclipses of Jupiter's satel-
lites,
354;
photometric measures of
steller- magnitudes, 436, 440.
Place of a heavenly body defined,
9
;
of a heavenly body, how determined
by observation, 70, 71; of a ship,
how determined, 67-69.
Planet, albedo of, defined, 311 ; appar-
ent motion of, 287, 293; diameter
and volume, how measured, 307 ; dis-
tance from sun, how determined,
298-300; elements of its orbit, 507;
mass and density, how determined,
309, 508;
period, how determined,
297; rotation on axis determined,
310; satellite system, how investi-
gated, 312 ; superficial gravity deter-
mined, 309.
Planetary data, their relative accu-
racy, 314; system, its genesis, age,
and duration, 482-490.
Planetesimal hypothesis, 485.
Planets, Humboldt's classification,
313 ; the list of, 282, 283 ; intra-Mer-
curial, 342 ; minor, 338-341
;
possibly
attending stars, 467; table of ele-
ments, Appendix, Table II., page 410
;
table of names, symbols, etc., 285.
Pleiades, the, 469, 471.
Pogson proposes absolute scale of star
magnitudes, 436.
Pointers, the, 23.
Polar distance defined,
31
;
point of a
meridian circle, 549.
Pole (celestial), altitude of, equals lat-
itude,
40;
(celestial), defined,
26;
(celestial), effect of precession, 123;
(terrestrial), diurnal phenomena
.
near it, 130; star, former,
a Draconis,
123; star, how recognized, 23.
Position angle defined, 461 ; microme-
ter, 542.
Positive eye-pieces, 535.
Pouillet, his pyrheliometer, 556.
Precession of the equinoxes, 122-124.
Prime vertical, the, 17.
Prime Vertical instrument, the, 551.
Pritchard, his work on stellar pho-
tometry, 436.
Problem, Kepler's, 119
;
of three
bodies, 261-264; of two bodies, 258,
259.
Prominences, the solar, 202-204, 224,
501.
Proper motion of stars, 427, 428.
Ptolemaic system, the, 294.
Ptolemy, 294, 421, 423, 511
Pyrheliometer, the, 556.
Q.
Quadrature defined, 140, 289.
Quiescent prominences, 204.
Radian, the, defined, 11.
Radiant, the, of a meteoric shower,
412.
Radius vector defined, 117.
Rate of a time-piece defined,
69, 546.
Rational horizon, 15.
Rectification of a globe, 528.
Recurrence of eclipses, 244.
Red spot of Jupiter, 349.
Reflecting telescope, the, 537.
Refracting telescope, the, 530..
Refraction, astronomical, 50, 492.
Reticle, the, 536, 544.
Retrograde and retrogression defined,
288.
Reversing layer, 198, 223.
Rhea, a satellite of Saturn, 362.
Right ascension defined, 36, 37; how
determined by
observation, 70, 71.
Right sphere, the, 44.
Rings of Saturn, the, 359-361.
Roberts, photographs of nebulae, 471.
Rosse, Lord, his great reflector,
538-,
observations of lunar heat, 163, 164.
Rotation, apparent diurnal, of the
heavens, 23; distinguished from revo
460 INDEX.
[All references, unless expressly stated to the contrary, are to articles, not to pages.]
lution, 154, note; of earth, affected
by tides, 280 ; of earth, its effect on
gravity, 80, 81 ; of earth, proofs of,
76-78; of earth, variability of,
79,
280; of the moon, 154; of the sun,
180, 181.
Rotation-period of Jupiter, 348; of
Mars, 331; of a planet, how ascer-
tained, 310 ; of Saturn, 357.
S.
Saros, the, 244.
Satellite system, how investigated, 312
;
systems, table of, Table III., page
429.
Satellites of Jupiter, 350-354 ; of Mars,
336; of Neptune, 368; of Saturn,
362; of Uranus, 364.
Saturn (the planet), 356-362.
Scale of stellar magnitudes, 436.
Schiaparelli, identification of come-
tary and meteoric orbits, 416 ; obser-
vations of Mars, 333, 334.
Schroeter, his observations on Mer-
cury, 319 ; on Venus, 325.
Schwabe, discovers periodicity of sun
spots, 190.
Scintillation of the stars, 460.
Sea, position at, how found, 67-69.
Seasons, explanation of, 129-132.
Secchi, on stellar spectra, 456, 457 ; on
sun spots, 188, 191.
Secondary spectrum of achromatic
object-glass, 534.
Secnlar perturbations of the planets,
304.
Semi-diameter, angular, in relation to
distance, 12; correction for, 492.
Sensible horizon, defined, 15.
Sextant, the, 552-555.
Shadow of the earth, its dimensions,
227; of the moon, its dimensions,
234; of the moon, its velocity, 237.
Ship at sea, determination of its posi-
tion, 67-69.
Shooting stars (see also Meteors),
403-
417; ashes of, 409; brightness of,
409; effects of, 411; elevation and
path, 408; mass of, 410; materials
of, 409; nature of, 406; number,
daily and hourly, 407; radiant, 412;
showers of, 412, 413; spectrum of,
409 ; velocity of, 408.
Showers, meteoric, 412, 413.
Sidereal and synodic months, 141 ; and
synodic periods of planets, 286 ; time
defined, 35, 53;
year, 133.
Signs of the zodiac, 114; effect of pre-
cession on them, 123.
Sirius, its companion, 464; light com-
pared with that of the sun, 440, 443
;
its mass compared with that of the
sun, 465, 466.
Solar constant, 211, 212, 218; eye-
pieces,
182;
parallax (see Parallax,
solar) ; time, mean and apparent,
52-56, 497-499.
Solstice defined, 113.
Spectroscope, its principle and con-
struction, 193, 194; slitless, 458; used
to observe the solar prominences,
203, 501; used to measure motions in
line of sight, 200, 429, 500.
Spectrum of the chromosphere and
prominences, 202 ; of comets in gen-
eral, 386; of the comet of 1882, 398;
of meteors, 409; of nebulae, 473; sec-
ondary, of an object-glass, 534 ; of a
shooting star, 409 ; of stars, 456-459
;
the solar, 196 ; of the solar corona,
207 ; of a sun spot, 199.
Spectrum analysis, fundamental prin-
ciples, 195.
Speculum of a reflecting telescope,
537.
Sphere, celestial, the,
7;
doctrine of
the, 7-45.
Spots, solar, see Sun spots.
Spring tide defined, 267.
Stability of the planetary system, 305,
Standard time, 65.
Stars, binary, 463-465 ; catalogues of,
423; charts of, 425; clusters of, 469;
dark, 444; designation and nomen-
clature, 422 ; dimensions of, 445 ; dis-
tance of, 431-433 ; distribution of, 476
;
double, 461-466; gravitation among
them, 462, 464, 479, note ; heat from
INDEX.
461
[All references, unless expressly stated to the contrary, are to articles, not to pages.]
them, 442 ; light of certain stars com-
pared with sunlight, 440 ; magnitudes
and brightness, 434^L44 ; mean and
apparent places of, 424 ; missing and
new, 448 ; motions of, 426-429 ; mul-
tiple, 468 ; new, 448 ; number of, 420
;
parallax of, 431^23, 521-523, Table
V., page
431
; shooting (see Shoot-
ing stars, also Meteors)
;
spectra of,
456-459; system of the, 479, 480;
temporary, 450; total amount of
light from the, 441; twinkling of,
460; variable, 446-455, Table IV.,
page
430.
Star-gauges of the Herschels, 476.
Starlight, its total amount, 441.
Station errors, 92.
Stellar parallaxes, table of, Table V.,
page 431
;
photometry, 439^441.
Structure of the stellar universe, 477-
480.
Sun, the, age and duration of, 220 ; ap-
parent motion in the heavens, 110;
its chromosphere, 201, 224; its con-
stitution, 221; its corona, 205-208;
its density, 178 ; dimensions of, 176
;
- distance of, 127, 175, 355, Chap. XV.
;
elements recognized in it, 197; fac-
ulse,
184;
gravity on its surface,
179 ; heat of, quantity, intensity, and
maintenance, 211-219 ; light of, its
intensity, 209, 210; mass of, 177;
motion in space, 430; parallax of
(see Parallax)
;
prominences, 202-
204, 224 ; reversing layer, the, 198
;
rotation of, 180, 181; spectrum of,
196 ; temperature of, 216, 217.
Sun spots, appearance and nature,
185-188; cause of, 191; distribution
of, 190 ; influence on the earth, 192
;
motions of, 189
;
periodicity of, 190
;
spectrum of, 199.
Superficial gravity of a planet, how
determined. 309.
Surface structure of the moon, 167-
171.
Swarms, meteoric, 413, 415, 417, 418.
Swedenborg a proposer of the nebu-
lar hypothesis, 483.
System, planetary, its age and dura-
tion, 489, 490 ; its genesis and evo-
lution, 482-485; its stability, 305;
stellar, its probable nature, 477-480.
Synodic and sidereal months, 141 ; and
sidereal periods of planets, 286.
Syzygy denned, 140.
T.
Tables, astronomical constants, Table
I., page 427; astronomical sym-
bols, page 434;
binary stars, orbits
and masses, 465; Bode's law, 284;
constellations, showing place in
heavens, Uranography, page 42;
Greek alphabet, page
434;
moon,
names of principal objects, 173; plan-
ets' elements, Table II., page 428
;
f
planets' names, distances, etc., ap-
proximate, 285; satellite systems,
Table III., page 429;
stellar paral-
laxes and proper motions, Table
V., page 431 ; variable stars, Table
IV., page 430.
Tails of comets, 388, 389.
Telegraph, longitude by, 64.
Telescope, achromatic, 533; eye-pieces
of,
535;
general principles of, 529;
illuminating power, 532 ; magnifying
power, 531 ; magnitude of stars vis-
ible with a given aperture, 438;
mounting of, 540 ; reflecting, various
forms, 537; refracting, 530.
Telescopes, great, 538.
Temperature of the moon, 164 ; of the
sun, 216.
Temporary stars, 450.
Terminator, the, defined and described,
157.
Tethys, a satellite of Saturn, 362.
Therm, the smaller unit of heat, 211.
Thomson, Sir W., the internal heat of
the earth. 487; the heat of meteors,
404; the rigidity of the earth, 109.
Three bodies, problem of, 261-264.
Tidal evolution, 281.
Tidal-wave, course of, 275.
Tide-raising force, 268-27L
462 INDEX.
[All references, unless expressly stated to the contrary, are to articles, not to pages.]
Tides, the, definitions relating to, 267
;
due mainly to moon's action, 266;
effect on motion of the moon, 281;
effect on rotation of the earth, 280;
effect of wind on time of high water,
278; height of, 277; in lakes and
land-locked seas, 279 ; motion of, 272
;
in rivers, 276.
Time, equation of, 128, 497-499; local,
from sun's altitude, 493; methods of
determining, 58-60; sidereal, defined,
35; solar, mean, and apparent, 54-56,
128, 497^99; standard, defined, 65.
Titan, satellite of Saturn, 362.
Titania, satellite of Uranus, 364.
Torsion balance used to determine
earth's mass, 104, 105.
Total and annular eclipses, 235.
Trains of meteors, 400, 404.
Transit or meridian circle, 49, 548-550.
Transit instrument, the, 58, 544, 545.
Transits of Mercury, 320; of Venus,
326, 327, 516-519.
Tropical year, the, 133.
Twilight, 509*.
Twinkling of the stars, 460.
Two bodies, problem of, 258, 259.
Tycho Brahe, his planetary observa-
tions, 251 ; his temporary star, 450.
U.
Ultra-Neptunian planet, 370.
Umbriel, a satellite of Uranus, 364.
Universe, stellar, its structure, 477-
480.
Uranolith, or Uranolite. See Meteor-
ite.
Uranus (the planet), 363-365.
Utility of astronomy, 4.
Vanishing point, 8, 412.
Variable stars, 446-455; table of,
Table IV., page 430.
Velocity, areal, angular, and linear,
502; of earth in its orbit, 175; of
light, 126; of moon's shadow,
237;
oj meteors and shooting
stars,
408
;
of star motions,
428, 429.
Venus (the planet) , 321-327
;
phases of,
323; transits of, 326, 327, 516-519.
Vernal equinox defined, 34.
Vertical circles, 17.
Vesta, the fourth asteroid, 338.
Visible horizon defined, 16.
Vogel, H. C, spectroscopic determina-
tion of star motions in the line of
sight, 429.
Volcanoes on the moon, 168.
Vulcan, the hypothetical intra-Mercu-
rial planet, 342.
W.
Water absent from the moon,
160, 161.
Wave-length of a light-ray affected
by motion in the line of sight, Dop-
pler's principle, 200, 429, 500.
Wave, tidal, its course, 275.
Way, the sun's, 430.
Weather, the moon's influence on, 165.
Weight, distinguished from mass,
96,
97 ; loss of, between pole and equa-
tor, 91.
Wolf, diagram of sun-spot periodi-
city, 190.
Y.
Year, the sidereal, tropical, and anom-
alistic, 133, and Table I., page 427.
Z.
Zenith, the, astronomical and geocen-
tric, defined, 14.
Zenith distance defined, 19.
Zero-points of the meridian circle.
549.
Zodiac, the, and its signs, 114; its signs
as affected by precession, 123.
Zodiacal light, the, 343.
Zollneb, determination of planets'
albedoes, 319, 323, 330, 346, 358, 363,
367 ; measurement of moonlight, 162;
measures of light of stars, 440.
SUPPLEMENTARY INDEX.
[All references, unless expressly stated to the contrary, are to articles, not to pages.]
A.
Algol, system of, 454*.
Arequipa, observations at, 450, 455*,
465*.
B.
Bailey, S. I., spectroscopic binaries,
465*, page 360 a ; variable-star clus-
ters, 455*.
Barnard, E. E., discovery of a comet
by photography, 399** ; discovery of
the fifth satellite of Jupiter, 350;
measures of asteroids, 340.
Belopolsky, spectroscopic binaries,
465*.
Binary stars, orbits of, Appendix,
Table VII.
Binary systems, evolution of, 466* and
486, note.
Boys, Prof. V., determination of the
"Constant of Gravitation" and of
the density of the earth, 101, 108.
C.
Charlois, photographic discovery of
asteroids, 338.
Coelostat, 559.
Comets, photographs of, 399**.
Constant of Gravitation, the, 101.
Corona, attempted photographs with-
out eclipse,225*; Schaeberle's theory
of, 225*.
D.
Deslandres, H.
,
photography of solar
. prominences, 203.
Discovery of asteroids, 338; of Nep-
tune, 365 ; of Uranus, 363 ; of satel-
lites of Mars, 336; satellites of Ju-
piter, 350 ; satellites of Saturn, 362
;
satellites of Uranus, 363; satellite
of Neptune, 368; of the connection
between comets and meteors, 416;
of spectroscopic binaries, 465**; of
variable-star clusters, 455*.
Dyne, value of, 97.
E.
Equatorial Coude, 557.
Eros, page 243, note.
Evolution of binary systems, 486, 466*,
note.
F.
Flocculi, calcium and hydrogen, 203.
G.
Gravitation, Constant of, 101.
H.
Hale, Prof. G. W., photography of
solar prominences, 203.
Helium, identification of, 202*; in
meteorites, 401 ; in stars.
Holmes' comet, 386,
399*.
Huggins, Dr. W., attempt to photo-
graph the corona without an eclipse,
225*.
Hussey, W. J., photograph of Kor-
dame's comet,
399**.
K.
Keeler, J. E., spectroscopic observa-
tion of Saturn's ring, 361; spectro-
scopic motion of nebulas, 473.
464 SUPPLEMENTARY INDEX.
[All references, unless expressly stated to the contrary, are to articles, not to pages.]
s.
Saturn's rings, spectroscopic observa-
tion of, 361.
Schaeberle, J. M.. theory of the
corona, 255*.
Schiaparelli, Prof. G. V., on rota-
tion of Mercury,
319 ; of Venus, 325.
See, Prof. T. J., evolution of binary
systems, 466* and 486, note ; orbits
of binary stars, Appendix, Table VII.
Shackleton, W., photograph of the
spectrum of the reversing layer, 198.
Siderostat, 558.
Spectroheliograph, the, 203.
Spoerer, G., law of sun-spot latitude,
190*.
Star-streaming, 480.
Latitude of sun spots
;
Spoerer's law,
190* ; variation of latitude, 71*.
Lockyer, J. N., spectroscopic bina-
ries, 465*.
Lowell, P., observations of Mars, 333,
333*,
336 ; of Mercury, 319 ; of Venus,
323, 325.
M.
Megadyne, value of, 97.
N.
Nebulce, spectroscopic motion of, 473
;
parallax of, page 360 a.
Nova Aurigse and other
"
novse," 450.
O.
Oblate spheroid, mean diameter of, 95.
Oppolzer, E., theory of sun spots,
191.
Parabolic velocity, the, 507*.
Photographs of comets, 399**;
of
spectrum of the reversing layer, 198
;
of solar prominences, 203.
Photography in the discovery of aste-
roids, 338.
Pickering, Prof. E. C, spectroscopic
binaries, 465*.
Pole, terrestrial, its motion, 71*.
R.
Reversing layer, Shackleton's photo-
graph of its spectrum, 198.
Richarz, determination of the den-
sity of the earth, 108.
Eordame's comet, photograph,
399**.
Telluric lines in solar spectrum, 195.
V.
Variable-star clusters, 455*.
Variable stars discovered by photog-
raphy, 455*.
Variation of latitude (terrestrial),
71*.
Velocity, "parabolic" or critical,
507*.
Vogel, H. C, system of Algol, 454*;
other spectroscopic binaries, 465*.
W.
Wolf, Max, photographic discovery
of asteroids, 338.
Y.
Yerkes telescope, 538.
URANOGRAPHT
UKANOGKAPHY
A BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF
THE CONSTELLATIONS VISIBLE IN THE
UNITED STATES
STAR-MAPS, AND LISTS OF OBJECTS OBSERVABLE
WITH A SMALL TELESCOPE
BY
C. A. YOUNG, Ph.D., LL.D.
Late Professor of Astronomy in Princeton University
A SUPPLEMENT TO THE AUTHOR'S "ELEMENTS OF ASTRONOMY
FOR HIGH SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES"
GINN AND COMPANY
BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO
LONDON
ATLANTA DALLAS COLUMBUS SAN FRANCISCO
~)
ENTERED AT STATIONERS' HALL
COPYRIGHT, 1889, 1897, BY
CHARLES A. YOUNG
COPYRIGHT, 1917, BY
FREDERICK A. YOUNG
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
319.1
3Efte gtftengum 3gregg
GINN AND COMPANY- PRO-
PRIETORS

