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UNIT 7 MACHINE TOOLS
Structure
7.1 Introduction
Objectives
7.2 Function of Lathe
7.3 Types of Lathe
7.3.1 Size or Specifications of Lathe
7.3.2 Description and Function of Lathe Parts
7.4 Lathe Accessories and Attachments
7.4.1 List of Accessories and Attachments
7.4.2 General Description of Main Accessories and Attachments
7.5 Lathe Operations
7.6 Cutting Tools
7.6.1 Types of Cutting Tool
7.6.2 Description of Cutting Tools
7.6.3 Tool Geometry
7.6.4 Cutting Tool Signature
7.7 Terms Used in Cutting Operation
7.7.1 Cutting Speed
7.7.2 Feed
7.7.3 Depth of Cut
7.7.4 Machining Time
7.8 Summary
7.9 Answers to SAQs
7.1 INTRODUCTION
From the very beginning of human race, man has been struggling for getting the
objects round in shape and finally the stage came when wheel was invented.
Since then continuous efforts have been made to evolve improved methods of
manufacturing the cylindrical objects like a wheel, a shaft and other cylindrical
objects which are needed by the world of technology for catering to the human
needs. In the year 1797, Henry Maudslay, an Englishman, designed the first
screw cutting engine lathe which is the force runner of the present day high
speed, heavy duty production lathe, a machine tool which has practically given
shape to our present day civilization by building machines and industries. The
world of lathe has been making revolutionary advancements. Today we have low
production lathe on one extreme and CNC (Computerized Numerically
Controlled) like sophisticated lathes on the other side of the spectrum.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
explain the function and specifications of lathe,
describe the different parts of lathe and their functions,
classify the types of lathe,



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distinguish between lathe accessories and attachments,
describe the lathe operations,
explain the types and geometry of cutting tool, and
define the terms cutting speed, feed, depth of cut and machining time.
7.2 FUNCTION OF LATHE
Lathe is a machine tool which causes workpiece to revolve so that when cutting
tool comes in contact with the workpiece it removes the metal in the form of
chips. Workpiece can be held securely and rigidly on the machine tool between
centres or by means of chuck. To cut the material easily the cutting tool should be
harder than the material of workpiece. It should be rigidly held on the machine or
should be fed in a definite way relative to the workpiece.
Arrangements for setting the direction of tool advancement and its rigid holding,
are already provided on lathe machine.
7.3 TYPES OF LATHE
There are varieties of lathes and their design depends on the type of production
and the nature of work. But all of them employ the same fundamental principle of
operations and perform the same function. The lathe, which are widely used, may
be classified and described below.
(a) Centre or engine lathe,
(b) Bench lathe,
(c) Tool room lathe,
(d) Speed lathe,
(e) Capstan and turret lathe,
(f) Special purpose lathe,
(g) Automatic lathe.
Centre or Engine Lathe
It is a common and general purpose lathe. As the workpiece can be held
between two centres, it is denoted as centre lathe. The term engine is
associated with the lathe owing to the fact that early lathes were driven by
steam engines. But now-a-days all the centre lathes are driven by electric
motor. Being easy to operate and simple in design, it is widely used for
training purpose also.
Bench Lathe
These are normally set on benches and, therefore, are called bench lathe. It
has the same features as centre lathe, but differs from this lathe only in size
and mounting. It performs all the operations like centre or speed lathe but
being smaller in size, mostly used for small and precision work.
Tool Room Lathe
A tool room lathe looks like a centre lathe but is built more accurately and
has a wide range of a spindle speed from a very low to a high speed up to
2500 rpm and is equipped with many other extra accessories such as taper

