Modern Architecture

Modern Architecture is the term given to the range of approaches in

architecture, first appearing at the beginning of the 20th century, that rejected
historic precedent as a source of architectural inspiration and considered function
as the prime generator of form, employing materials and technology in a honest
way.
This short definition is to a certain extent inadequate because there are a range
of interpretations as to the origin and rise of Modern rchitecture, and what
constitutes Modern rchitecture itself, depending on the frame of reference of the
historian.
!ome historians see the evolution of Modern rchitecture as closely tied to the
"roject of Modernity and hence to the #nlightenment, the !ocial$ "olitical
revolutions, general progress of man%ind, and so on. &ere the origin is placed
much earlier, modern town planning and housing are also brought into the range.
'thers see technological and engineering developments as %ey to the rise of
Modern architecture. &ence the usage of new materials such as iron, steel,
concrete and glass is ascribed an important place, with the (rystal "alace by
)oseph "axton to house the *reat #xhibition of +,-+ or the apartment building
by uguste "erret serving as important examples. !ome historians see the rise
of Modern architecture as a reaction to the #clectism and poor taste of the
.ictorian #ra fuelled by the possibilities of the/ndustrial 0evolution. &ere
precursor movements such as the rts and (rafts Movement and the rt
1ouveau are brought in to bridge the gap. 2et others cite modern art movements
such as (ubism and 3e !tijl as fundamentally altering the way in which buildings
are designed by bringing in qualities of art into architecture.
ll these reasons are equally valid.
4inally Modern rchitecture is characterised by the way in which it
attempts to express function, materials and technology in an honest way
wor%s to provide functional buildings to all people with an economy of
means
employs art as a means of ordering form
rejects historical precedent.
explicitly attempts to express all the above in its building manifestations.
!ome morphological characteristics of buildings under this style 5free plan,
universal space, walls freed from the function of load bearing, cantilevers, glass
at corners of buildings, use of concrete.
Modern architecture was disseminated through individuals6 7e (orbusier, Mies
van der 0ohe, 4ran% 7loyd 8right9, movements 63e !tijl, rt 1ouveau9 and
schools 6:auhaus9. The :auhaus, the architecture school in *ermany started in
+;+;, was the most influential school and under various directors the ideology
differed slightly. &owever, the fundamental aim was to unite art and technolgy to
produce good design. 8ith the rise of the 1a<is, the important people associated
with the school, and hence its ideas, shifted to the =nited !tates. Modern
architecture began to be called the /nternational style after the exhibition
conducted in the Museum of Modern rt, 1ew 2or%, =nited !tates, showcasing
wor%s of Modern rchitecture.
criticism of Modern rchitecture began from the +;>0s on the grounds that it
was universal,sterile, elitist and lac%ed meaning. The rise of "ostmodernism is
attributed to the general disenchantment with Modern architecture.
Some catch phrases of Modern Architecture
?4orm 4ollows 4unction?5 first used by sculptor &oratio *reenough, more
popularly by 7ouis !ullivan
?'rnament is a crime?5 dolf 7oos
?7ess is more?5 Mies van der 0ohe
?7ess is more only when more is too much?5 4ran% 7loyd 8right
Modernity
Modernity is a type, mode, or stage of society, initially confined to the recent
history of 8est #uropean countries from the 0enaissance to the rise of mass
media, and characteri<ed by a larger5scale integration of formerly isolated local
communities and departure from tradition and religion toward individualism,
rational or scientific organi<ation of society, and egalitarianism. society in the
state of modernity is called a modern society. The process of a society becoming
a modern society is called moderni<ation. The most defining events in the
modern period include@
0ise of the nation state,
/ndustriali<ation,
0ise of capitalism,
#mergence of socialist countries,
0ise of representative democracy,
/ncreasing role of science and technology,
=rbani<ation,
"roliferation of mass media,
The more particular events in the 8est #uropean history include@
The ge of 3iscovery
The 0enaissance
The #nlightenment
The 0eformation and (ounter 0eformation
The 4rench 0evolution
The merican 0evolution
The /ndustrial 0evolution
/t is usually suggested that some or most of these events led to the more
complete reali<ation of modern society in #urope.