BOSTON

U.S.A.
PEEFACB.
This brief description of trie constellations was pre-
pared, at the suggestion of a number of teachers, as an
integral part of the author's "Elements of Astronomy."
It has been thought best, however, for various reasons,
to put it into such a
form that it can be issued
separately,
and used if desired in connection with the larger
"
Gen-
eral Astronomy," or with any other text-book. Since the
Uranography also has to be used more or less in the open
air at night, many will probably prefer to have it by itself,
so that its use need not involve such an exposure of the
rest of the text-book. All references marked Astr. are
to the articles of the
"
Elements of Astronomy,"
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE CONSTELLATIONS DE-
SCRIBED OR MENTIONED IN THE URANOGRAPHY.
Andromeda
Article
16
Article
Hydra .... 38
Anser, see Vulpecula
.
54 Lacerta .... 61
Antmous, see Aquila
.
56 Leo 36
Antlia 45 Leo Minor ... 37
Aquarius 63 Lepus .... 27
Aquila 56 Libra . . . .44
Argo Navis 34 Lupus ... 45
Aries 19 Lynx .... 29
Auriga 22 Lyra . . . . 52
Bootes 42 Mondceros ... 32
Camelopardalis . 14 Norma .> . . . 47
Cancer 35 Ophiuchus . , . 48, 49
Canes Venatici . 41 Orion . . . . 24, 25
Canis Major 33 Pegasus .... 62
Canis Minor 31 Perseus .... 21
Caprieornus 58 Phoenix . 20
Cassiopeia 9, 10 Pisces .... 17
Centaurus 45 Piscis Australis. . . 64
Cepheus . 11 (Pleiades) ... 23
Cetus 20 Sagitta . . . . 55
Coma Berenices 40 Sagittarius ."
. . 57
Columba . 28 Scorpio ... . .46, 47
Corona Borealis 43 Sculptor .... 20
Corvus 38 Serpens . . . .48,49
Crater 38 Serpentarius, see Ophiuchus
48, 49
Cygnus . 53 Sextans .... 37
Delphinus
.
59 Taurus .... 23
Draco
12,13 Taurus Poniatovii . . 48
Equiileus . 60 Triangulum ... 18
Eridanus . 26 Ursa Major ... 5-7
Gemini 30 Ursa Minor ... 8
Grus 64 Virgo .... 39
Hercules . 50,51 Vulpecula .... 54
471
UEANOGKAPHY.
THE GEEEK ALPHABET.
Letters. Name. Letters. Name. Letters. Name.
A, a, Alpha. I, L, Iota. P
, P.
Bho.
b,A
Beta. K,K, Kappa.
2,
o-,
s ,
Sigma.
r,
y,
Gamma. A,X, Lambda. T,r, Tau.
a,
4
Delta. M,
fi,
Mu. Y,r, Upsilon.
E> e, Epsilon. N, v, Nu.
*,
*,
Phi.
z,
fc
Zeta.
ftfi
Xi. x
> X>
Chi.
H,^, Eta.
0, o, Omicron.
*,fc
Psi.
, 0,
*
,
Theta. n, 7T, Pi. a, o), Omega.
472
URANOGRAPHY,
OK
A Description of the Constellations.
1. A general knowledge of the constellations sufficient to
enable one to recognize readily the more conspicuous stars and
their principal configurations, is a very desirable accomplish-
ment, and not difficult to attain. It requires of course the
actual study of the sky for a number of evenings in different
parts of the year ; and the study of the sky itself must be
supplemented by continual reference to a celestial globe or
star-map, in order to identify the stars observed and fix their
designations. A well-made globe of sufficient size is the best
possible help, because it represents things wholly without dis-
tortion, and is easily "rectified" (Astr. 528
x
)
for any given
hour, so that the stars will all be found in the proper quarter
of the (artificial) heavens, and in their true relations. But a
globe is clumsy, inconvenient out of doors, and liable to dam-
age
;
and a good star-map properly used will be found but
little inferior in efficiency, and much more manageable.
2. Star-Maps.

Such maps are made on various systems,

each presenting its own advantages. None are without more
or less distortion, especially near the margin, though they
1
The references are to the articles in the Author's
'
' Elements of Astron-
omy," to which this Uranography is a supplement.
473
8 URANOGRAPHY. [
2
differ greatly in this respect. In all of them the heavens are
represented as seen from the inside, and not as on the globe,
which represents the sky as if seen from the outside; i.e., the
top of the map is north, and the east is at the
left
hand ; so
that if the observer faces the south and holds up the map
before and above him, the constellations which are near the
meridian will be pretty truly represented.
3. We give a series of four small maps which, though hardly on a
large enough scale to answer as a satisfactory celestial atlas, are quite
sufficient to enable the student to trace out the constellations and
identify the principal stars.
In the map of the north circumpolar regions (Map I.), the pole is
in the centre, and at the circumference the right-ascension hours
are numbered in the same direction as the figures upon a watch
face; but with 24 hours instead of 12. The parallels of declination
are represented by equidistant and concentric circles. On the three
other rectangular maps, which show the equatorial belt of the heavena
lying between +
50
and
50
of declination, the parallels of declina-
tion are equidistant horizontal lines, while the hour-circles are vertical
lines also equidistant, but spaced at a distance which is correct for
declination 35, and not at the equator. This keeps the distortion
within reasonable bounds even near the margin of the map, and
makes it very easy to lay off the place of any object for which the
right ascension and declination are given.
The hours of right ascension are indicated on the central hori-
zontal line, which is the equator, and at the top of the map are given
the names of the months. The word September,
for
instance, means
that the stars which are directly under it upon the map will be near the
meridian about nine o'clock, in the evening during that month.
4. The maps show all the stars down to the
4|
magnitude
all
that are easily visible on a moonlight night. A few smaller stars are
also inserted, where they mark some peculiar configuration or point
out some interesting telescopic object. So far as practicable, i.e., north
of
30
Declination, the magnitudes of Pickering's "Harvard Pho-
tometry
"
are used. The places of the stars are for 1900.
474
4]
THE CIECUMPOLAR CONSTELLATIONS. 9
In the designation of clusters and nebulae the letter M. stands
for
"
Messier," who made the first catalogue of 103 such objects in
1784
;
e.g., 97 M. designates No. 97 on that list. A few objects from
Herschel's catalogue are denoted by
]
with a number following.
The student or teacher who possesses a telescope is strongly urged
to get Webb's "Celestial Objects for Common Telescopes." It is
an invaluable accessory. (Longmans, Green & Co., N. Y.)
THE CIECUMPOLAR CONSTELLATIONS.
We begin our study of Uranography with the constellations
which are circumpolar (i.e., within
40
of the north pole),
because these are always visible in the United States, and so
can be depended on to "furnish land (or rather sky) -marks to
aid in identifying and tracing out the others.
5. Ursa Major, the Great Bear (Map I.).