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turning attachment, steady and follower rest, thread chasing dial, draw in
collect attachment and coolant pump etc. It is specially used for precision
work on tools, gauges, dies and in machining work where accuracy is the
main consideration. Tool room lathe of same size is costlier than centre or
engine lathe.
Speed Lathe
It is the simplest of all lathes and consists of a bed, a head stock, a tail stock
and an adjustable slide (tool rest) for supporting the tool. Usually, speed
lathe is driven by a variable speed electric motor which is fitted with head
stock. Because hand tools are used and the cuts are light, the lathe is driven
at high speed. The work is held between centres or attached to a face plate
on the head stock. The speed lathe is commonly used in wood turning,
metal spinning, centering for metal cylinders and polishing etc. The head
stock construction is very simple and only two or three spindle speeds are
available. Light cuts and high speeds necessitate the use of this machine
where cutting force is minimum. The speed lathe has been so named
because of the very high speed of the headstock spindle.
Capstan and Turret Lathe
These lathes are a major departure from centre or basic lathes and are used
for production work. The distinguishing feature of these types of lathe is
that the tail stock of a centre lathe is replaced by a circular turret (for
capstan) and square or hexagonal turret (for turret). The principal
characteristics of this type of lathes is that the tools for consecutive
operations can be set up in readiness for doing operations in proper
sequence.
The advantage is that many different types of operation can be done on a
workpiece without resetting of work or tools and a number of identical parts
can be produced in the minimum time with less skill, although skill is
required only to set and adjust the tools properly.
The turret is mounted on either the sliding ram or the saddle which carries
the tools for the various operations. The tools are mounted in proper
sequence on the various faces of the turret, so that as it indexes around
between operations, the proper tools are brought into position. For each tool
there is a stop screw that controls the distance, the tool will feed. When this
distance is reached, an automatic trip lever stops further movement of the
tool by disengaging the drive clutch. In capstan lathe, only round bar shape
of metallic piece is used as a raw material whereas for turret lathe it may be
of any shape.
Special Purpose Lathe
As the name indicates, they are used for special purposes and for jobs
which cannot be easily machined on standard type of lathe. The duplicating
type of special purpose lathe is one for duplicating the shape of a flat or
round template onto the workpiece. Devices operated by air, mechanically
or by using hydraulic system, are used to coordinate the right movements of
the tool to reproduce exactly the shape of template. The wheel lathe is made
for machining the journals and turning the thread on rail road car and
locomotive wheels. The gap bed lathe, in which a section of the bed
adjacent to the head stock is recoverable, is used to swing extra large
diameter pieces.
Automatic Lathe



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Lathes that have their tools automatically fed to the work and withdrawn
after performing the cycle of all desired operations are known as automatic
lathes. They are semi-automatic or fully automatic types. In semi-automatic,
operator holds the part to be machined in the lathe and finally removes it in
finished shape. Lathes that are fully automatic are provided with a
megazine feed so that a number of parts can be machined, one after the
other, with little attention from the operator. An operator who has to look
after five or six automatic lathes at a time will simply look after the general
maintenance of the machine and cutting tool, load up a bar stock and
remove finished products from time to time.
7.3.1 Size or Specification of a Lathe
The size or specifications of a lathe is expressed according to
(a) Swing,
(b) Admits between centres,
(c) Length of bed, and
(d) Height of centres.
Swing
It is defined with respect to both bed and carriage. In respect of bed it is
denoted as maximum diameter of job that can be revolved over the bed in
the presence of gap or without gap, whereas for carriage maximum
diameter of job that can be revolved over the carriage without touching it.
Admits between Centres
Means maximum possible distance that can be arranged between two
centres (live and dead centres).
Length of Bed
It indicates the approximate floor space occupied by the lathe.
Height of Centres
It is measured from the lathe bed.
7.3.2 Description and Function of Lathe Parts
A lathe consists of the following main parts as shown in Figure 7.1
(a) Bed, Body or Frame
(b) Head Stock
(c) Tail Stock
(d) Carriage
Bed, Body or Frame
The lathe bed with body or frame forms the base of the machine. The tail
stock and the head stock are located at both ends of the bed. A carriage rests
slides over this bed. Bed shows the main guiding member of the tool. It
should be rigid, resistant to wear and tear, capable to absorb vibration and
shocks etc. Mostly, beds are made of cast iron alloyed with nickel and
chromium. Many lathes are made with a gap in the bed. This gap is used to
swing extra large diameter pieces.

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Head Stock
It is secured permanently at the left hand end of lathe bed. It provides the
mechanism of rotating the work at multiple speed along with driving and
altering the spindle speed. All the parts related with feed mechanism are
housed with the head stock. A hollow spindle is fitted in the bore of head
stock. The front end of spindle hole has a standard morse taper. Therefore
line centre is fitted into this hole with the help of taper sleeve.
Tail Stock
This part is located at the right hand end of the bed. It carries two functions
:
(a) It supports the other end of the work when the workpiece is held
between centre to centre.
(b) It can hold the tool for performing operations such as drilling,
tapping and reaming etc.
Its body is made of cast iron which consists of Base and Top. Base is fixed
on the bed and the top part is fitted on the base. The base can be moved
along the bed ways. The top part can be adjusted sideways on both sides
while off setting the centre for taper turning between centres. Spindle of tail
stock is hollow shaft having a taper bore in front to suit the shanks of
centres or drills etc. It has a clamping lever which tightens the spindle.














