1

1.1 Basic Concepts & Definitions

1.2 Circuit Elements
1.3 Sources
1.4 Circuit Notation
1.5 Kirchhoffs Law
1.6 Series and Parallel Resistors Circuit
1.7 Delta-Wye Transformations
1.8 Application
Chapter 1: Basic Concepts and Laws
2
Electric Circuit is the interconnection of electrical
elements
Electric Charge is the electrical property of a
matter that causes it to experience a force when
close to another electrically charged matter,
measured in Coulombs (C)
Electric Current is the rate of change of charge,
measured in Amperes (A)
1 Ampere = 1 coulomb/second
1.1 Basic Concept & Definitions
dt
dQ
I =
3
4
Elementary Charge is 1.60217648710
19
C
(1 proton or electron)
Question: How many protons/electrons have
passed from the positive to negative terminal for
1 Ampere of current flowing for 10 seconds?
1.1 Basic Concept & Definitions
5
DC (Direct current)
- current that remains constant
with time
- current flows in uni-directional
AC (Alternating current)
- current that varies sinusoidally
with time
- current flows in bi-directional
1.1 Basic Concept & Definitions
6
Resistance (R)
- Resistance is an opposition to the current flows intensity.
- Like the slope that controls the flow of water in pipeline.
- Resistance is measured in ohm ().
1.1 Basic Concept & Definitions
A
l
R =
7
8
Conductance (G)
- Conductance is the tendency to conduct current.
- It is the reciprocal of resistance, measured in siemens (S),
G = 1/R; [S] = []
-1
- Electronic engineers also use Mho ().
Question: Beside metals, can water or other fluids conduct
electricity?
1.1 Basic Concept & Definitions
9
Current & Voltage are two basic variables in electric
circuits, also serve as signals of information
Voltage/ potential difference = move the electrons in a
particular direction, work must be done on every unit
charge, measured in Volts (V)
(+) & (-) signs defines the direction or voltage polarity.
1 V = 1 J/C = 1Nm/C
Energy is capacity to do work, in Joules (J)
1.1 Basic Concept & Definitions
dQ
dW
V =
ba ab
b a ab
V V
V V V V
=
= = 9
10
Ohms Law: The current flowing across a resistor is
proportional to the voltage across the resistor
1.1 Basic Concept & Definitions
11
Ground Connections
- The chassis ground should be earthed for safety
precaution.
- The earth is a neutral body with huge electric capacity
(electrons and protons). It can accept or release electrons
and is always 0 V.
- The following shows a return path between two earth
grounds.
1.1 Basic Concept & Definitions
12
Measurement of Voltages
1.1 Basic Concept & Definitions
a) Grounded
at the bottom
a
b
c
b) Grounded
in the middle
a
b
c
c) Grounded
at the top
a
b
c
13
Open circuit (OC)
- Two terminals (A & B) are not connected.
- No current flows due to resistance, air is an
insulator.
- If the potential difference, V is too high, air
may breakdown, and current would flow.
Short circuit (SC)
- Two terminals (A & B) are connected with
good conductor such as copper wire, assume to
be zero resistance.
- The assumption of negligible resistance no
longer holds for transmission lines that extend
over longer distance, when dealing in power
system.
A
B