Of these cir-
cumpolar constellations none is more easily recognizable than
Ursa Major. Assuming the time of observation as about eight
o'clock in the evening on Sept. 22d (i.e., 20
h
sidereal time),
it will be found below the pole and to the west. Hold the
map so that the VIII. is at the bottom, and it will be rightly
placed for the time assumed.
The familiar Dipper is sloping downward in the northwest,
composed of seven stars,- all of about the second magnitude ex-
cepting
8 (at the junction of the handle to the bowl), which is
of the third. The stars a and
/5
are known as the
"
Pointers,"
because the line drawn from
ft
through a, and produced about
30, passes very near the Pole-star.
The dimensions of the Dipper furnish a convenient scale of
angular measure. Prom a to
ft
is
5
: a to 8 is
10
;
/?
to
y,
8
;
from a to rj at the extremity of the Dipper-handle (which is also
the Bear's tail) is
26.
6. The Dipper (known also in England as the "Plough,"
and as the
"
Wain," or wagon) comprises but a small part of
475
10 URANOGRAPHY. L
6
the whole constellation. The head of the Bear, indicated by
a scattered group of small stars, is nearly on the line from
8
through a, carried on about 15; at the time assumed
(20
h
sid.
time), it is almost exactly below the pole. Three of the four
paws are marked each by a pair of third or fourth magnitude
stars
1^- or
2
apart. The three pairs are nearly equidistant,
about
20
apart, and almost on a straight line parallel to the
diagonal of the Dipper-bowl from a to
y,
but some
20
south of
it. Just now
(20
h
sid. time) they are all three very near the
horizon for an observer in latitude 40,
but during the spring
and summer they can be easily made out.
7. Names
1
of Principal Stars.

Alioth.
Mizar. The little star near it is
A Icor, the
"
rider on his horse."
Benetnasch or Alkaid.
Double Stars:
(1)
(Mizar), Mags. 3 and
5;
Pos.
2
149; Dist.
14".5. In looking at this object the tyro will be apt to think that the
small star shown by the telescope is identical with Alcor : a very low
power eye-piece will correct the error. (Astr. Fig. 113.) The large
star is itself a
"
spectroscopic binary
"
(see Art. 465*).
(2)
,
the
southern one of the pair which marks the left hind paw. Binary:
Mags. 4 and 5;
Pos.
(1910)
(about) 120, Dist. (about)
3". Position
and distance both change rapidly, the period being only 61 years.
This was the first binary whose orbit was computed.
Clusters and Nebulw:
(1)
81 and 82 M., A.R. 9
h
45
m
,
Dec.
69 44'.
Two nebula?, one pretty bright, about half a degree apart.
(2)
97 M.,
A.P. ll
h
07
m
,
Dec.
55
43'

2
south-following
/?.
Aplanetary nebula.
1
Capitals denote names that are generally used ; the others are met with
only rarely.
2
The
" position angle" of a double star is the angle which the line drawn
from the larger star to the smaller one makes with the hour-circle. It is
always reckoned from the north completely around through the east, as
shown in Pig. A.
476
a. Dubhe. .
/?.
Merak.
.
y.
Phecda.
8. Megrez.
V-
8] URSA MINOR, THE LESSER BEAR. 11
8. Ursa Minor, the Lesser Bear (Map I.).

The line of the

"Pointers" unmistakably marks out the Pole-star ("Polaris"
or "Cynosura"), a star of the second magnitude standing alone.
It is at the end of the tail of Ursa Minor, or at the extremity
of the handle of the
"
Little Dipper," for in Ursa Minor, also,
the seven principal stars form a dipper, though with the handle
bent in a different
way from that of
the other Dipper.
Beginning at "Po-
laris
"
a curved line
(concave towards
Ursa Major) drawn
through S and e
brings us to
,
where
the handle joins the
bowl. Two bright
stars (second and
third magnitude),
j3
and
y,
correspond to
the pointers in the
larger Dipper, and
are known as the
"G-uardians of the
Pole":
(3
is called
"Kochab." The remaining corner of the bowl is marked by
the faint star -q with another still smaller one near it.
The Pole lies about 1\ from the Pole-star, on the line joining
it to

Ursse Majoris (at the bend in the handle of the large
Dipper).
Telescopic Object. Polaris has a companion of the
9? magnitude,
distant 18".
6,

visible with a two-inch telescope.

9. Cassiopeia (Map I.).

This constellation lies on the

opposite side of the pole from the Dipper at about the same
477
Fig. A. Measurement of Distance and Position-Angle
of a Double Star.
12 URANOGRAPHY. [
9
distance as the "Pointers," and is easily recognized by the
zigzag,
"
rail-fence
"
configuration of the five or six bright stars
that mark it. With the help of the rather inconspicuous star
k, one can make out of them a pretty good chair with the feet
turned away from the pole. But this is wrong. In the recog-
nized figures of the constellation the lady sits with feet towards
the pole, and the bright star a is in her bosom, while

and the
other faint stars south of a, are in her head and uplifted arms
:
t, on the line from 8 to e produced, is m the foot. The order
of the principal stars is easily remembered by the word Bagdei;
i.e.,
ft
a,
y,
8,
e, i.
Names
of
Stars : a (which is slightly variable) is known as Schedir
;
(5
is called Caph.
Double Stars:
(1)
rj,
Mags.
4-7
J. Large star orange; small one
purple. Pos.
170
, Dist.
5".
5. Binary, with a period of some 200
years. Easily recognized by its position about half-way between a
and
y,
a little off the line.
(2)
ij/, A.R. l
h
17
m
,
Dec.
67 21' ; Triple
;
Mags.
k,
9 and 9
;
Pos. A to (B + C) 106, Dist. 29"; Pos. B-C 257,
Dist.
2".
9. Found on a line from rj
through
y
produced three times
the distance rj-y : rather difficult for a four-inch telescope.
10. The Sidereal Time determined by the Apparent Position
of Cassiopeia.

The line from the Pole-star through Caph or

f3
Cassiopeise (which is the leader of all the bright stars of the constella-
tion in their daily motion) is almost exactly parallel to the Equinoc-
tial Colure. When, therefore, this star is vertically above the Pole-star
it is sidereal 7toon ; it is 6
h
when it is on the great circle (not the par-
allel of altitude) drawn from the Pole-star to the west point of the
Horizon ; 12
h
when vertically below it ; and 18
h
when due east. A
little practice will enable one to read the sidereal time from this celes-
tial clock with an error not exceeding 15 or 20 minutes.
11. Cepheus (Map I.).

This constellation contains very

few bright stars. At the assumed time
(20
h
sidereal) it is
above and west of Cassiopeia, not having quite reached the
meridian above the pole. A line carried from a Cassiopeise
through
ft
and produced
20
(distance o . . .
/3
= o nearly)
478

11] DRACO. 13
will pass very near to a Cephei, a star of the third magnitude,
in the king's right shoulder.
ft
Cephei is about
8
due north of
a, and
y
about
12
from
ft,
both also of third magnitude :
y
is so
placed that it is at the obtuse angle of a rather flat isosceles
triangle of which
ft
Cephei and the Pole-star form the two other
corners. Cepheus is represented as sitting behind Cassiopeia
(his wife) with his feet upon the tail of the Little Bear,
y
being
in his left knee. His head is marked by a little triangle of
fourth magnitude stars,
8,
e, and
,
of which 8 is a remarkable
variable with a period of
5J
days (see Astr. Table IV.).
There are several other small variables in the same neighbor-
hood, but none of them are shown on the map.
Names
of
Stars: a is Alderamin, and
ft
is Alphirk.
Double Stars:
(1)
ft,
Mags. 3 and
8;
Pos. 251; Dist. 14".
(2) 8,
Mags, larger star 3.7 to 5 (variable), smaller one
7;
Pos. 192, Dist.
41" ; Colors, yellow and blue.
(3)
k, A.R. 20
h
13
m
,
Dec. 77 19' ; Mags.
4.5 and 8.5; Pos. 124; Dist. 7."5; Colors, yellow and blue.
12. Draco (Map I.).

The constellation of Draco is char-

acterized by a long, sinuous line of stars, mostly small, extend-
ing half-way around the pole and separating the two Bears.
A line from 8 Cassiopeise drawn through
ft
Cephei and ex-
tended about as far again will fall upon the head of Draco,
marked by an irregular quadrilateral of stars, two of which
are of the
2*i
and 3d magnitude. These two bright stars about
4
apart are
ft
and
y
; the latter in its daily revolution passes
almost exactly through the zenith of Greenwich, and it was by
observations upon it that the aberration of light was discovered
(Astr.
125). The nose of Draco is marked by a smaller star,
/*,
some
5
beyond
ft,
nearly on the line drawn through it from
y.
From
y
we trace the neck of Draco, eastward and downward
*
towards the Pole-star until we come to 8 and e and some smaller
stars near them. There the direction of the line is reversed,
1
The description here applies strictly only at 20
h
sid. time.
479
14 URANOGRAPHY. [
12
so that the body of the monster lies between its own head and
the bowl of the Little Dipper, and winds around this bowl until
the tip of the creature's tail is reached at the middle of the
line between the Pointers and the Pole-star. The constella-
tion covers more than l'2
h
of right ascension.
13. One star deserves special notice : a, a star of the
3J
magnitude which lies half-way between Mizar
(
Urs. Maj.)
and the Guards
((3
and
y
Urs. Min.)
;
4700 years ago it was
the Pole-star, within
10'
or
15'
of the pole, and much nearer
than Polaris is at present, or ever will be. It is probable
that its brightness has considerably diminished within the
last 200 years ; since among the ancient and mediaeval astron-
omers it was always reckoned of the second magnitude.
Names
of
Stars : a is Thuban
;
j3,
Alwaid ; and
y,
Etanin.
Double Stars:
(1)
/x, Mags. 4 and
4|;
Pos. 165; Dist. 2".5. Bi-
nary, with a probable period of about 600 years.
(2)
e, Mags.
4,
8; Pos. 0.0; Dist.
2".
9 ;
yellow and blue. Nebula, A.R. 17
h
59
m
;
Dec.
66
38 . Planetary, like a star out of focus. This object is
almost exactly at the pole of the ecliptic, about midway between 8 and

Draconis, but a little nearer

.
14. Camelopardalis (Map I.) This is
the only remaining one
of the strictly circumpolar constellations

a modern asterism contain-

ing no stars above fourth magnitude, and constituted by Hevelius
simply to cover the great empty space between Cassiopeia and Perseus
on one side, and Ursa Major and Draco on the other. The animal
stands on the head and shoulders of Auriga, and his head is between
the Pole-star and the tip of the tail of Draco.
The two constellations of Perseus (which at 20
h
sidereal time is
some
20
below Cassiopeia) and of Auriga are partly circumpolar, but
on the whole can be more conveniently treated in connection with the
equatorial maps. Capella, the brightest star of Auriga, and next to
Vega and Arcturus the brightest star in the northern hemisphere, at
the time assumed (Sept. 22, 8 p.m.), is a few degrees above the horizon
in the N.E. Between it and the nose of Ursa Major is part of the
constellation of the Lynx,

a modern asterism made, like Camelopar-

dalis, merely to fill a gap.
480

15]
MILKY WAY IN CIRCUMPOLAR REGION. 15
15. The Milky Way in the Circumpolar Region.