TRAY
FEED
BOX
HAND TRAVERSING WHEEL
GEAR BOX
CONTROLS
HEAD
STOCK
DRIVING CLUTCH
CONTROL LEVER
LIVE
CENTRE
TOOL POST
DEAD
CENTRE
LAMP
CLAMP
TAIL
STOCK
TAIL
STOCK BASE
THREAD
DIAL
CROSS SLIDE
TOOL
POST SLIDE
BACK
CROSS SLIDE
HAND WHEEL
SCREW CUTTING ENGAGE
LEAD SCREW
CARRIAGE
FEED ENGAGE
STUDS SUMP
GAP PIECE
RAM
FEED ROD
MAIN DRIVING
PULLEY
Bed
Figure 7.1 : Different Parts of Lathe
Carriage
The carriage has the following five parts which may be traversed along the
bedways by hand or by power.
(a) Tool Post
(b) Compound Rest
(c) Cross Slide
(d) Saddle



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(e) Apron
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Tool Post
It is seated on the top of the compound rest for fixing the tool or the
tool holder.
Compound Rest
It is mounted on the cross slide. It has a graduated circular disc which
is termed as swivel disc. As compound rest is provided with a
swiveling adjustment therefore it can be placed in various angle
positions for short taper turning.
Cross Slide
It is mounted on the saddle and moves crosswise the bed by hand or
by means of power feed. Operations such as grooving, parting off and
facing are performed by means of cross slide.
Saddle
It is the part of carriage which slides along the bed ways and supports
the tool post, cross slide and compound rest.
Apron
It is a rectangular shape of box which is suspended towards lead
screw below the saddle. It has a gear train inside and a half nut. The
feed lever and feed clutch are also housed in it. In other words, we
can say that the apron contains the mechanism of controlling tool
feeds and threading process.

SAQ 1

(a) Describe the function of lathe. What are the main parts of a lathe?
(b) How is the size of a lathe specified? What are the different types of
lathe?
7.4 LATHE ACCESSORIES AND ATTACHMENTS
Devices which are used for job or tool holding purposes on lathe are known as
lathe accessories whereas attachments of a lathe include additional equipments
that are often used for doing specific work on a lathe. The attachments are used to
increase the production and efficiency of the lathe.
7.4.1 List of Accessories and Attachments
Main accessories and attachments which are generally used are as follows :
List of Accessories
(a) Lathe Centres,
(b) Face Plate
(c) Driving Plate,

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(d) Dog Carrier,
(e) Chucks,
(f) Angle Plate,
(g) Mandrels,
(h) Steady Rest,
(i) Follower Rest.
List of Attachments
(a) Taper Turning Attachment,
(b) Thread Chasing Dial,
(c) Grinding Attachment,
(d) Milling or Gear Cutting Attachment,
(e) Copying Attachment,
(f) Relieving Attachment.
7.4.2 General Description of Main Accessories and Attachments
Lathe Centres
It is an important accessory. Its main function is to support the job.
Figure 7.2 shows the different parts of a centre.
Nose Neck Shank Tang



Figure 7.2
Nose or point is the front pointed portion having an angle of 60
o
. Its point is
hardened and sharped if it is dead centre but for live centre it is only
sharped not hardened.
Neck is the plain portion from the taper of nose.
Shank is the tapered portion after neck. It fits in the taper hole of spindle of
head stock or tail stock. Tang is the parallel step after shank. It saves the
shank when it is taken out of the spindle by hitting.
Generally, centres are made of high carbon steel and may be classified as
plain centres, pipe centres, half centre, tipped centres and revolving centres.
These are described below :
Plain Centres
Plain centres are of two types :
Live Centre
Live centre is one which is fitted in the head stock. It always
rotates with the work, having 60
o
nose angle.



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Dead Centre
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Dead centre is always fitted in the tail stock. It is hardened at
nose which contains 60
o
angle. As its name indicates, it remains
in fixed position during machining operation therefore, it is
subjected to friction. To reduce this friction it should always be
lubricated with grease.

Shank
Nose
Plain or Ordinary Centre
Pipe Centre
Half Centre









Figure 7.3 : Types of Lathe Centre
Pipe Centres
Pipe centres, having the nose angle about 90
o
, are used to support the
pipes.
Half Centres
Half centre has its importance when tail stock side end is to be faced.
As shown in Figure 7.3, about half conical portion of nose is removed
so that the cutting tool can be approached conveniently upto the
centre of cylindrical surface or in other words we can say that the
whole cylindrical surface of end may be faced.
Tipped Centres
Tipped centre is specially used when the work is to be turned at high
speed or the material is very hard.
Revolving Centres
Revolving centre consists of ball bearing which helps the centre to
rotate with the job at tail stock side. It is preferred where machining
work is done at high speed.
Face Plate
It is a circular disc of cast iron. It has hole in the centre which is threaded to
be screwed on the nose of the lathe spindle. It has number of holes and slots
on its face. Slots are made to hold irregular or typical types of job as shown
in Figure 7.4.