R = 0
A
B


R =
1.1 Basic Concept & Definitions
14
Electric Shock
Human body has a resistance of, R = 10 ~ 50 k
- Sweat can reduce body resistance up to 10 times.
- It is possible to reduce this resistance down to 1 k by
sweaty hands or holding a conductor tightly.
-The electrocution effect on a human body depends on
the current level:
1 mA Feeling sensation
10 mA Immobilizing
20 mA Breathing difficulty
100 mA Fatal
- Dangerous voltage level is about 30 V and above. We are safe
as long as insulated from the ground, preventing current to flow
across the heart (wear rubber glove, use wooden stick).
1.1 Basic Concept & Definitions
15
Power rate of change of energy, either supplying or
absorbing energy, measured in Watts (W)
if current enters through +ve terminal of an element
Element absorbs Power
if current enters through -ve terminal of an element
Element supplies Power
From P = V I (power equation) and V = I R (Ohm's law),
1.1 Basic Concept & Definitions
VI
dt
dW
dt
dQ
dQ
dW
P = = =
R
V
R I P
2
2
= =
16
1.1 Basic Concept & Definitions
Voltage measurement
Current measurement
17
1.1 Basic Concept & Definitions
18
2 types of elements:
Passive elements absorbs energy
e.g. Resistor (R), Capacitor (C) & Inductor
(L), often acts as load that converts
electrical energy to mechanical or thermal
energy.
Active elements generates energy
e.g. Generator & Battery (voltage source),
operating amplifier (current source)
1.2 Circuit Elements
19
(i) Ideal independent sources
- completely independent of other circuit elements
(ii) Ideal dependent sources
- controlled by another voltage / current source
1.2 Circuit Elements
20
Ideal Voltage Source
Its voltage is independent from the magnitude &
direction of its current
When the current leaves +ve terminal, it delivers power
to external circuit acts as an e.m.f (electromotive
force) source
When the current enters to +ve terminal, it acts as a
load
1.3 Sources
External
circuit
+
V
i
_
i
V
i
i
v
21
Ideal Current Source
Its current is constant irrespective of magnitude &
direction of the voltage across its terminals
The voltage across the terminal depends on the
elements that connected at the external circuit
1.3 Sources
External
circuit
+
V
i
_
i
V
i
i
i
22
1.3 Sources
Practical Voltage Source
Voltage terminal of a practical source usually
decreases as current drawn from it increases. This is
due to the voltage drop across internal resistor of
the voltage source
V
L
= V
S
- I
L
R
S
S
R
23
1.3 Sources
Practical Current Source
Practical current source has an internal resistance R
S
.
Hence the supplied current varies.
To compute the Load current & Load voltage:
S
L S
S
L
I
R R
R
I
+
=
S
L S
L S
L L L
I
R R
R R
R I V
+
= =
24
25
1.3 Sources
Source Conversion
Voltage source, V
S
with a series resistance R
S
may be converted to current source, I
S
with a parallel
resistance, R
S
without effecting the rest of the circuit &
vice versa.
To convert: voltage source current source
I
S
= V
S
/R
S
To convert: current source voltage source
V
S
= I
S
R
S
26
1.3 Sources
Example 1:
(a) Determine the current I
L
(b) Convert the voltage
source to a current source
(c) Use the resulting current
source of part (b),
calculate the current
through the load resistor
and compare your answer
to the result of part (a).
27
1.3 Sources
Solution:
(a) applying Ohms law
1A
4 2
6
L
R
S
R
E
L
I =
+
=
+
=
(b) I
S
= E / R
S
= 6 / 2 =3 A
the equivalent source with load is as follows:
A 1 3 )
4 2
2
( I
R R
R
I
S
L S
S
L
=
+
=
+
=
(c) Checking:
(Current divider rule)
28
Branch a single two-terminal element in an
electric circuit
Node a junction point connecting two or more
branches
Loop a closed path in the circuit
Mesh a loop which does not contain any other
loops
Ground at zero potential, where voltage of any
node in the circuit is expressed with
reference to the ground (or in the
absence of ground, one of the nodes is
taken as the reference node)
1.4 Circuit Notation
29
1.4 Circuit Notation
30
Series & Parallel Circuit
Elements in series only share a single node & having
the same flow of current.
Elements in parallel share the same pair of terminals
/nodes & have same voltage drop across them. The
current have more alternate paths to flow.
Series components can be called a string.
Parallel components can be called a bank.
Series-parallel circuit is the combination of strings and
banks
1.4 Circuit Notation
31
1.4 Circuit Notation
32
1.4 Circuit Notation
33
1.4 Circuit Notation
34
String
Bank
Another String
Series & Parallel Circuit
1.4 Circuit Notation
35
String
Another Bank
Bank
+
-
Series & Parallel Circuit
1.4 Circuit Notation
36
1.4 Circuit Notation
Specify reference directions
+ve values means our reference direction is right
-ve values means the opposite direction is true
37
1.4 Circuit Notation
P=VI
+ve values means receiving power
-ve values means giving power
38
1.4 Circuit Notation
(a) (b)
39
Kirchhoffs Voltage Law (KVL)
States that the algebraic sum of all voltages around a
closed loop is zero
Sum of potential drop = sum of e.m.f. (electromotive
force) around the closed loop
Procedure:
1. Choose either a clockwise or counterclockwise around
the closed loop.
2. Assign +ve & -ve signs to the elements of the circuit
3. Apply KVL & write voltage equation for each closed loop
1.5 Kirchhoffs Law
40
Solution:
-v
1
+ v
2
+ v
3
- v
4
+ v
5
= 0 or
v
1
- v
2
- v
3
+ v
4
- v
5
= 0
v
2
+ v
3
+ v
5
= v
1
+ v
4
1.5 Kirchhoffs Law
1. Go clockwise around loop
2. Assign +ve & -ve signs to
each elements
3. Apply KVL & write voltage
equation
0 =
n
v
Example 2: Write a voltage equation
41
1.5 Kirchhoffs Law
Example 3 (KVL)
Determine the unknown voltage V
x
for the
circuit below using Kirchhoffs voltage law.
42
1.5 Kirchhoffs Law
Solution:
(1a) Apply KVL around a path (that includes the source in
the clockwise direction,
E + 12 + V
x
= 0 V
x
= E 12 = 32 12 = 20 V
or
(1b) Alternatively, apply KVL around the clockwise path,
including resistor R
3
gives
V
x
+ 6 + 14 = 0 V
x
= 20 V (same answer)
43
Kirchhoffs Current Law (KCL)
States that the algebraic sum of all currents entering a
node (or a closed boundary) is zero
Sum of current entering a node = Sum of current leaving
the node
Apply KCL to a closed boundary
i
1
- i
2
+ i
3
+ i
4
- i
5
= 0
i
1
+ i
3
+ i
4
= i
2
+ i
5
1.5 Kirchhoffs Law
0 =
n
i
44
At node p
- I
T
+ I
1
- I
2
+ I
3
= 0
I
T
= I
1
- I
2
+ I
3
1.5 Kirchhoffs Law
Example 4: Write a current equation.
P
o
Solution:
45
1.5 Kirchhoffs Law
Example 5: (KCL)
Determine currents I
1
, I
3
, I
4
and I
5
for the circuit
46
1.5 Kirchhoffs Law
Applying KCL: I
i
= I
o
node a I = I
1
+ I
2
5 = I
1
+ 4 I
1
= 1 A
node b I
1
= I
3
= 1 A
node c I
2
= I
4
= 4 A
node d I
5
= I
3
+ I
4
I
5
= 1 + 4 = 5 A
Solution:
47
Series Resistors & Voltage Divider
The two resistors are in series, since the same current i
flows through them.
v
1
= iR
1
v
2
= iR
2
apply KVL:
-v + v
1
+ v
2
= 0
v = v
1
+ v
2
= i(R
1
+ R
2
)
v = i(R
eq
) where
R
eq
= R
1
+ R
2
1.6 Resistors Circuits
48
Series Resistors
The equivalent resistance of any number of resistors
connected in series is the sum of individual resistances.
1.6 Resistors Circuits
N
n=1
R
eq
= R
1
+ R
2
+ R
3
++ R
N
= R
n
49
Voltage Divider
To determine the voltage across each resistor:
Principle of Voltage divider the larger the resistance,
the larger the voltage drop
1.6 Resistors Circuits
2 1
1
1
v
R R
R
v
+
=
2 1
2
2
v
R R
R
v
+
=
v
R
1
+ R
2
+ + R
N
n
R
n
v
=
50
Parallel Resistors & Current Divider
The two resistors are connected in parallel and have the
same voltage v across them.
v
1
= i
1
R
1
= i
2
R
2
apply KCL at node a:
i = i
1
+ i
2
1.6 Resistors Circuits
i
+ =
1
R
v
2
R
v
+ =
1
R
1
2
R
1
v
i
=
eq
R
v
51
Parallel Resistors
The equivalent resistance of two parallel resistors is the
product of individual resistances divided by their sum, .
In the case of a circuit with N resistors in parallel
1.6 Resistors Circuits
+
1
R
1
2
R
1
=
eq
R
1
+
N
R
1
+