The only
circumpolar constellations traversed by it are Cassiopeia and
Cepheus. It enters the circumpolar region from the constella-
tion of Cygnus, which at 20
h
sidereal time is just in the zenith,
sweeps down across the head and shoulders of Cepheus, and
on through Cassiopeia and Perseus to the northeastern horizon
in Auriga. There is one very bright patch a degree or two
north of
ft
Cassiopeise ; and half-way between Cassiopeia and
Perseus there is another bright cloud in which is the famous
cluster of the "Sword Handle of Perseus" a beautiful object
for even the smallest telescope.
16. Andromeda (Map II.). Passing now to the equato-
rial maps and beginning with the northwestern corner of Map
No. II., we come first to the constellation of Andromeda, which
will be found exactly overhead in our latitudes about 10 o'clock
in the middle of November, or at 8 o'clock a month later. Its
characteristic configuration is the line of three second-magni-
tude stars, a,
ft,
and
y,
extending east and north from
a, which
itself forms the K.E. corner of the so-called
i(
Great
Square of
Pegasus," and is sometimes lettered as 8 Pegasi.
This star
may readily be found by extending an imaginary line from
Polaris through
ft
Cassiopeia, and producing it about as far
again
: a is in the head of Andromeda,
ft
in her waist, and
y
in the left foot. About half-way from
a to
ft,
a little south
of the line, is 8 (of the third magnitude) with tt and e of the
fourth magnitude near it. A line drawn northwesterly from
ft
nearly at right angles to the line
fty,
will pass through /x at
a distance of about 5, and produced another
5
will strike
the "great nebula" (Astr.
470),
which forms a little obtuse-
angled triangle with
v and a sixth-magnitude star known as
32 Andromedse.
Andromeda has her mother, Cassiopeia, close by on the north, and
at her feet is Perseus, her deliverer, while her Wead rests upon the
481
16 URANOGRAPHY. [
16
shoulder of Pegasus, the winged horse which brought Perseus to her
rescue. To the south, beyond the intervening constellations of Aries
and Pisces, Cetus, the sea-monster, who was to have devoured her,
stretches his ungainly bulk.
Names
of
Stars, a, Alpheratz
; (3,
Mirach
; y,
Almaach.
Double Stars.
(1) y,
Mags. 3, 5;
Pos. 62; Dist. 11"; colors,
orange and greenish blue

a beautiful object. The small star is

itself double, but at present so close as to be beyond the reach of any
but very large instruments (Astr. Fig. 113).
(2)
it (2 N\ and a
little west of
8),
Mags. 4, 9
; Pos. 174 ; Dist. 36" ; white and blue.
Nebulce. M. 31 ; the great nebula; visible to naked eye. M.
32;
small, round, and bright, is in the same low-power field with
31;
south and east of it.
17. Pisces (Map II.).

Immediately south of Andromeda

lies Pisces, the first of the zodiacal constellations, though now
occupying (in consequence of precession) the sign of Aries.
It has not a single conspicuous star, and is notable only as con-
taining the vernal equinox, or first of Aries, which lies near
the southern boundary of the constellation in a peculiarly star-
less region. A line from a Andromedse through
y
Pegasi con-
tinued as far again strikes about
2
east of the equinox.
The body of the southern fish lies about
15
south of the middle of
the southern side of the great square of Pegasus, and is marked by an
irregular polygon of small stars,
5
or
6
in diameter. A long crooked
"
ribbon
"
of liule stars runs eastward for more than 30, terminating
in a Piscium, called El Bischa, a star of the fourth magnitude
20
south of the head of Aries. From there another line of stars leads up
N.W. in the direction of 8 Andromedse to the northern fish, which lies
in the vacant space south of
(3
Andromedae.
Double Stars.
(1)
a, Mags. 4, 5.5; Pos. 324; Dist.
3".
(2)
ip' (2 S.E. of rj
Andromedse

see map), Mags. 4.9, 5; Pos. 160;

Dist.
31".
18. Triangulum (Map II.). This little constellation, insignifi-
cant as it is, is one of Ptolemy's ancient 48. It lies half-way be-
tween
y
Andromedse and the head of Aries, characterized by three
stars of the third and fourth magnitudes.
482

18]
ARIES. 17
Double Stars.
(1)
i or 6 (5 nearly due south of
/?
Trianguli, and
at the obtuse angle of an isosceles triangle of which a and
y
are the
other two corners), Mags. 5, 6.5; Pos. 76; Dist. 4"; topaz-yellow
.and green.
19. Aries (Map II.).

This is the second of the zodiacal

constellations (now occupying the sign of Taurus). It is bounded
north by Triangulum and Perseus, west by Pisces, south by
Cetus, and east by Taurus. The characteristic star-group is
that composed of a, /?.
y
(see map), about
20
due south of
y
Andromedae : a, a star of the
2\
magnitude is fairly conspicu-
ous, forming as it does a large isosceles triangle with
/?
and
y
Andromedse.
. Names
of
Stars, a, Hamal
; (3,
Sheratan;
y,
Mesartim.
Double Stars.
(1) y,
Mags. 4.5, 5;
Pos. 0; Dist. 8".8. (This is
probably the earliest known double star ; noticed by Hooke in 1664.)
(2)
e, Mags. 5, 6.5; Pos. 200; Dist. 1".2. (About one-third of the
way from a Arietis towards Aldebaran,

is
4
beyond it on the same
line.) This is probably too difficult for any instrument less than 4 or
4
inches' aperture.
(3)
7r, Triple; Mags.
5, 8.5, and 11; A-B, Pos.
122; Dist. 3".l ; A-C, Pos. 110; Dist. 25". (At the southern corner
of a nearly isosceles triangle formed with e and r, e being at the obtuse
angle.)
The star 41 Arietis
(3|
mag.), which forms a nearly equilateral tri-
angle with a Arietis and
y
Trianguli, constitutes, with two or three
other small stars near it, the constellation of Musca (Borealis), a con-
stellation, however, not now generally recognized.
20. Cetus (Map II.).

South of Aries and Pisces lies the

huge constellation of Cetus, which backs up into the sky from
the southeastern horizon. The head lies some
20
S.E. of a
Arietis, marked by an irregular pentagon of stars, each side of
which is
5
or
6
long. The southern edge of it is formed by
the stars a
(2^
mag.) and
y
(31 mag.) : 8 lies nearly south of
y.
ft,
the brightest star of the constellation (2d magnitude),
stands alone nearly
40
west and south of a. About half-way
483
18 URANOGRAPHY. [
20
from
/?
to
y
the line joining them passes through a character-
istic quadrilateral (see map), the N.E. corner of which is com-
posed of two fourth-magnitude stars,

and
%.
The remarkable
variable o Ceti (Mira) lies almost exactly on the line joining
y
and
,
a little nearer to
y
than to
.
It is visible to the naked
eye for about a month or six weeks every eleven months,
when near its maximum.
Names
of
Stars, a, Menkar
;
j3,
Diphda or Deneb Kaitos
; ,
Baten
Kaitos ; o, Mira.
Double Stars.
(1) y,
Mags. 3.5, 7;
Pos. 290; Dist. 2".5; yellow
and blue.
South of Cetus lies the constellation of Sculptoris Apparatus (usu-
ally known simply as Sculptor), which, however, contains nothing
that requires notice here. South of Sculptor, and close to the horizon,
even when on the meridian, is Phoenix. It has some bright stars,
but none easily observable in the United States.
21. Perseus (Maps I. and II.).

Returning now to the

northern limit of the map, we come to the constellation of
Perseus. Its principal star is a, rather brighter than the
standard second magnitude, situated very nearly on the pro-
longation of the line of the three chief stars of Andromeda.
A very characteristic configuration is "the segment of Per-
seus" (Map I.), a curved line, formed by
8,
a,
y,
and rj, with
some smaller stars, concave towards the northeast, and run-
ning along the line of the Milky Way towards Cassiopeia.
The remarkable variable star
/?,
or Algol (Astr.
453),
is situ-
ated about
9
south and a little west of a, at the right angle
of a right-angled triangle which it forms with a (Persei) and
y
Andromedse. Some
8
south and slightly east of 8 is e, and
8
south of e are

and o of the fourth magnitude in the foot of
the hero. Algol and a few small stars near it form
"
Medusa's
Head."
Nam.es
of
Stars, a is Marfak, or Algenib;
(3
is Algol.
Double Stars.
(1)
c, Mags. 3.5, 9; Pos. 10; Dist. 8".4.
(2)
&
484

21]
AUKIGA. 19
Quadruple; Mags. 3.5, 10, 11, 12; Pos. A-B, 207; Dist. 13".2, 83",
121".
(3) 77,
Mags. 5, 8.5 ; Pos.
300
;
Dist. 28"
; orange and blue.
Clusters.
(1)
#
VI. 33 and 34. Magnificent. Half-way between
y
Persei and 8 Cassiopeise.
(2)
M. 34;
A.R. 2
h
34
m
;
Dec.
42 11';
coarse, with a pretty double star (eighth mag.) included.
22. Auriga (Maps I. and II.).

Proceeding east from Per-

seus we come to Auriga, instantly recognized by the bright
yellow star Capella (the Goat) and her attendant Hcedi (or
Kids). Capella, a Aurigse, according to Pickering, is precisely
of the same brightness as Vega (Mag. =
0.2),
both of them
being about
^
of a magnitude fainter than Arcturus, but dis-
tinctly brighter than any other stars visible in our latitudes
except Sirius itself. About
10
east of Capella is
(3
Aurigse
of the second magnitude, and
8
south of
(3
is 6 of the third
magnitude; 8 Aurigse is
10
north of
f3
in the circumpolar
region, e,
,
and
-q,
4
or
5
S.W. of a, are the "Kids."
Names
of
Stars, a, Capella
; (3,
Menkalinan.
Double Stars.
(1)
cu, Mags. 5, 9; Pos. 353; Dist. 7"; white, light
blue.
(3
is a spectroscopic double (see Art. 465*).
Clusters.
(1)
M. 37; A.R. 5
h
44
m
;
Dec.
32 31'
(on the line
from Aurigae to

Tauri, one-third of the way from
6).
Fine for
small instrument.
(2)
M. 38; A.R. 5
h
21
m
;
Dec.
35 47'.
Nearly
at the middle of the line from 6 to w.
(3)
M. 36 ; A.R. 5
h
28
m
;
Dec.
34 3'.
One-third of the way from M. 38 to M. 37.
23. Taurus (Map II.). This, the third of the zodiacal
constellations, is bounded north by Perseus and Auriga, west
by Aries, south by Eridanus and Orion, and east by Orion and
Gemini. It is unmistakably characterized by the Pleiades,
and by the V-shaped group of the Hyades which forms the
face of the bull, with the red Aldebaran (a Tauri) blazing in
the creature's eye, as he charges down upon Orion. His horns
reach out towards Gemini and Auriga, and are tipped with the
second and third magnitude stars
(3
and
.
As in the case of
Pegasus, only the head and shoulders
appear in
the constella-
485
20
URANOGRAPHY.
C
23
tion. Six of the Pleiades are easily visible, and on a dark night
a fairly good eye will count nine (see Astr. 469). With a
3-inch telescope about 100 stars are visible in the cluster. In
the Hyades the pretty naked-eye double
$ 6%
is worth noting.
Names
of
Stars, a,
Aldebaran
;
/?,
El Nath
; rj (the brightest of
the Pleiades), Alcyone. For the names of the other Pleiades, see the
figure in Art. 469 of the Astronomy.
Double Stars.
(1)
a has a small, distant companion, 12th magni-
tude; Pos.
36 ; Dist. V
48". It has also a second companion much
nearer and more minute, but far beyond the reach of ordinary tele-
scopes.
(2)
r, Mags. 5 and
8
; Pos. 210
; Dist. 62
"
;
white and violet.
Found by drawing a line from
y
(at the point of the V of the Hyades)
through e, and producing it as far again.
Nebula. M.
1;
A.R. 5
h
27
m
;
Dec.
21
56', about
1
west and a
little north of . Often mistaken for a comet. The so-called "Crab
Nebula."
24. Orion (not O'-ri-on) (Map II.). On the whole this is
the finest constellation in the heavens. As he stands facing
the bull his shoulders are marked by the two bright stars, a
and
y,
the former of which in color and brightness closely
matches Aldebaran. In his left hand he holds up the lion
skin, indicated by the curved line of little stars between
y
and
the Hyades. The top of the club, which he brandishes in his
right hand, lies between

Tauri and /x and rj Geminorum. His
head is marked by a little triangle of stars of which
a is the
chief. His belt consists of three stars of the second magni-
tude pointing obliquely downward towards Sirius. It is very
nearly
3
in length, with the stars in it equidistant like a
measuring-rod, so that it is known in England as the "Ell
and Yard." From the belt hangs the sword, composed of three
smaller stars lying more nearly north and south : the middle
one of them is the multiple in the great nebula,
ft
Orionis,
or Eigel, a magnificent white star, is in the left foot, and k is
in the right knee. Orion has no right
foot, or if he has, it is
486

24
3
ERIDANUS. 21
hidden behind Lepus. The quadrilateral a,
y,
8,
k, with the
diagonal belt
8,
e,
,
once learned can never be mistaken for
anything else in the heavens.
25.
Names
of
Stars, a, Betelgeuse;
ft,
Rigel;
y,
Bellatrix;
k, Saiph;
8, Mintaka
;
e, Alnilam;
,
Alnitak.
Double Stars. In these Orion is remarkably rich.
(1)
ft
(Rigel),
Mags.
1 and
9;
Pos. 200; Dist. 9".5; both white,

a beautiful and
easy object.
(2)
8 (the westernmost star in the belt), Mags. 2.5 and
7;
Pos.
0;
Dist. 53".
(3) ,
Triple; Mags. 2.5, 6.5, 10; A-B, Pos.
155, Dist. 2".4; A-C, Pos. 9, Dist. 59".
(4)
i, Triple; Mags. 3.5, 8.5,
11
;
A-B, Pos. 142, Dist. 11".5 ; A-C, Pos. 103, Dist. 49".
(This is
the lowest star in the sword, just below the nebula.)
(5) 0,
Multiple,
the trapezium in the nebula. Four stars are easily seen by small
telescopes (Astr. Fig. 113).
(6)
cr, Triple; Mags. 4, 8, 7
;
A-B, Pos.
84, Dist. 12".5; A-C, Pos. 61, Dist.
42"
(1^ S.W. of
).
Nebula. M. 42 ; attached to the multiple star 0. The nebula of all
the heavens; by far the finest known, though in a small telescope
wanting much of the beauty brought out by a larger one.
26. Eridanus (Map II.).