Bearing
Revolving Centre
Tipped Centre
Tipped
Slots for Clamping J ob
Cap for Lathe Dog

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Figure 7.4 : Face Plate
Driving Plate
It is also a circular disc of cast iron (Figure 7.5) which has a boss having
internal threads to be screwed on the nose of the spindle. It has a hole which
accommodate a pin to engage the straight tail of dog carrier. When bent tail
type dog carrier is used, this pin is taken out and the bent portion of the tail
is inserted in the hole.
Threaded Hole
Projected Pin







Side View Front View
Figure 7.5 : Driving Plate
Dog Carrier
Dog carrier is used when job is held between centres for machining
purpose. The use of dog carrier along with driving plate is shown in Figure
7.6.
Cutting Tool
Dead Centre
Driving Pin
Dog or Carrier
Driving
Face
Live Centre






Figure 7.6
Chuck
It is a vice which can be screwed on threaded portion on spindle nose. Live
centre is taken out from head stock spindle while using a chuck. Chuck
provides an efficient and true device for holding the work on lathe
machines. There are a great variety of chucks. The most common types are
discussed as under :
Independent or Four Jaw Chuck
This type of chuck has four jaws and each jaw is independently
actuated and adjusted by a key for holding the job. Almost all types of



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job, e.g. cylindrical, square or irregular shapes can be held in this
chuck (Figure 7.7).
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Figure 7.7
Self Centring or Three Jaw Universal Chuck
In this chuck, all the three jaws move in or out position
simultaneously by turning the key in key slot and thus the workpiece
may be automatically held in the centre. The movement of key rotates
the scroll disc through the bevel pinion (Figure 7.8). The jaws are
fitted on the scroll disc. The rotation of scroll gives the jaws a linear
motion in the direction either away from centre or towards the centre.







Figure 7.8
Angle Plate
It is used for holding the work on the face plate. When the work is such that
it cannot be mounted directly on the face plate, the angle plate holds the
work and it is mounted on the face plate.
Mandrels
Mandrel is a hardened piece of round mild steel bar used for holding the
hollow section parts of cylindrical shapes on the lathe with the purpose of
turning outside surface of work. It is necessary that the hole in the
workpiece must be concentric with the outer surface. Parts like gear blanks,
pulleys and bushed etc. are turned with the help of mandrels.
Steady Rest
It is used in turning for long jobs. There is a possibility of its bending or
springing away from the tool. The result will be that the job will not be
turned in true shape. To prevent this the job surface on tail stock side is
supported by steady rest. It support to work on three jaws and thereby
avoiding the chances of workpiece deflection. Steady rest is fitted on the
bed in place of tail stock (Figure 7.9).
Key Slots
J aw
J aw
J aw
Key Slots
Bevel Pinion

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Figure 7.9
Follower Rest
It is also known as traveling rest. While turning a long and thin cylindrical
piece between centres, the follower rest is used to prevent the workpiece
from being turned out of line due to the pressure of the cutting tool
(Figure 7.10). Being connected with the carriage it travels with the cutting
tool. It consists of two jaws only. During machining time, cutting tool acts
as a third jaw also and itself given the support to the job.

Cutting Tool
Adjustable Screw








Figure 7.10
Taper Turning Attachment
In this method, the workpiece rotates around the bed axis and the cutting
tool moves at an angle. Generally, lathes are equipped with taper turning
attachment for machining external and internal type of taper turning.
A taper turning attachment is in the form of a guide which is graduated and
bolted to the back of lathe.