or
G
eq
= G
1
+ G
2
+ G
3
++ G
N
Conductance
+
1
R
1
2
R
1
=
eq
R
1
2
R
2 1
eq
R R
R
+
=
1
R
2 1
// R R =
52
Current Divider
Principle of current divider total i current is shared by
the resistors in inverse proportion to their resistances
If a current divider has N resistors (or conductors) in
parallel with the source current i
1.6 Resistors Circuits
or
i
G G G
G
i
N
n
n
+ + +
=
...
2 1
i
G G
G
i
i
G G
G
i
i
R R
R
i
i
R R
R
i
2 1
2
2
2 1
1
1
2 1
1
2
2 1
2
1
+
=
+
=
+
=
+
=
53
Current Divider
(a) Suppose R
2
= 0 R
2
is short circuit
1.6 Resistors Circuits
i i
R R
R
i
i
R R
R
i
R R
R R
R
eq
=
+
=
=
+
=
=
+
=
2 1
1
2
2 1
2
1
2 1
2 1
0
0
Entire current i flows through
the short circuit
54
Current Divider
(b) Suppose R
2
= R
2
is open circuit
1.6 Resistors Circuits
0
2 1
1
2
2 1
2
1
1
2 1
2 1
=
+
=
=
+
=
=
+
=
i
R R
R
i
i i
R R
R
i
R
R R
R R
R
eq
Entire current i flows through
the path of least resistance
55
Example 6(network reduction): Find R
eq
for the circuit.
1.6 Resistors Circuits
Solution:
6//3=2
(2+2)//6=2.4
(1+5)=6
= + + = 4 . 14 8 4 . 2 4
eq
R
56
Example 7(network reduction): Find R
ab
for
the circuit.
1.6 Resistors Circuits
6//3
Solution: 3//6=2
(3//6)+1=3
12//4=3
(1+5)=6
= + = 2 . 11 ) 3 // 2 ( 10
ab
R
57
Consider the bridge circuit in the following figure, where
resistors are neither in series nor in parallel
These network are used in three-phase networks,
electrical filters and matching networks
These are the Wye (Y) and delta () network
1.7 Delta-Wye Transformation
58
(i) Wye (Y) or Tee (T) network
(ii) Delta () or pi () network
1.7 Delta-Wye Transformation
59
Delta to Wye Conversion
Superimpose a Wye network on the Delta network to
find R
eq
in the Wye network to simplify computation
1.7 Delta-Wye Transformation
) 1 . 1 .....(
) (
) 1 . 1 .....(
) (
,
) 1 . 1 .....(
) (
) //( ) (
) (
) ( ) (
3 2 34
2 1 13
3 1 12
12
3 1 12
12 12
c
R R R
R R R
R R R
b
R R R
R R R
R R R
similarly
a
R R R
R R R
R R R
R R R R
R R Y R
R Y R
c b a
c b a
c b a
b a c
c b a
c a b
c a b
+ +
+
= + =
+ +
+
= + =
+ +
+
= + =
+ =
+ =
=
60
1.7 Delta-Wye Transformation
) 3 . 1 .....(
), 1 . 1 ( ) 3 . 1 (
) 3 . 1 .....(
), 1 . 1 ( ) 2 . 1 (
) 3 . 1 .....(
), 1 . 1 ( ) 2 . 1 (
) 2 . 1 .....(
) (
), 1 . 1 ( ) 1 . 1 (
3
2
1
2 1
b
R R R
R R
R
a from a Subtract
b
R R R
R R
R
b from Subtract
a
R R R
R R
R
b to Add
R R R
R R R
R R
a from c Subtract
c b a
b a
c b a
c a
c b a
c b
c b a
a b c
+ +
=
+ +
=
+ +
=
+ +