This constellation lies south of

Taurus, in the space between Cetus and Orion, and extends far
below the southern horizon. Its brightest star a (Achernar)
is never visible in the United States.
Starting with
ft
of the third magnitude, about
3
north and
a little west of Rigel
(ft
Orionis), one can follow a sinuous line
of stars, some of them of the third and fourth magnitudes,
westward about
30
to the paws of Cetus,
10
south of a Ceti
;
there the stream turns at right angles southwards for 10, then
southeast for about 20, and finally southwestward to the hori-
zon. One could succeed in fully tracing it out, however, only
by help of a map on a larger scale than the one we are able
to present.
Names
of
Stars,
ft,
Cursa
; y,
Zaurack.
Double Stars.
(1)
32; A.R. 3
h
48
m
,
Dec. S.
3
19'; Mags.
5, 7;
Pos. 347; Dist, ".6;
yellow, blue; very fine.
(2)
o
2
,
Triple; A.R.
487
22
URANOGRAPHY.
[' 26
4
h
10
m
;
Dec. S.
7
50'; Mags.
5, 10, 10; Pos. A,
(
B
+
C
), 108; Dist.
83"; Pos. B-C, 110, Dist. 4"; very pretty.
27. Lepus (Map II.).
This little constellation (one of the
ancient 48)
lies just south of Orion, occupying a space of some
15
square. Its characteristic configuration is a quadrilateral of third
and fourth magnitude stars, with sides from
3
to
5
long,
10
south
of k Orionis, and
15
west and a little south of Sirius.
Double Stars.
(1)
y
(the S.E. corner of the quadrilateral) is a
coarse double. Mags. 4,
6.5
;
Pos. 350; Dist. 93".
(2)
k (5 south
of Rigel), Mags. 5 and 9
;
Pos. 0
; Dist. 3"./.
28. Columba (Noah's Dove) (Map II.). This is next south of
Lepus : too far south to be well seen in the Northern States. Its prin-
cipal star, a, or Phact, of the
2%
magnitude, is readily found by draw-
ing a line from Procyon to Sirius, and prolonging it nearly the same
distance. And in passing we may note that a similar line drawn from
a Orionis through Sirius and produced, will strike near

Argus, or
"
Naos" a star about as bright as Phact,

the two lines which inter-

sect at Sirius making the so-calle*d "Egyptian X."
29. Lynx (Map I., II., and III.).

Returning now to the north-

ern limit of the map, we find the modern constellation of the Lynx
lying just east of Auriga and enveloping it on the north and in the
circumpolar region. It contains no stars above the fourth magnitude,
and is of no importance except as occupying an otherwise vacant
space.
Double Stars.
(1)
38, or
p
Lyncis, A.R. 9
h
ll
m
;
Dec.
37
21'; Mags.
4, 7.5; Pos. 240; Dist. 2".9; white and lilac. (This is the northern
one of a pair of stars which closely resembles the three pairs that
mark the paws of Ursa Major. This pair makes nearly an isosceles
triangle with the two pairs A /x and t k, Ursae Majoris

see map.)
30. Gemini (Map II.).

This is the fourth of the zodiacal

constellations (mostly in the sign of Cancer), containing the
summer solstitial point about
2
west and a little north of the
star rj. It. lies northeast of Orion and southeast of Auriga,
and is sufficiently characterized by the two stars a and
ft
(about
4J
apart), which mark the heads of the twins. The southern
488
30]
CANIS MINOR.
23
one,
/?,
or Pollux, is the brighter, but a (Castor) is much the
more interesting, as being double. The feet are marked by
the third-magnitude stars
y
and
//,,
some
10
east of

Tauri,
and the map shows how the lines that join these to (S and a
respectively mark the places of 8 and e. -q,
2
west of /a, is a
variable, and is also double, though as such it is beyond the
power of ordinary telescopes.
Names, a, Castor;
/3,
Pollux;
y,
Alhena
, fi,
Tejat (Post))
rj, Tejat (Prior)
; 8, Wasat; e, Meboula.
Double Stars.
(1)
a, Mags. 2.5, 3; Pos. 225; Dist.
5".
5. Binary;
period undetermined, but certainly over 200 years. The larger of
the close pair is also a spectroscopic binary, with period of about 3
days (see Art. 465*). There is also a companion of ninth mag., dis-
tant about 74"; Pos.
164.
(2)
8,
Mags.
3, 8
;
Pos. 203; Dist.
?".
(3)
ix,
Mags.
3, 11 ; Pos. 79; Dist.
80".
Nebulae and Clusters.
(1)
M. 35; A.R. 8
h
01
m
;
Dec.
24 21';
KW.
of
7}
at the same distance as that from /x to rj, and on the line from
y
through
rj produced. The map is not quite right in this respect.
(2) 9
IV.
45; A.R. 7
h
22
m
;
N.
21 10'. A nebulous star in a small
telescope
;
in a large telescope, very peculiar

2
southeast of 8-
31. Canis Minor (Map IX). This constellation, just south
of Gemini, is sufficiently characterized by the bright star
Procyon, which is
25
due south of the mid-point between
Castor and Pollux, a,
(3,
and
y
together form a configuration
closely resembling that formed by a,
/?,
and
y
Arietis. Pro-
cyon, a Orionis, and Sirius form nearly an equilateral triangle
with sides of about
25.
Names, a, Procyox
;
/?,
Gomelza.
Double Stars.
(1)
Procyon has a small companion, Dist. 40", Pos.
312,
too small, however, for anything less than an 8-inch telescope.
In 1896 a still smaller companion, like that of Sirius, was found
much nearer the large star. (See Art.
464.)
(2)
(2 1126)
(following
Procyon 43
s
,
and
2'
south,

the brightest of the stars in that field),

Mags.
7,
7.5
;
Pos. 145; Dist.
1".5
;
a good test for a 4-inch glass.
489
24 URANOGRAPHY.
[
32
32. Monoceros (The Unicorn) (Map II.).

This is one of the

new constellations organized by Hevelius to fill the gap between Gem-
ini and Canis Minor on the north, and Argo Navis and Canis Major
on the south. It lies just east of Orion. It has no conspicuous stars,
but is traversed by a brilliant portion of the Milky Way. The a
(fourth mag.) of the constellation lies about half-way between
a
Orionis* and Sirius, a little west of the line joining them.
Double Stars.
(1)
8,
or b (7| east and
3
south of a Orionis),
Mags.
5, 8 ; Pos. 24
; Dist. 12".9
;
colors, orange and lilac. A fine
low-power field.
(2)
11 Monocerotis, a fine triple (see Fig. 113 of
Astr.), A.R. 6
h
24
m
;
Dec. south
6
57'; A to B-C, Pos. 130, Dist. 8";
B-C, Pos. 120, Dist.
2".
5. The star is very nearly pointed at by a
line drawn from

Canis Majoris, north through
/3,
and continued as
far again.
Clusters.
(1)
#
VII.
2
; A.R. 6
h
24
m
;
Dec. N.
5 2'
(visible to the
naked eye about
1J
N.E. of 8 Monocerotis described above). A fine
cluster for a low power.
(2)
M. 50; A.R. 6
h
57
m
;
Dec. S.
8
9'.
In the Milky Way, on the line from Sirius to Procyon, two-fifths of
the distance.
33. Canis Major (Map II.).

This glorious constellation

needs no description. Its a is the Dog Star, Sirius, beyond
all comparison the brightest in the heavens, and probably one
of our nearer neighbors. It is nearly pointed at by the line
drawn through the three stars of Orion's belt.
f3,
at the ex-
tremity of the uplifted paw, is of the second magnitude, and
so are several of those farther south in the rump and tail of
the animal, who sits up watching his master Orion, but with
an eye out for Lepus.
Names, a, Sirius;
j3,
Mirzam;
y,
Muliphen ; 8, Wesen; e, Adara.
y
is said to have disappeared from 1670 to 1690, but at present is not
recognized as variable, though much fainter than would be expected
from its being lettered as
y.
Double Stars.
(1)
Sirius itself has a small companion (see Art.
463).
(2) fi
(4 N.E. of Sirius), Mags. 5,
9.5
;
Pos. 335; Dist.
3".5.
Clusters.
(1)
M. 41 (4 south of Sirius)
;
a fine group with a red
star near centre.
490
34]
ARGO NAVIS.
25
34. Argo Navis (The Ship) (Maps II. and III.).
This is one
of the largest, most important, and oldest of the constellations, lying
south and east of Canis Major. Many Uranographers now divide it
into three, Puppis, Vela, and Carina. Its brightest star, a Argus,
Canopus, ranks next to Sirius, but is not visible anywhere north of
the parallel of
38.
The constellation, huge as it is, is only a half
one, like Pegasus and Taurus,

only the stern of a vessel, with
mast, sail, and oars
;
the stem being wanting. In the part of the
constellation covered by our maps the most conspicuous stars lie east
and southeast of Canis Major. We have already mentioned
,
or Naos
(Art.
28),
at the southeast extremity of the "Egyptian X"; and about
8
south and a little east of it is
y,
nearly of the second magnitude.
Clusters. One or two clusters are accessible in our latitudes.
(1) (#
VIII.
38),
A.R. 7
h
31
ra
;
Dec. S.
14 12'. Pointed at by the line
from
/?
Can. Maj. through Sirius, continued
2\
times as far. Visible
to naked eye; rather coarse.
(2)
M. 46; a little more than
1
east
and south of the preceding.
(3)
M. 93, A.R. 7
h
39
;
Dec. S.
23 34';
about
2
N.W. of

Argus..
35. Cancer (Maps II. and III.). This is the fifth of the
zodiacal constellations, bounded north by Lynx and Leo Minor,
south by the head of Hydra, west by Gemini and Canis Minor,
and east by Leo. It does not contain a single conspicuous
star, but is easily recognizable from its position, and in a dark
night by the nebulous cloud known as "Praesepe," or the
"
Manger," with the two stars
y
and 8 near it,

the so-called
"Aselli," or "Donkeys." Prsesepe (sometimes also called the
"Beehive") is really a coarse cluster of seventh and eighth
magnitude stars, resolvable by an opera-glass. The line from
Castor through Pollux, produced about 12, passes near enough
to it to serve as a pointer, a, of the fourth magnitude, is on
the line drawn from Prsesepe through 8 (the southern Asellus),
produced about 7;
(3
may be recognized by drawing a line
from
y
(the northern Asellus) through Praesepe, and continu-
ing it about
12.
Double Stars.
(1)
t, Mags. 4, 6.5; Pos. 308; Dist.
30
";
orange and
blue ; nearly due north of
y,
distance twice that between the Aselli.
491
26 UHANOGRAPHY. [
35
(2) ,
Triple (see Astr. Fig.
113);
A-B, Mags. 6 and
7,
Pos. (1905)
346, Dist. 1"; in rapid motion; period about 60 years. A-C, Pos.
(1905)
110, Dist.
5"
;
also in motion, but period unknown and much
longer. Easily found by a line from a Gem. through
j3,
produced two
and a half times as far.
36. Leo (Map III.). East of Cancer lies the noble con-
stellation of Leo, which adorns the evening sky in March and
April ; it is the sixth of the zodiacal constellations, now occu-
pying the sign of Virgo. Its leading star Regulus, or
"
Cor
Leonis" is of the first magnitude, and two others,
f3
and
y,
are
of the second, a,
y,
8,
and
/?
form a conspicuous irregular
quadrilateral (see map), the line from Regulus to Denebola
being
26
long. Another characteristic configuration is "The
Sickle/' of which a, rj is the handle, and the curved line rj,
y, ,
fx,
and is the blade, the cutting edge being turned towards
Cancer. The
"
radiant " of the November meteors lies between

and c.
Names, a, Regulus;
/3,
Denebola;
y,
Algeiba;
8, Zosma.
Double Stars.
(1) y,
Mags. 2, 3.5; Pos. 116; Dist. 3".4; binary;
period about 400 years.
(2)
i, Mags. 4 and
7;
Pos. 65; Dist.
2".
5;
yellow and bluish
;
easily recognized by aid of the map.
(3)
54,
Mags. 4.5, 7;
Pos. 103; Dist. 6".2. Found by producing the line
from
ft
through 8 half its length.
37. Leo Minor and Sextans (Map III.).