Bolt
Bracket
Guide Block
Guide
Slot B
Adjustable
Screw
Screw
J ob
Bed Plate
Link D
Nut C



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Figure 7.11
It is adjusted to any desired angle with the axis of lathe. As the carriage
moves along the lathe bed, a slide over the bar causes the tool to move in or
out according to the setting of the bar. Thus the taper setting of the bar is
duplicated on the work.
In Figure (7.11), a bracket is attached to the lathe bed. It carries a guide bar
that can be swivelled to the required angle. The guide bar is clamped in set
position by bolt. Guide block is connected to the lathe cross slide by link
and lock. It is free to slide along the guide bar. To allow the cross slide to
travel freely on its ways it must be disconnected from saddle by loosening
the cross feed screw nut which will disengage the cross slide on
longitudinal feed of the saddle. Guide block will slide along guide bar. The
guide block is linked to the cross slide, so it will travel with the tool in
direction of guide bar. After each cut, the tool is fed in the depth of cut by
rotating handle of compound rest which should be positioned at right angle
to its normal position. The guide bar should be set parallel with the taper on
which the tool is applied. The guide bar is swivelled to the desired taper
angle.
The angle for swivelling the guide bar can be determined by the given
formula

l
d D
2
tan

=
where D = major diameter in mm,
d = minor diameter in mm, and
l = length of taper in mm.
Thread Chasing Dial
During threads cutting operation, we have to take several cut. For this the
threading tool has to be withdrawn from the thread on completion of each
cut and again brought to the starting position. Then, the tool must follow the
previously cut thread otherwise the threads will be spoiled (Figure 7.12).

Dial


Carriage



WormWheel

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Figure 7.12 : Thread Chasing Dial
The chasing dial overcomes the difficulty of catching the threads at exact
position of start. It consists of a graduated dial which is connected to a
worm wheel. The worm wheel is in mesh with the lead screw, so that if the
saddle is stationary, the lead screw acts as a worm and rotates the chasing
dial. When half nut is engaged, the tool starts travelling but the dial remains
stationary with one of the graduation opposite the arrow. When the cut is
completed, the saddle is returned back to the starting point. Practically, in
disengage position of nut the dial remains always in rotating position. When
the graduated line comes opposite the arrow, the nut can be engaged and the
tool will follow its original cut.
Grinding Attachment
It consists of a bracket, grinding wheel and an electric motor. Grinding
attachment mounted on the compound rest in place of tool posts. For
grinding purpose, the job is held either in a chuck or between centres. It can
grind hardened work also and ensures a fine finish.
Milling or Gear Cutting Attachment
It consists of a vertical pillar to which a horizontal arbor is attached which
can be indexed to required degrees and the job is mounted on this arbor.
The milling cutter is mounted on another arbor which is held between
centres. The gear cutting is done by rotating cutter at the bottom of the gear
blank. Cross slide moves the job against rotating cutter. Indexing of the
gear is formed by a dividing head or indexing head attached with the job
holding arbor. The entire attachment is mounted on the cross slide.
Copying Attachment
This is also known as tracer attachment. Pneumatic or hydraulic types of
copying attachment are generally used. In hydraulic type, it consists of an
auxiliary slide which is fitted on the cross-slide of the lathe. A piston and
cylinder is fitted on the rear end of slide which is operated by hydraulic
pressure. An bent overarm is already attached to it and the free end of this
arm works as tracer. The tracer end of the arm moves along the profile of
desired shape while the other end is guided by the tracer end. The other end
operates an air nozzle which operates Hydraulic mechanism and this
mechanism controls the movement of tool. The tool practically copies the
same shape as needed by the tracer arm.
Relieving Attachment
Relieving process is generally done on the taps, reamers and milling cutters
etc. For this process, relieving attachment is used. It consists of an auxiliary



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slide mounted on the cross slide in place of compound rest. The tool post is
mounted on this auxiliary slide. A cam rotates under the relieving slide
which guides the tool in and out.
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SAQ 2

(a) Make a list of different accessories and attachments used with lathe.
(b) Differentiate between dead centre, live centre and revolving center.
(c) What are the different methods for taper turning operation? Explain
any one in brief.
(d) What are the different types of jaw used in lathe machines?
7.5 LATHE OPERATIONS
A standard machine is that which is able to deal with a variety of work and a wide
range of operations can be performed on it. Special purpose machine is that which
has been designed for specific purpose and only performs one or limited range of
operations.
A centre lathe is an example of standard lathe because on this machine we can
perform the following operations :
(a) Turning
(b) Facing
(c) Parting off
(d) Knurling
(e) Thread cutting
(f) Grooving
(g) Drilling
(h) Boring
(i) Reaming
These operations are described below in detail.
Turning
It is the removal of material from the outside diameter of a cylindrical job to
obtain one or more finished diameter. Usually, there are three types of
turning which are given below :
(a) Plain or straight or parallel turning.
(b) Stepped turning.
(c) Taper turning.
In plain turning machining is done in this way that after removal of
material, finished diameter at both the ends of length remains equal.
Turning operation where the entire length is divided in steps of different
diameter but each step individually finished by using plain turning is known
as stepped turning. Taper turning is the operation in which the material is
removed from the job to produce a conical shape. All the three types of
turning are shown in Figure 7.13.

