Speakers assume certain information is

already known by their listeners.

This is part of what is communicated but
not said.
Presuppositions and entailments
Two aspects of what is communicated
but not said
Presupposition: The information that a
speaker assumes to be already known.
(The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of Language, 1987)
Implicit meanings conveyed by the speaker through
the use of particular words.
Ex: "The Cold War has ended" presupposes that the
existence of the entities it refers to, in this case the
"Cold War".
Speakers, not sentences, have
presuppositions
Entailment is not a pragmatic concept.
It is defined as what logically follows
from what is asserted in the utterance.

Sentences, not speakers, have

entailments.
 Speakers have presuppositions while
sentences have entailments.

Example:
Susan’s sister bought two houses.
This sentence presupposes that Susan exists and that
she has a sister.
This sentence has the entailments that Susan’s sister
bought something; now she has 2 houses, a house, and
other similar logical consequences. The entailments are
communicated without being said and are not
dependent on the speaker’s intention.
Presupposition:

The relationship between two propositions.

Mary’s cat is cute. (p)

Mary has a cat. (q)

p >>q = p presupposes q

If the speaker denies the proposition p (NOT p), the

presupposition q doesn’t change.

Mary’s cat isn’t cute. (NOT p)

Mary has a cat. (q)

Not p >>q = Not p presupposes q

Presupposition:

Constancy under negation:

The presupposition of a statement will

remain true even when that statement
is negated.
Presupposition:

Other examples of constancy under negation:

p: Dave is angry because Jim crashed the car.
q: Jim crashed the car
p >> q
NOT p: Dave isn’t angry because Jim crashed the car
q: Jim crashed the car
NOT p >> q
Presupposition:

p: Mr. Singleton has resumed his habit of drinking

stout

q: Mr. Singleton had a habit of drinking stout.

p >> q

NOT p: Mr. Singleton hasn’t resumed his habit of

drinking stout

q: Mr. Singleton had a habit of drinking stout.

NOT p >> q
Types of Presupposition

Presuppositions are associated with the use of a

large number of words, phrases and structures.

These linguistic forms are considered as indicators

of potential presupposition, which can only become
actual presupposition in contexts with speakers.
1- Existential presupposition:

Entities named by the speaker and assumed to be

present
- noun phrase.
- possessive constructions
“David’s car is new” we can presuppose that
David exists and that he has a car.

Some lexical triggers:

Definite noun phrases:
The student fell asleep.
The student didn’t fall asleep
David is a bachelor (David is an unmarried male person)
2- Factive presupposition:
identified by the presence of some verbs such as "know“,
"realize“, “be glad”, “be sorry”, etc.
Some lexical triggers:
Factive verbs:
Tracy realized Pat ate a sandwich.
Pat regretted eating a sandwich.
Pat liked eating a sandwich.
I was aware of the class cancellation on Monday
They announced the winner of the contest.
I’m glad it’s over.
She didn’t realize that she was ill.
3- Lexical presupposition:

In using one word, the speaker can act as if another

meaning will be understood. For instance:

Mary stopped running. (>>He used to run.)

You are late again. (>> You were late before.)
Are you still such a bad driver? (>> You were a bad driver)

"stop“, "again“ “still” are taken to presuppose another

(unstated) concept.
Some lexical triggers:
Change of state verbs:
Pat stopped eating a sandwich (at 2pm).
Pat started eating a sandwich (at 2pm).
Verbs of judgment:
Tracy blamed Pat for eating the sandwich.
Tracy faults Pat for eating the sandwich.
Susan is accused of X (X is bad)
Susan was criticized for X (X is bad and Susan did X)
4- Structural presupposition:

it is the assumption associated with the use of certain

structures.
- wh-question constructions.

When did she travel to the USA? ( >> she travelled)

Where did you buy the book? (>> you bought the book)

The listener perceives that the information presented is

necessarily true, or intended as true by the speaker..
5- Non- factive presupposition:

it is an assumption referred to something that is not

true.
For example, verbs like "dream", "imagine" and
"pretend" are used with the presupposition that what
follows is not true.

I dreamed that I was rich. (>> I was not rich)

We imagined that we were in London. (>> We were

not in London)
6- Counterfactual presupposition:

it is the assumption that what is presupposed is not

only untrue, but is the opposite of what is true, or
contrary to facts.