Leo Minor is an
insignificant modern constellation composed of a few small stars north
of Leo, between it and the hind feet of Ursa Major. It contains
nothing deserving special notice. A similar remark holds as to Sex-
tans even more emphatically.
38. Hydra (Map III.).

This constellation, with its riders

Crater and Corvus, is a large and important one, though not
very brilliant. The head is marked by a group of five or six
fourth and fifth magnitude stars just
15
south of Prsesepe.
A curving line of small stars leads down southeast to a,
"
Cor
Hydrce" a small second or bright third magnitude star stand-
492
38]
VIRGO. 27
ing very much alone. From there, as the map shows, an
irregular line of fourth-magnitude stars running far south and
then east, almost to the boundary of Scorpio, marks the crea-
ture's body and tail, the whole covering almost six hours of
right ascension, and very nearly
90
of the sky. About the
middle of his length, and just below the hind feet of Leo (30
due south from Denebola), we find the little constellation of
Grater ; and just east of it the still smaller but much more
conspicuous one of Corvus, with two second-magnitude stars
in it, and four of the third and fourth magnitudes. It is well
marked by a characteristic quadrilateral (see map), with 8 and
7j
together at its northeast corner. The order of the letters
differs widely from that of brightness in this constellation,
suggesting that changes may have occurred.
Names, a Hydrse, Alphard or Cor Hydrce; a Crateris, Alkes;
a Corvi, Alchiba ; 8 Corvi, Algores.
Double Stars.
(1)
e Hydrse (the northernmost one of the group
that marks the head), Mags.
4, 8;
Pos. 220; Dist. 3".5
;
yellow and
purple.
(2)
8 Corvi, Mags.
3, 8; Pos. 210; Dist. 24"; yellow
and purple.
(3)
Nebula,
#
IV. 27, A.R. 10
h
19
m
;
Dec. S.
18 2'
(3
S. and
f
W. of /x

see map). Bright planetary nebula, about as

large as Jupiter.
39. Virgo (Map III.). East and south of Leo lies Virgo,
the seventh zodiacal constellation, bounded on the north by
Bootes and Coma Berenices, on the east by Bootes and Libra,
and on the south by Corvus and Hydra. Its a, Spica Vir-
ginis, is of the 1^ magnitude and,
standing rather alone
10
south of the celestial equator, is easily
recognized as the
southern apex of a nearly equilateral
triangle which it forms
with Denebola
(/?
Leonis) to the
northwest, and Arcturus
northeast of it.
(3
Virginis of the third
magnitude is
14
due
south of Denebola. A line drawn
eastward and a little south
from
j3
(third magnitude) and then carried on, curving north-
ward, passes successively (see map) through
rj,
y,
8,
and e,
493
28 URANOGRAPHY. [39
of the third magnitude (notice the word formed by the letters
Begde, like Bagdei in Cassiopeia, Art.
9). $ lies nearly mid-
way between a and 8. There are also a number of other fourth-
magnitude stars.
Names, a, Spica and Azimech
; /3,
Zavijava
;
e, Vindemiatrix.
Double Stars.
(1) y,
(Binary; period 185 years ; not quite half-way
from Spica to Denebola, and a little west of the line), Mags. 3, 3; Pos.
(1905)
328; Dist. 6".2; very easy and fine (Astr. Fig.
113).
(2)
6
(two-fifths of the way from Spica towards
8),
Triple; Mags. A 4.5,
B 9, C 10; Pos. A-B, 345, Dist. 7"; A-C, Pos. 295, Dist. 65".
(3)
o (one-third of the way from Denebola towards
y
Virginis),
Mags. 6 and
8
; Pos. 228 ; Dist.
3".5.
Spica is a spectroscopic
binary (Art. 465*).
Nebula?.
(1)
M. 49
;
A.R. 12
h
24
m
;
Dec. +
8
40'.
Forms an equi-
lateral triangle with 8 and e. It lies in the remarkable
"
nebulous
"
region of Virgo. But most of the nebulae are faint, and observable
only with large telescopes.
(2)
#
II. 74 and 75; A.R. 12
h
47
m
;
Dec.
+
11 53'
; two in one field,
2
west and a little north of e.
(3)
M. 86
(midway between Denebola and e)
;
A.R. 12
h
20
m
;
Dec.
+
13
36 . A
large telescope shows nearly a dozen nebulae within
2
of this place.
40. Coma Berenices
(Map III.). This little constellation, com-
posed of a great number of fifth and sixth magnitude stars, lies
30
north of
y
and rj
Virginis, and about
15
northeast of Denebola. It
contains a number of interesting double stars, but they are not easily
found without the help of an equatorial mounting and graduated
circles.
41. Canes Venatici (The Hunting Dogs).

These are the

dogs with which Bootes is pursuing the Great Bear around the
pole : the northern of the two is Asterion, the southern Chara.
Most of the stars are small, but a is of the
2\
magnitude, and
is easily found by drawing from rj Ursae Majoris (the star in
the end of the Dipper-handle) a line to the southwest, perpen-
dicular to the line from rj to

(Mizar) and about
15
long : it
is about one-third of the way from rj Ursse Majoris to 8 Leonis.
With Arcturus and Denebola it forms a triangle much like
that which they form with Spica.
494

41] BOOTES.
29
Names, a is known as Cor Caroli (Charles II. of England).
Double Stars.
(1)
a, or 12 Canum, Mags. 3 and
5;
Pos. 227; Dist.
20".
(2)
2 Canum (one-third of the way from a towards 8 Leonis),
Mags. 6 and 8;
Pos. 260; Dist. 41".3; orange, smalt blue.
Nebulce.
(1)
M.
51
; A.R.
13*
25
m
;
Dec.
47 49' (3 west and some*
what south of Benetnasch). A faint double nebula in small tele-
scopes; in great ones, the wonderful "Whirlpool Nebula" of Lord
Rosse.
(2)
M.
3
; bright cluster (half a degree north of the line from
a Canum to Arcturus, and a little nearer the latter). It is one of
the variable-star clusters discovered in 1895 (see Art. 455*).
42. Bootes (Maps III. and I.). This fine constellation is
bounded on the west by Ursa Major, Canes Venatici, Coma
Berenices, and Virgo, and on the south, by Yirgo. It extends
more than
60
in declination, from near the equator quite to
Draco, where the uplifted hand overlaps the tail of the Bear.
Its principal star, Arcturus, is of a ruddy hue, and in bright-
ness is excelled only by Sirius among the stars visible in our
latitudes. Canopus and a Centauri are reckoned brighter, but
they are southern circumpolars. Arcturus is at once recog-
nized by its forming with Spica and Denebola the great tri-
angle already mentioned (Art.
39).
Six degrees west and a
little south of it is rj, of the third magnitude, which forms
with it, in connection with v, a configuration like that in the
head of Aries, e is about
10
northeast of Arcturus, and in
the same direction about
10
farther lies 8. A pentagon is
formed by these two stars along with
/?, y,
and
p.
"
Bootes
"
means "the shouter" (or, according to others, "the herds-
man").
Names, a, Arcturus;
J3,
Neklcar; e, Izar ; rj, Muphrid,
y,
Seginus.
Double Stars.
(1)
e, Mags.
3, 6;
Pos. 325; Dist. 3".l; orange and
greenish blue ; very fine.
(2)
(about
9
southeast from Arcturus,
at right angles to the line ae), Mags. 3.5, 4; Pos. 295; Dist. 0".8;
a good test for a 4-inch glass.
(3)
v (2 north of
),
Mags. 4.9, 6
;
Pos. 101
; Dist. 5".
3.
(4)
(10 due east from Arcturus,
3
NVE.
from tt), Mags. 4.7, 6.6 ; Pos. (1905)176; Dist.
2".5; yellow and purple.
Binary
;
period 127 years.
49*
80 URANOGRAPHY. [
43
43. Corona Borealis (Map III.). This beautiful little con-
stellation lies
20
northeast of Areturus, and is at once rec-
ognizable as an almost perfect semicircle composed of half a
dozen stars, among which the brightest, a, is of the second
magnitude. The extreme northern one is
0;
next comes
ft,
and the rest follow in the
ft
a
y
8 e t (Bagdei) order, just as
in Cassiopeia.
Names, a, Gemma, or Alphacca.
Double Stars.
(1)
(nearly pointed at by e-S Bootis
;
7
from e),
Mags. 5, 6;
Pos. 301; Dist. 6"; white and greenish.
(2)
rj, rapid
binary, at certain times can be split by a 4-inch glass. Mags.
6, 6.5;
pointed at by the line from a through
ft,
2
beyond
ft.
The tempo-
rary star of 1866 (Astr, 450) lies H S.E. of Coronse.
44. Libra (Map III.). This is the eighth of the zodiacal
constellations, and lies east of Virgo, bounded on the south by
Centaurus and Lupus, on the east by the upstretched claw of
Scorpio, and on the north by Serpens and Virgo. It is incon-
spicuous, the most characteristic figure being the trapezoid
formed by the lines joining the four stars a,, i,
y, ft. ft,
which
is the northernmost of the four, is the brightest
(2-L
magni-
tude), and is about
30
nearly due east from Spica, while a is
about
10
southwest of
ft.
The remarkable variable 8 Librae
is
4
west and a little north from
ft.
Most of the time it is
of the
4J
or fifth magnitude, but runs down nearly two magni-
tudes at the minimum.
Names, a, Zuben el Genubi;
ft,
Zuben el Chamali.
Cluster. M.
5;
A.R. 15
h
12
m
;
Dec. 1ST.
2 32'. This is within the
boundaries of Serpens, and just a little north and west of the fifth-
magnitude star 5 Serpentis. It is a variable-star cluster (Art. 455*).
45. Antlia, Centaurus, and Lupus (Map III.). These constel-
lations lie south of Hydra and Libra. Antlia Pneumatica (the "Air-
Pump") is a modern constellation of no importance and hardly recog-
nizable by the eye, having only a single star as bright as the
4J
mag-
496
45] SCORPIO.
31
nitude. Centaurus, on the other hand, is an ancient and extensive
asterism, containing in its (south) circumpolar portion two stars of
the first magnitude : a
Centauri stands next after Sirius and Canopus
in brightness, and, as far as present knowledge indicates, is our nearest
neio'hbor among the stars. The part of the constellation which be-
comes visible in our latitudes is not specially brilliant, though it con-
tains several stars of the 2
J
and third magnitude in the region that
lies south of Corvus and Spica Virginis. A line from e Virginis
through Spica, produced a little more than its own length, will strike
very near
6,
a solitary star of the
2}
magnitude in the Centaur's
left shoulder, t (third mag.) lies
11
west of
9,
and rj
(third mag.)
9
southeast ; while
5
or 6
U
south of the line from to i lies a tangle
of third-magnitude stars, which, if they were at a higher elevation,
would be conspicuous. Centaurus is best seen in May or early in
June.
Lupus, also one of Ptolemy's constellations, lies due east of Cen-
taurus and just south of Libra. It contains a considerable number of
third and fourth magnitude stars
;
but is too low for any satisfactory
study in our own latitudes. It is best seen late in June. These
constellations contain numerous objects interesting for a southern
observer, but nothing available for our purpose.
46. Scorpio (or Scorpius) (Map III.). This, the ninth of
the zodiacal constellations, and the most brilliant of them,
lies southeast of Libra, which in ancient times used to form
its claws (Chelce). It is bounded north by Ophiuchus, south
by Lupus, Norma, and Ara, and east by Sagittarius. It is
recognizable at once on a summer evening by the peculiar con-
figuration, like a boy's kite, with a long streaming tail reach-
ing far down to the southern horizon. Its principal star,
Antares, is of the first magnitude and fiery red, like the
planet Mars. From this it gets its name, which means "the
rival of Ares" (Mars),
ft
(second magnitude) is in the arch
of the kite bow, about
8
or
9
northwest of Antares, while
the star which Bayer lettered as
y
Scorpii is well within Libra,
20
west of Antares. (There is no little discordance and con-
fusion among Uranographers as to the boundary between the
497
32 TJRANOGRAPHY.
[
46
two constellations.) The other principal stars of the constel-
lation are easily found on the map ; 8 is
3
southwest of
ft,
while e,
I, 7), 6,
i, k, and X follow along in order in the tail of
the creature, except that between e and

is interposed the
double
fi.
e,
0,
and
X are all of the second magnitude, and the
others of the third.
47. Names, a, Antares
;
/?,
Akrdb.
Double Stars.
(1)
a, Mags. 1 and
7
; Pos. 270 ; Dist. 3."5 ; fiery red
and vivid green. A beautiful object when the state of the air allows
it to be well seen.
(2)
/?,
Triple; Mags. A
2,
B
4, C 10; A-B, Pos.
25, Dist. 13"; A-C, Pos. 89, Dist. 0&9.
$3)
v
(2 due east of
/?),
Quadruple; Mags. A
4, B 5, C 7,
D8; A-B, Pos. 7, Dist. 0".8
;
A-C, Pos. 337, Dist. 41"; C-D, Pos. 47, Dist. 2".4. A beautiful
object.
(4)