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D D D
d d d
1
d
2
d
Plain Turning Stepped Turning Taper Turning



Figure 7.13
Plain Turning and Stepped Turning
In plain turning, the workpiece is turned straight throughout the entire
length when it is made to rotate about the lathe axis, and the cutting tool is
fed along the lathe axis. The plain or straight turning produces a cylindrical
surface after machining.
In stepped turning, the workpiece is turned in such a way that throughout
the turning length it forms the steps of different diameters.
After facing and centering at both ends faces, the job is mounted between
the centres using a dog carrier attached to the workpiece, the bent tail of
dog carrier is fitted into the slot provided on the driven plate. If the
workpiece is mounted on a chuck, care should be taken to centre it
accurately with the lathe axis. The trueness of the workpiece held on a
chuck is tested by holding a scriber or a dial indicator against the rotating
workpiece. Turning tool is clamped on the tool post by keeping its cutting
edge approximately at the lathe axis or slightly above it.
Taper Turning
Generally, the following methods are used for taper turning :
(a) By swivelling compound rest
(b) By setting over the tail stock
(c) By taper turning attachment
(d) By forming or broad-nose tool
By Swivelling Compound Rest
This method is used to produce short or steep tapers. The principle of
this compound rest is that axis of workpiece rotates parallel to the bed
axis and the cutting tool moves at the desired angle where the
compound rest is already swivelled.
Let the swivelled angle of compound rest with lathe axis is . L
shows the length, on which taper turning takes place. We can
calculate the swivelled angle of compound rest in respect of lathe axis
by following formula :
L
d D
2
tan

=
where D and d are the larger and smaller diameters respectively.
By Setting Over the Tail Stock
Long tapers may be turned by holding the workpiece between centres
by moving the tail stock to one side of lathe axis. In this method, the
axis of revolving job makes an angle with lathe axis while the cutting
tool moves parallel to the lathe axis. The tail stock is off-setted in
terms of mm. If the tail stock is set-over towards the operator, the
taper will be turned in which the larger diameter will be on the head


144
stock side. If the tail stock is set over away from the operator, it will
turn a taper with its larger diameter on tail stock side. The tail stock
set over can be calculated by the formula;
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Off set in mm L
l
d D

=
2

where D = major diameter in mm,
d = minor diameter in mm,
l = taper length in mm, and
L = full length of job in mm.
By Taper Turning Attachment
Long tapers are more easily and accurately turned by using the taper
turning attachment which is already discussed in this unit.
By Forming Tool
It is also denoted as Broad nose tool taper turning method. Short
external types of taper can be turned with a form tool. In this
particular method, both holding of job as well as feed of tool are
parallel to the lathe axis and the taper is given directly by the cutting
edge of cutting tool which is formed in inclined shape as per desired
taper angle.
Facing
It is the machining of the ends of a workpiece to make the ends smooth. For
this operation, the cutting tool is fed perpendicular to the lathe or workpiece
axis by means of cross slide.
Parting Off
This operation involves cutting the work-metal into two parts by using
parting off tool. Feed to the cutting tool is given in same manner as in case
of facing operation.
Knurling
It is the process of producing rough surface of embossing diamond shaped
pattern on a smooth surface of a cylindrical job. Knurling provides an
effective gripping surface on a job to prevent it from slipping when
operated by hand. Knurling, as shown in Figure 7.14, may be of two types :
(a) straight or parallel, and
(b) diamond type.






Straight or Parallel Knurling Diamond Knurling


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Figure 7.14 : Types of Knurling
Knurling is done by means of knurling tool which consists of a set of
hardened steel rollers. The teeth are cut on the steel rollers in different
pattern. For knurling operation, the knurling tool is forced with the
workpiece which is already arranged in revolving condition.
Thread Cutting
In thread cutting operation, there is a certain ratio of motion between the
travel of tool and the rotation of the spindle. This ratio is directly effected
by the lead screw which is attached to the lathe spindle through gears.
General set up for thread cutting is shown in Figure 7.15. For cutting
threads of different pitches, the stud (driver gear) and lead screw gear
(driven gear) are changed as per desired ratio of revolution between the
spindle and the lead screw. The ratio between the teeth on stud and lead
screw gear can be calculated by the given formula,
Nos of teeth on Driver (Stud)
Nos of teeth on Driven (Leadscrew)

inches in screw lead on thread of Lead
mm in job on threads of Lead
127
5
=

Intermediate
Gear
Spindle
Gear
Set of Reversing
Gears
Driver of
Lead Gear

Carriage
Tool
J ob
Lead Screw
Split of Half Nut
(Engaged)
Half Nut
Liver
Driver of Lead
Screw Gear