-conditional structures,

If you were my daughter, I would not allow you to do

this. ( >> you are not my daughter)
If I were rich I would buy a Ferrari (>> I’m not rich)
 From "Barclays Worldwide“, a four-monthly newsletter for clients of
Barclays bank who live outside the UK.
1998 summer-issue, a passage about the introduction of the Euro,
titled "Euro Update - Your questions answered".
Britain may
join in the
lifetime of a
future
parliament

the UK has
not joined so
a carefully- far
expressed
appreciation
of the value
of sterling
 The projection problem
In many cases presuppositions don’t
survive to become the meaning of
complex sentences.
Why?
They are “destroyed” by entailments
The entailments are more powerful of
presuppositions
Examples:

The unicorn is waiting in the garden.

#Yet there are no unicorns.
Pat knows that the unicorn is waiting in the garden.
#Yet there are no unicorns.
 Entailment

• sentences that stand in an implicational

relation, where the truth of the first
guarantees the truth of the second.
– The anarchist assassinated the
emperor.
– The emperor died.
• So, the first sentence entails the
second.
 Entailment
A: Everyone passed the examination.
B : No-one failed the examination.

A entails B

– whenever A is true, B is true

– the information that B contains is contained in the

information that A conveys

– a situation describable by A must also be a situation

describable by B

– A and NOT B are contradictory.

We take entailment relations to be those
that specifically arise from linguistic
structure
Generally speaking, entailment is not a
pragmatic concept (i.e. having to do with
the speaker meaning), but it is
considered a purely logical concept.
Ordered Entailments

1) Bob ate three sandwiches.

a) Someone ate three sandwiches. (Who ate the

sandwiches)
b) Bob did something to three sandwiches. (What Bob did)
c) Bob ate three of something. (What Bob ate)
d)Something happened. (What happened)
The speaker will necessarily produce a very large
number of background entailments

but

the speaker will indicate how these entailments

are to be ordered
How?

by stress
by using special structures

So

The hearer will understand which entailment is assumed

to be more important for interpreting intended meaning
What is the foreground entailment?

BOB ate three sandwiches.

Bob ATE three sandwiches.

Bob ate THREE sandwiches.

Bob ate three SANDWICHES.

It-cleft construction/cleft sentences:

a) It was TOM that did the work.

b) It wasn’t ME who took your jacket.
Cleft sentences are used to help us focus on a
particular part of the sentence and to emphasise what
we want to say … Because there are two parts … they
are called cleft (from the verb cleave) which means
divided into two.
Cleft sentences are particularly useful in writing where
we cannot use intonation for purposes of focus or
emphasis, but they are also frequently used in speech.

Cleft structures include the reason why, the thing that,

the person/people who, the place where, the day when
and what-clauses which are usually linked to the clause
that we want to focus on with is or was.
From: BBC World service
Examples of cleft sentences:

I've come to discuss my future with you.

The reason why I've come is to discuss my future with
you.

Your generosity impresses more than anything else.

The thing that impresses me more than anything else is
your generosity.

The jewels are hidden under the floor at 23 Robin Hood

Road, Epping.
The place where the jewels are hidden is under the floor at
23 Robin Hood Road, Epping.
Under the floor at 23 Robin Hood Road is the place where
the jewels are hidden.
Mary works harder than anybody else in this
organisation.
The person who works harder than anybody else in this
organisation is Mary.
Mary is the person in this organisation who works harder
than anybody else.

The Second World War ended on 7 May 1945 in Europe.

The day (when) the Second World War ended in Europe was
7 May 1945
7 May 1945 was the day (when) the Second World War
ended in Europe.

We now need actions rather than words.

What we now need are actions rather than words.
Actions rather than words are what we now need.
I enjoyed the brilliant music most of all in the Ballet
Frankfurt performance.
What I enjoyed most in the Ballet Frankfurt performance
was the brilliant music.
The brilliant music was what I enjoyed most in the Ballet
Frankfurt performance.
 Presuppositions vs. entailments

• Utterances and their presuppositions.

1) She has stopped smoking.
presupposes
She used to smoke.

2) My dog ate my bag.

presupposes
I have a dog, and I have (had) a bag.

• Utterances and their entailments.

The emperor was assassinated
entails
1) Someone was assassinated.
2) The emperor died.
 Presuppositions vs. entailments

• Presuppositions are different from entailments.

1) She hasn’t stopped smoking.
Still presupposes
She used to smoke.
2) My dog didn’t eat my bag.
Still presupposes
I have a dog, and I (still, it seems) have a bag.
while
The emperor wasn’t assassinated.
Does not entail any more
1)Someone was assassinated.
2)The emperor died.