Scorpii (8 due north from
/?),
Triple; Mags. A
5,
B 5.2, C 7.5
;
A-B, (Binary) Pos. 200, Dist. V'A
;
*(A
+ B) to C,
Pos. 65, Dist.
7".3.
fx
1
is a spectroscopic binary (Art. 465*).
Clusters.
(1)
M. 80, A.R. 16
h
10
m
: Dec. S.
22
42'; half-way
between a and
/?;
one of the finest clusters known.
(2)
M.
4, A.R.
16
h
16
m
;
Dec. S.
26
14';
H west of a; not so fine as the preceding.
Norma lies west of Scorpio, between it and Lupus, while Ara lies
due south of -q and 0- Both are small and of little importance, at
least to observers in our latitudes.
48. Ophiuchus (or Serpentarius) and Serpens (Map III.).
Ophiuchus means the
"
serpent-holder." The giant is repre-
sented as standing with his feet on Scorpio, and grasping the
"
serpent/
7
the head of which is just south of Corona Borealis,
while the tail extends nearly to Aquila. The two constella-
tions therefore are best treated together. The head of Serpens
is marked by a group of small stars
20
due east of Arcturus,
and
10
south of Corona.
(3
and
y
are the two brightest stars
in the group, their magnitudes three and a half and four.
8 lies
6
southwest of
/?,
and there the serpent's body bends
southeast through a and e Serpentis (see map) to S and e Ophi-
uchi in the giant's hand. The line of these five stars carried
upwards passes nearly through c Bootis, and downwards
498

48] OPHIUCHUS. 33
through

Ophiuchi. A line crossing this at right angles,
nearly midway between e Serpentis and 8 Ophiuchi, passes
through
fi
Serpentis on the southwest, and A. Ophiuchi to the
northeast. The lozenge-shaped
figure formed by the lines
drawn from a
Serpentis and

Ophiuchi to the two stars last
mentioned forms one of the most characteristic configurations
of the summer sky.
a Ophiuchi
(2i
magnitude) is easily recognized in connection
with a Herculis, since they stand rather isolated, about
6
apart, on the line drawn from Arcturus through the head of
Serpens, and produced as far again, a Ophiuchi is the eastern
and the brighter of the two. It forms with Vega and Altair a
nearly equilateral triangle,
ft
Ophiuchi lies about
9
southeast
of a
;
and
5
east and a little south of
ft
are five small stars
in the Milky Way,
forming a Y
with the point to the south,
much like the Hyades of Taurus. They form the head of the
now discredited constellation " Poniatowski's Bull" (Taurus
Poniatovii), proposed in 1777.
49. Names, a Ophiuchi, Ras Alaghue
;
ft,
Cebalrai ; 8,
Yed
; X,
Marjic: a Serpentis, TJnukalhai;
$,
Alya.
Double Stars.
(1)
A.
Ophiuchi, Binary
;
period, 234 years ; Mags.
4,
6
;
Pos.
(1905)
60
;
Dist. 1".2.
(2)
70 Ophiuchi (the middle star in
the eastern leg of the V of Poniatowski's Bull), Binary; period, 93
years ; Mags. 4.5, 7;
Pos.
(1905)
180
;
Dist. 2".
The position angle
changes very rapidly just now, and the star is too close to be resolved
by a small instrument.
(3)
8 Serpentis, Mags.
4, 5; Pos. 185; Dist.
^ ".6 ; very pretty.
(4)
Serpentis, Mags. 4, 4.5; Pos. 104; Dist. 21".
(5)
v
Serpentis (4 N.E. of rj Ophiuchi), Mags.
4.5, 9; Pos. 31; Dist.
51"
;
sea-green and lilac.
Clusters.
(1)
M. 23, A.E. 17
h
50
m
;
Dec. S.
19 0'.
Fine low-
power field.
(2)
M. 12, A.B. 16
h
41
m
;
Dec. S.
1
45'.
On the line
between
ft
and c Ophiuchi, one-third of the way from e.
(3)
M.
10,
A.R. 16*
51
m
;
Dec. S.
3 56'.
On the line between
ft
and

Ophiuchi,
two-fifths of the way from
.
(4)
#
VIII.
72, A.R, 18
h
22
m
;
Dec. N.
6 29'. Pointed at by the eastern leg of the Poniatowski V.
8
from
70 Ophiuchi.
499
34 UEANOGEAPHY.
[
50
50. Hercules (Maps I. and III.).
This noble constellation
lies next north of Ophiuchus, and is bounded on the west by
Serpens, Corona, and Bootes, while to the east lie Aquila, Lyra,
and Cygnus. On the north is Draco. The hero is represented
as resting on one knee, with his foot on the head of Draco,
w hile his head is close to that of Ophiuchus. The constella-
tion contains no stars of the first or even of the second mag-
nitude, but a number of the third. The most characteristic
figure is the keystone-shaped quadrilateral formed by the stars
e,
,
rj, with 7T and
p
together at the northeast corner. It lies
about midway on the line from Vega to Corona. The line -n-e,
carried on 11, brings us to
/?,
the brightest star of the aster-
ism
;
and
y
and k lie a few degrees farther along on the same
line continued toward
y
Serpentis. The angle
efia
is a right
angle opening towards Lyra, a is irregularly variable, besides
being double.
51. Names, a, Ras Algethi
; j3,
Korneforos.
Double Stars.
(1)
a, Mags.
3, 6
;
Pos. 119; Dist. 4".5 ; orange and
blue. A very beautiful object for a 4-inch glass (Astr. Fig. 113).
(2)
(the S.W. corner of the "Keystone"), Binary
;
period, 34
y.
(Astr. Fig.
113);
Mags. 3, 6.5; Pos. (1905)190; Dist. 1".5. Rather difficult for a
small instrument.
(3)
p
(2J
east of tt at the N.W. corner of the
"
Keystone "), Mags. 4, 5
;
Pos.
312
;
Dist.
4"
;
white, emerald green.
(4)
8 (on the line from
rj
through produced nearly its own length),
Mags. 3, 8;
Pos. 184; Dist. 18"; white, light blue. Apparently an
"
optical pair
"
;
the relative motion being rectilinear.
(5)
p,
(nearly
midway between Vega and a Herculis

see map), Triple] Mags. A

4,
B 9.5, C 10
; A,
B
+
C
,
Pos. 246 ; Dist. 31". B-C, too faint and close
for separation by any but large telescopes; Dist. about 1"; position
angle rapidly changing

about
20
in 1890.
(6)
95 Herculis (the
N.W. corner of a little quadrilateral [sides
1
to 2] of fourth and
fifth mag. stars, on line from
p
through
p,
produced two-thirds its
length), Mags. 5.5 and 6;
Pos.
262; Dist. 6"; light green, cherry-red.
Peculiar in showing contrast of color between nearly equal components.
Clusters.
(1)
M. 13, A.R.
16*
37
m
; Dec.
36 41'. Exactly on the
western boundary of the Keystone, one-third the way from r\ towards
500

51]
LYRA. 35
. On the whole, the finest of all star clusters.
(2)
M. 92, A.R.
17
h
13
m
;
Dec.
43 16' (6 north and a little west of
p).
Fine, but not
equal to the other.
52. Lyra (Map IV.).

The great white or blue star Vega

sufficiently marks this constellation. It is attended on the
east by two fourth-magnitude stars, e and
,
which form with
it a little equilateral triangle having sides about
2
long,
ft
and
y
of the third magnitude
(/5
is variable) lie about
8
southeast from Vega,
2
apart.
Double Stars.
(1)
Vega itself has a small companion, 11th mag.
;
Pos. 160; Dist.
48".
Only optically connected ; the small star does
not share the proper motion of the larger one, and has been used as a
reference point in measuring Vega's parallax.
(2) @, multiple; i.e.,
it has three small stars near it, forming a very preiiy object with a
low power.
(3)
e
x
and e
2
,
Quadruple (the northern of the two which
form the little triangle with a.) A sharp eye unaided by a telescope
splits the star, and a small telescope divides both the components
(see Astr. 468, and Fig. 113) : e
1
(or 4 Lyras), Mags.
6, 7; Pos. 12;
Dist. 3".2.
e
2
(or 5 Lyras), Mags. 5.5,
6
; Pos. 132 ; Dist. 2".5.
e
1
e
2
,
Pos. 173; Dist. 207". On the whole, the finest object of the kind.
(4) ,
Mags,
4, 6;
Pos. 150; Dist. 44".
(5)
v
(10 E. of Vega),
Mags. 4.5, 8;
Pos. 85; Dist. 28"; yellow, indigo.
(6)
S; fine field
for low powers.
Nebula. M.
57,
the Annular Nebula. A.R. 18
h
49
;
Dec.
32 53'.
Between
(3
and
y,
one-third of the way from
ft.
(Art.
470.)
53. Cygnus (Maps I. and IV.).

This lies due east from

Lyra, and is easily recognized by the cross that marks it. The
bright star a
(1-J-
magnitude) is at the top, and
j3
(third mag-
nitude) at the bottom, while
y
is where the cross-bar from d to
c intersects the main piece, which lies along the Milky Way
from the northeast to the southwest.

is (nearly) on the pro*
longation of the line from
y
through e, not quite so far from
5 as e from
y.
Names, a, Arided, or Deneb Cygni (there are other Denebs
;
e.g.,
Deneb Kaitos in Cetus)
;
j3,
Albireo;
y,
Sadr.
501
36
URANOGRAPHY.
[
53
Double Stars.
(1) j3,
Mags. 3.5, 7;
Pos. 56; Dist. 35"; orange,
smalt blue. This is the finest of the colored pairs for a small tele^
scope.
(2) fi
(as far beyond

as

is east of e, at the tip of the east-
ern wing), Mags. 5 and
6
; Pos. 118; Dist. 3".8.
(3)
x
(one-third
of
the way from
fi
towards
y),
Mags. 5 and 9
;
Pos. 73 ; Dist. 26"
;
yel-
low and blue.
(4)
61 Cygni (easily found by completing the parallel-
ogram of which a,
y,
and e are the other three corners, cr and r form
a little triangle with
61, which is the faintest of the three), Mags.
5.5, 6;
Pos.
(1905)
127; Dist. 22". This is the star of which Bessel
measured the parallax in 1838 (Astr.
521),

apparently our second

nearest neighbor.
8 is also a fine double, but too difficult for an instrument of less
than six inches' aperture.
Clusters.
(1)
M.
39, A.R. 21
h
28
m
;
Dec.
47 54'
(about
3
north of
p
;
p
itself (fourth mag.) being found by drawing a line from 8 through
a, and carrying it an equal distance beyond.
(2)
$: VIII. 56, A.R.
20
h
19
m
;
Dec. 40 20'.
Beautiful group]! | north and a little east of
y.
The bright
^
spots in the Milky Way all through Cygnus afford
beautiful fields for a low power.
54. Vulpecula et Anser (Map IV.).