=
Each resistor in Y network is
the product of resistors in 2
adjacent branches, and
divided by the sum of three
resistors
61
Wye to Delta Conversion
1.7 Delta-Wye Transformation
Each resistor in network is
the sum of all possible
products of 2 resistors in Y
network, and divided by the
opposite Y resistor
( )
) 5 . 1 .....(
), 1 . 1 ( ) 3 . 1 (
) 5 . 1 .....(
), 1 . 1 ( ) 2 . 1 (
) 5 . 1 .....(
), 3 . 1 ( ) 3 . 1 ( ) 4 . 1 (
) 4 . 1 ...( .
.
) (
), 1 . 1 ( ) 1 . 1 (
3
1 3 3 2 2 1
2
1 3 3 2 2 1
1
1 3 3 2 2 1
1 3 3 2 2 1
2
1 3 3 2 2 1
c
R
R R R R R R
R
a from a Subtract
b
R
R R R R R R
R
b from Subtract
a
R
R R R R R R
R
c to a Eq by Eq Divide
R R R
R R R
R R R R R R
R R R
R R R R R R
R R R R R R
c to a Eq From
c
b
a
c b a
c b a
c b a
c b a c b a
+ +
=
+ +
=
+ +
=
+ +
= + +
+ +
+ +
= + +
62
Example 8: convert network to an equivalent Y network
1.7 Delta-Wye Transformation
=
+ +