Figure 7.15
This formula is used when metric pitch is to be cut on a job by means of
English standard lead screw (threads pitches in inches).
Grooving
This operation is also denoted as necking. Usually, grooves are cut on a
cylindrical surface in narrow shape by means of grooving tool. The cutting
edge of grooving tool is kept narrow.
Drilling
For making a standard size of hole in a workpiece by means of drill is
known as drilling operation. For this operation, drill is held in tail stock
spindle.
Boring
Boring is the operation of enlarging a drilled hole by means of a boring
tool. The boring tool is fitted on a boring bar which is held in tail stock
spindle.
Reaming



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It is the operation of finishing a drilled hole to an accurate dimension with
the help of reamer as a tool. The reamer is held on the tail stock spindle.
7.6 CUTTING TOOLS
A cutting tool, commonly known as tool bit, is a piece of steel or alloy usually
similar to square in shape and is of various sizes and lengths. The material of
cutting tool must be harder than the job material then only it can cut. It should be
tough enough to withstand the forces encountered during cutting condition. The
shape of cutting tool should allow the cutting edge to penetrate the workpiece in
most efficient way.
7.6.1 Types of Cutting Tool
The cutting tool may be classified as under :
According to the Purpose
It may be defined as per name of operation such as turning, facing,
threading, grooving and boring tools etc.
According to the Direction of Travel
Such as right hand and left hand tools.
According to the Manufacturing Method
As per manufacturing method, tools may be classified as forged type or
tipped type. Forged types are those which are forged to the required shape
from a high carbon steel or high speed steel blank. The tipped tools are
tipped of high speed steel tips or connected carbide tips. These tips are
brazed on low carbon steel shank or held in special tool holders.
7.6.2 Description of Cutting Tools
Turning Tool
Commonly two types of turning tool Rough Turning Tool and Finish
Turning Tools are used. Rough tool is used to remove the maximum
amount of metal in a minimum time while a finish turning tool is used to
remove the very small amount of metal. Single-point turning tools are used
in practice. The cutting angles of tools are so ground that it can solve the
machining purpose.
Thread Cutting Tool
Threads are formed on a cylindrical surface by a single point thread cutting
tool with its cutting edges ground to the shape and size of the thread to be
cut. The shape of the tool is determined by the included angle at the nose of
the tool which should correspond to the angle of the thread. The size or
cross section of the cutting edges of the tool depends upon the pitch of
thread.
Facing Tool
It removes metal by its side cutting angle edges. Therefore no top rake is
necessary in a facing tool.
Grooving Tool

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Machine Tools
It is just similar to a parting off tool. The cutting edges may be formed
square, V shaped or rounded according to the shape of groove to be cut.
Chamfering Tool
A plain turning tool may be used as a chamfering tool when the cutting
edges are set at the angle of chamfer. Whenever a large number of chamfer
works are to be cut, a special chamfering tool with its side cutting edges
ground to the angle of chamfer is used.
Parting Off Tool
It is made as narrow as possible to remove minimum of metal. The width of
cutting edge ranges from 3 to 12 mm only. The length of cutting edge
which penetrates into the work should be slightly longer than the radius of
workpiece being cut.
Various types of tool used on lathe machine are shown in Figure 7.16.

Turning
Tool
Parting
Tool
Side
Turning
Tool
Threading
Tool
Facing
Tool Tapering
Tool
Necking
Tool
Knurling
Tool
R H
L H
R H L H R H
R H
L H
L H





Figure 7.16 : Tools Used on Lathe Machine
7.6.3 Tool Geometry
A tool is ground to a given form to produce a cutting edge of a given shape in a
given position in relation to the shank of tool, and to produce a form that will
permit the cutting edge to be fed into the workpiece so that it may cut efficiently.
For proper grinding of the cutting tool, the cutting edge should keep its shape flat
or curved as the case may be. For efficient cutting, the surface that form the
cutting edge must be ground to Certain Angles.
Different angles of lathe cutting tool and their significance should be studied
thoroughly because a tool with proper cutting angles can cut material effectively
with less generation of heat, and reduces chattering and breaking of the tools.
Different angles of a cutting tool are shown in Figure 7.17.
The shank is that portion of the tool bit which is not ground to form cutting edges
and is in rectangular cross section.
Face is that surface which face the workpiece.
Heel is the lowest portion of the side cutting and end cutting edge.
The nose is the conjunction of the side and end cutting edges.
The base is the under side of the shank.
The lip or cutting angle shows the included angle where the tool has been ground
wedge-shaped.