This little constella-

tion is one of those originated by Hevelius, and has obtained
more general recognition among astronomers than most of his
creations. It lies just south of Cygnus, and
-
is bounded to the
south by Delphinus, Sagitta and Aqiiila.
It has no conspicuous stars, but contains one very interesting tele-
scopic object,

the
"
Dumb-Bell Nebula,"

M. 27, A.R. 19
h
54
m
;
Dec.
22 23'.
On a line from
y
Lyrae through
j3
Cygni, produced as far
again, where this line intersects another drawn from a Aquilse through
y
Sagittse,
3J
north and half a degree east of the latter star.
55. Sagitta (Map IV.).

This little asterism, though very incon-

spicuous, is one of the old 48. It lies south of Vulpecula, and the two
stars a and
ft,
which mark the feather of the arrow, lie nearly midway
between
ft
Cygni and Altair, while its point is marked by
y,
5
farther
east and north.
Double Stars.
(1)
(f'N.W.
of S, the middle star in the shaft of
the arrow), Mags. 5.5, 9; Pos. 312; Dist. 8".6: the larger star is itself
close double, distance about \",
making an interesting triple system.
502

56] AQUILA. 37
56. Aquila (Map IV.). This constellation lies on the ce-
lestial equator, east of Ophiuchus and north of Sagittarius
and Capricornus. It is bounded on the east by Aquarius and
Delphinus, and on the north by Sagitta. Its characteristic
configuration is that formed by Altair (the standard first-mag-
nitude star), with
y
to the north and
/3
to the south. It lies
about
20
south of
fi
Cygni, and forms a fine triangle with
Vega and a Ophiuchi.
Double Star.
(1)
ir Aquilse
(1J
N.E. of
y),
Mags. 6 and
7
; Pos.
120 ; Dist. 1".5. Good test for 3^-inch glass.
Cluster. M. 11, A.R. 18
b
45
m
;
Dec. S.
6 24'. A fine fan-shaped
group of stars in the Milky Way. A line carried from Altair through
8 Aquilse (see map), and prolonged once and a half as far again, will
find it about
4
S.W. of A.
The southern part of the region allotted to Aquila on our maps has
been assigned to Antinoiis. This constellation was recognized by some
even in Ptolemy's time ; but he declined to adopt it. Hevelius appro-
priated the eastern portion of
"
Antinoiis " for his constellation of
"
Scutum Sobieski," and M. 11 falls just within its limits.
57. Sagittarius (Map IV). This, the tenth of the zodia-
cal constellations, is bounded north by Aquila and Ophiuchus,
west by Scorpio and Ophiuchus (though Bode and some other
authorities crowd in a piece of
"
Telescopium^
?
between it and
Scorpio), south by Corona Australis, Telescopium, and Indus,
and east by Microscopium and Capricornus. It contains no
stars of the first magnitude, but a number of the
2\
and third.
The most characteristic configuration is the little inverted
"
milk dipper
"
formed by the five stars, A,
<f>,
<r, r, and
,
of
which the last four form the bowl, while A (in the Milky Way)
is the handle.
8, y,
and e, which form a triangle right-angled
at
8,
lie south and a little west of A, the whole eight together
forming a very striking group. There is a curious disregard
of any apparent principle in the lettering of the stars of this
constellation; a and
ft
are stars not exceeding in brightness
503
38
URANOGRAPHY.
[
57
the fourth magnitude, about
4
apart on a north and south
line and lying some
15
south and 5
C
east of

(see map).
The Milky Way in Sagittarius is very bright, and complicated
in structure, full of knots and streamers, and dark pockets.
Names. X,
Kaus Borealis
; 8,
Kaus Media; e, Kaus Australis ; <r,
Sddira. This star is strongly suspected of irregular variability.
Double Stars.
(1) fx
1
(7 KW. of A; on the line from

through
<
produced), Triple; Mags. A 3.5, B 9.5, C 10; A-B, Pos. 315, Dist.
40"; A-C, Pos. 114, Dist.
45".
Clusters and Nebulce.
(1)
M. 22, A.R. 18*
29
m
;
Dec. S.
24 0'
(3
N.W. of A, and midway between /x and <r). Capital object for a 4-inch
telescope.
(2)
M. 25, A.R. 18
h
25
m
;
Dec. S.
19 10' (7 north and
1
east of A;
visible to naked eye).
(3)
M.
8;
A.R. 17
h
57
m
; Dec. S.
24 21'
(a little south of the line
cf>X
produced, and as far from A as
A
from
<;
also visible to naked eye).
(4)
#
IV. 41, The
Trifid
Nebula, A.R. 17
h
55
m
;
Dec. S.
23 2'
(1} north of M.
8,
and almost
exactly on the line <j>X
produced) . A very beautiful and interesting
object.
58. Capricornus (Map IV.).

This, the eleventh of the

zodiacal constellations, follows Sagittarius on the east. It has
Aquarius and Aquila (Antinous) on the north, Microscopium
and Piscis Austrinus on the south, and Aquarius on the east.
It has no bright stars, but the configuration formed by the
two a's
(^
and a
2
)
with each other and with
/?,
3
south, is
characteristic and not easily mistaken for anything else. The
two a's, a pretty
"
double " to the naked eye, lie on the line
from
/3
Cygni (at the foot of the cross) through Altair, pro-
duced about
25.
On the line a/3, about
3
distant, lies
p
(of
the fourth magnitude), with two other small stars near it.
From this a line
20
long, carried due east through and i (of the
fourth magnitude), brings the eye to
y
and 8 of the third, the
latter marking the constellation's eastern limit.
Names, a, Algiedi (prima and secundd)
; 8,
Deneb Algiedi.
Double Stars.
(1)
a
x
and a
2
(pretty with a very low power), Mags.
3 and 4;
Dist.
6' 13".
o^ has also a very faint companion, invisible
504
58] DELPHINTJS.
39
with any telescope of less than 6-inch aperture
}
Pos. 150; Dist.
7
".5.
The companion is itself double; Dist. about 1"; Pos. 240.
(2)
ft
Mags. 3.5, 7 ;
Pos. 267 ; Dist.
3' 25". The companion is also a close
and difficult double.
(3) p
(the northern star in the little triangle it
forms with tt and o), Mags. 5, 9
;
Pos. 177; Dist. 3".8.
(4)
tt (the
S.W. one in the same triangle), Mags. 5, 9
;
Pos. 146; Disc. 3".5.
Nebula. M. 30,
A.K. 21
h
34
m
;
Dec. S.
23 42' (about
1
west and
a little north of 41 Capricorni, a fifth-magnitude star,
7
south of
y
Capricorni)
.
59. DelpMnus (Map IV.). This little asterism is ancient,
and unmistakably characterized by the rhombus of third-mag-
nitude stars known as
"
Job's Coffin." It lies about
15
north-
east of Altair, bounded north by Vulpecula and west by Aquila.
There are a few stars visible to the naked eye in addition to
the four that form the rhombus. Epsilon, about
3
southwest,
is the only conspicuous one.
Names, a, Svalocin;
ft
Rotanev. These were given in joke by
Mcolaus Cacciatore, a Sicilian astronomer, about 1800. The letters
of the two names reversed make Mcolavs Venator; Venator being the
translation of the Italian
"
Cacciatore," which means "Hunter." The
joke is good enough to keep.
Double Stars.
(1)
y
(at the N.E. angle of the rhombus), Mags.
4,
7;
Pos. 271; Dist. 11".3.
(2)
ft
a very close and rapid binary,
beyond the reach of all but large telescopes. It has, however, two
little companions, distant about
30".
60. Equuleus (Map IV.).

This little constellation is still
smaller than the Dolphin, and contains no such characteristic star
group. It lies about
20
due east of Altair, and
10
S.E. of Delphinus
(see map).
Double Stars.
(1)
e, Mags.
5, 7.5 ; Pos. 73; Dist. 11".
The larger
star is also close double
;
Mags. 5.5. and
7
; Pos. 290 ; Dist. 0".9. Per-
haps resolvable with a 4-inch telescope.
61. Lacerta (Maps I. and IV.).

This is one of Hevelius's mod-

ern constellations, lying between Cygnus and Andromeda, with no
stars above the
4
magnitude. It contains a few telescopic objects,
but nothing suited to our purpose.
505
40 TJRANOGRAPHY. [
62
62. Pegasus (not Pegas'us) (Map IV.).

This covers an
immense space which is bonnded on the north by Andromeda
and Lacerta, on the west by Cygnus, Vulpecula, Delphinus,
and Equuleus, on the sonth by Aquarius and Pisces, and on
the east by Pisces and Andromeda. Its most notable config-
uration is
"
the great square," formed by the second-magnitude
stars a,
/?,
and
y
Pegasi, in connection with a Andromedae
(sometimes lettered 8 Pegasi) at its northeast corner. The
stars of the square lie in the body of the horse, which has no
hindquarters. The line drawn from a Andromedse through
a Pegasi, and produced about an equal distance, passes through

and

in the animal's neck, and reaches (third magnitude)
in his ear. Epsilon,
8
northwest of
0,
marks his nose. The
forelegs are in the northwestern part of the constellation just
east of Cygnus, and are marked, one of them by the stars rj
and 7r, the other by t and k.
Names, a, Marked)
; /3,
Scheat
; y,
AIgenib ; e, Enif.
Double Star, k, Mags. 4, 11 ; Pos. 302 ; Dist. 12". The large star
is also itself an extremely close double ; Dist. 0".3
;
(pointed at by
the northern edge of the
"
square," at a distance one and a quarter
times its length.)
Cluster. M. 15, A.R. 2P 24
m
;
Dec.
11 38'
(on the line from
through e, produced half its length, and just west of a Mxth-magni-
tude star).
63. Aquarius (Map IY.).

This, the twelfth and last of

the zodiacal constellations, extends more than
3^
hours in
right ascension, covering a considerable region which by
rights ought to belong to Capricornus. It is bounded north
by Delphinus, Equuleus, Pegasus, and Pisces ; west by Aquila
and Capricornus ; south by Capricornus and Piscis Austrmus,
and east by Cetus. The most notable configuration is the
little Y of third and fourth magnitude stars which marks the
"water jar" from which Aquarius pours the stream that
meanders down to the southeast and south for 30, till
it
506
63] PISCIS
ACTSTEINUS.
41
reaches the Southern Fish. The middle of the Y is about
18
south and west of a Pegasi, and lies almost exactly on the
celestial equator. A line drawn west and a little south from
y
(the westernmost star of the Y) to a Capricorni, passes
through
(3
(third
magnitude) at one-third of the way, and
through ix and e (fourth and
3)
two-thirds of the way. a
(third magnitude) lies
4
west and a little north of
y.
8
(third
magnitude) lies about half-way between the Y and Fomalhaut
in the Southern Fish,
3
or
4
east of the line that joins them.
Names, a, Saad el Melik
;
(3,
Saad el Suna , S, Skat.
Double Stars.
(1)
(the central star of the Y), Mags.
4, 4.5; Pos.
332
;
Dist,
3".6
;
pretty and easy.
(2)
12 Aquarii (7 due west of
ft
and the brightest star in the vicinity), Mags. 5.5, 8.5 ; Pos. 190
;
Dist.
2".8
;
yellowish white and light blue.
Clusters and Nebulae.
(1)
M.
2
; A.R. 21
h
17
m
;
Dec. S.
1 22'
(on
the line drawn from

through a, produced one and a quarter times its
own length).
(2)
H IV. 1,
A.R. 20
h
58
m
;
Dec. S.
11 50'
(nearly on
the line from a through
ft,
produced its own length, and 1 west of
v ;
fifth magnitude)
;
planetary nebula, bright and vividly green.
64. Piscis Austrinus (or Australis) (Map IV.).

This small
constellation, lying south of Aquarius and Capricornus, pre-
sents little of interest. It has one bright star, Fomalhatjt
(pronounced Fomalhawt), of the
\\
magnitude, which is easily
recognized from its being nearly on the same hour-circle with
the western edge of the gTeat square of Pegasus,
45
to the
south of a, and solitary, having no star exceeding the fourth
magnitude within
15
or
20.
It contains no telescopic objects
available for our purpose.
South of it, barely rising above the southern horizon, He the con-
stellations of Microscopium and Grus. The former is of no account.
The latter is a conspicuous constellation in the southern hemisphere,
and its two brightest stars, a and
/?,
of the second magnitude, rise
high enough to be seen in latitudes south of Washington. They lie
about 20
south and west of Fomalhaut.
607
42 URANOGRAPHY.
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