=
+ +
=
=
+ +

=
+ +
=
=
+ +

=
+ +
=
3
15 10 25
10 15
5 . 7
15 10 25
15 25
5
15 10 25
10 25
3
2
1
c b a
b a
c b a
c a
c b a
c b
R R R
R R
R
R R R
R R
R
R R R
R R
R
Solution:
63
Example 9: Obtain R
ab
for the given circuit & find current i.
1.7 Delta-Wye Transformation
=
+ +
=
+ +
=
=
+ +
=
+ +
=
=
+ +
=
+ +
=
70
5
) 10 5 ( ) 5 20 ( ) 20 10 (
5 . 17
20
) 10 5 ( ) 5 20 ( ) 20 10 (
35
10
) 10 5 ( ) 5 20 ( ) 20 10 (
3
1 3 3 2 2 1
2
1 3 3 2 2 1
1
1 3 3 2 2 1
R
R R R R R R
R
R
R R R R R R
R
R
R R R R R R
R
c
b
a
R
1
R
2
R
3
Solution:
64
Solution(continue):
1.7 Delta-Wye Transformation
=
=
=
5 . 10 35 // 15
29 . 7 5 . 17 // 5 . 12
21 30 // 70
A 46 . 12
63 . 9
120
63 . 9 21 // ) 5 . 10 29 . 7 (
= = =
= + =
ab
s
ab
R
v
i
R
65
Application
Resistors are often used to model devices that
convert electrical energy into heat or other forms of
energy.
Such devices include conducting wire, light bulbs,
electric heaters, stoves, ovens, and loudspeakers.
66
Three light bulbs are connected to a 9-V battery as shown in
Figure (a). Calculate:
(a) the total current supplied by the battery
(b) the current through each bulb
(c) the resistance of each bulb.
67
Solution
(a) The total power supplied by the battery
is equal to the total power absorbed by
the bulbs; that is,
P = 15 + 10 + 20 = 45W
Since P = VI, then the total current
supplied by the battery is
A
V
P
I 5
9
45
= = =
(b) The bulbs can be modeled as resistors as shown in
Figure (b). Since R
1
(20-W bulb) is in parallel with the battery
as well as the series combination of R
2
and R
3
V
1
= V
2
+ V
3
= 9 V
68
Solution
The current through R
1
is
A
V
P
I 222 . 2
9
20
1
= = =
By KCL, the current through the series
combination of R
2
and R
3
is
A I I I 778 . 2 222 . 2 5
1 2
= = =
(c) Since
R I P
2
=
= = =
= = =
945 . 1
778 . 2
15
05 . 4
222 . 2
20
2 2
2
2
2
2 2
1
1
1
I
P
R
I
P
R
= = = 279 . 1
778 . 2
10
2 2
2
3
3
I
P
R