TOP VIEW
End Cutting Edge Angle
Nose Radius
Side Cutting Edge
Angle
Z
Z




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Figure 7.17 : Different Angles of Cutting Tool
The end cutting edge angle indicates that the plane which forms the end of a tool
has been ground back at an angle sloping from the nose to the side of the shank,
whereas the side cutting edge angle indicates that the plane which forms the flank
or side of a tool has been ground back at an angle to the side of the shank. Chips
are removed by this cutting edge.
The side clearance or side relief angle indicates that the plane that forms the flank
or side of a tool has been ground back at an angle sloping down from the side
cutting edge. Similarly, the end clearance or end relief shows that the nose or end
of tool has been ground back at an angle sloping down from the end cutting edge.
The rake is the slope of the top away from the cutting edge. Each tool generally
has a side and back rake angle. Back rake indicates that the plane which forms the
face or top of a tool has been ground back at an angle sloping from the nose while
side rake shows that the plane that forms the face or top of a tool has been ground
back at an angle sloping from the side cutting edge.
7.6.4 Cutting Tool Signature
The signature is a sequence of numbers listing the various angles and the size of
the nose radius. This numerical method of identification has been recommended
by the American Standard Association.
The seven elements that comprise the signature of a single-point cutting tool are
always defined in the following order; back rake angle, side rake angle, end relief
angle, side relief angle, end cutting edge angle, side cutting edge angle and nose
radius.
Let a tool is specified as 8-14-6-6-6-15-4. It means, tool has 8
o
back rake,
14
o
side rake, 6
o
end relief, 6
o
side relief, 6
o
end cutting edge and 15
o
side cutting
edge angles with 4 mm nose radius.
7.7 TERMS USED IN CUTTING OPERATIONS
Cutting speed, feed, depth of cut and machining time are the terms which are used
in cutting operation. Study of all these terms is necessary to calculate the
machining cost.
7.7.1 Cutting Speed
Cutting speed of a tool is the speed at which the metal is removed from any
surface by the cutting tool. In lathe, it is the peripheral speed of the work past the
cutting tool expressed in meter per minute

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Machine Tools
Cuttingspeed meter / minute
1000
d n
=
where d = diameter of job in mm, and
n = revolution per minute (rpm) of the work.
7.7.2 Feed
Feed is the displacement of the tool along the workpiece for each revolution of
the work. It is expressed in millimeter per revolution.
7.7.3 Depth of Cut
It is the perpendicular distance measured from the machined surface to the uncut
surface of the workpiece. For lathe the depth of cut is expressed as follow
Depth of cut =
2
d D
mm
where D = dia of job in mm, and
d = finished dia in mm (in single cut).
7.7.4 Machining Time
In lathe work, if the speed of job, feed of tool and the length of job are given, we
can calculate the machining time by the following formula
Machining Time for a Complete Cut minute
n s
l

=
where l = length of job to be cut in mm,
s = feed in mm / revolution, and
n = rpm (revolution per minute).

SAQ 3

(a) Name a few common types of operation, which can be performed on a
lathe. Explain any one.
(b) Define cutting speed. Calculate the cutting speed of a job having
50 mm diameter and revolving at 490 rpm.
(c) How are feed and depth of cut usually expressed?
(d) Explain machining time. Calculate the machining time required for
turning a job of 300 mm per length revolving at 120 rpm and feed of
0.15 mm per revolution.
(e) Write short notes on the following
(i) Main parts of carriage
(ii) Dog carrier and driving plate
(iii) Thread chasing dial
(iv) Taper turning by setting over the tail stock
(v) Type of cutting tools.



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7.8 SUMMARY
Lathe is considered to be the most widely used machine tool in engineering field
for the manufacturing of cylindrical and conical shapes of jobs. In this unit, you
have gained the adequate knowledge about its specification, function and main
parts.
Devices which are used for proper holding the jobs and tools are known as
accessories whereas the attachments of a lathe include additional equipments and
are used to increase the rate of production and efficiency of a lathe.
For performing different operations such as turning, facing, knurling and
threading etc, cutting tools are designed according to the nature of work and the
quality of metal to be cut.
Certain angles are ground on the surface of tool for efficient cutting without
chattering and breaking of the tool.
7.9 ANSWERS TO SAQs
Refer the relevant preceding text in the unit or other useful books on the topic
listed in section Further Reading to get the answers of the SAQs.