Table of contents
+ 3efining (haracteristics of Modernity
2 Modernity as hope, modernity as doom
A Modernity and the contemporary society
Defining Characteristics of Modernity
There have been numerous attempts, particularly in the field of sociology, to
understand what modernity is. wide variety of terms are used to describe the
society, social life, driving force, symptomatic mentality, or some other defining
aspects of modernity. They include@ :ureaucracy, 3isenchantment of the world,
0ationali<ation, !eculari<ation, lienation, (ommodification, 3econtexutali<ation,
/ndividualism, !ubjectivism, 7inear5progression, 'bjectivism, =niversalism,
0eductionism, (haos, Mass society, /ndustrial society, &omogeni<ation,
=nification, &ybridi<ation, 3iversification, 3emocrati<ation, (entrali<ation,
&ierarchical organi<ation, Mechani<ation, Totalitarian, and so on.
Modernity is often characteri<ed by comparing modern societies to premodern or
postmodern ones, and the understanding of those non5modern social statuses is,
again, far from a settled issue. To an extent, it is reasonable to doubt the very
possibility of a descriptive concept that can adequately capture diverse realities
of societies of various historical contexts, especially non5#uropean ones, let
alone a three5stage model of social evolution from premodernity to
postmodernity.
&owever, in terms of social structure, many of the defining events and
characteristics listed above stem from a transition from relatively isolated local
communities to a more integrated large5scale society. =nderstood this way,
moderni<ation might be a general, abstract process which can be found in many
different parts of histories, rather than a unique event in #urope.
/n general, large5scale integration involves@
/ncreased movement of goods, capital, people, and information among formerly separate
areas, and increased influence that reaches beyond a local area.
/ncreased formali<ation of those mobile elements, development of BcircuitsB on which
those elements and influences travel, and standardi<ation of many aspects of the society
in general that is conducive to the mobility.
/ncreased speciali<ation of different segments of society, such as the division of labor,
and interdependency among areas.
!eemingly contradictory characteristics ascribed to modernity are often different
aspects of this process. 4or example, unique local culture is invaded and lost by
the increased mobility of cultural elements, such as recipes, fol%tales, and hit
songs, resulting in a cultural homogeni<ation across localities, but the repertoire
of available recipes and songs increases within a area because of the increased
interlocal movement, resulting in a diversification within each locality. 6This is
manifest especially in large metropolises where there are many mobile
elements9. (entrali<ed bureaucracy and hierarchical organi<ation of
governments and firms grows in scale and power in an unprecedented manner,
leading some to lament the stifling, cold, rationalist or totalitarian nature of
modern society. 2et individuals, often as replaceable components, may be able
to move in those social subsystems, creating a sense of liberty, dynamic
competition and individualism for others. This is especially the case when a
modern society is compared with premodern societies, in which the family and
social class one is born into shapes oneBs lifecourse to a greater extent.
These social changes are somewhat common to many different levels of social
integration, and not limited to what happened to the 8est #uropean societies in a
specific time period. 4or example, these changes might happen when formerly
separate virtual communities merge. !imilarly, when two human beings develop
a close relationship, communication, convention, and increased division of roles
tend to emerge. nother example can be found in ongoing globali<ation 5 the
increased international flows changing the landscape for many. /n other words,
while modernity has been characteri<ed in many seemingly contradictory ways,
many of those characteri<ations can be reduced to a relatively simple set of
concepts of social change.
t the same time, however, such an understanding of modernity is certainly not
satisfactory to many, because it fails to explain the global influence of 8est
#uropean and merican societies since the 0enaissance. Mere large5scale
integration of local communities, seen in the Macedonia of lexander the *reat
or the Mongolia of the Chans, would not necessarily result in the same
magnitude of influence as the 8est #uropean moderni<ation. 8hat has made
8estern #urope so specialD
There have been two major answers to this question. 4irst, an internal factor is
that only in #urope, through the 0enaissance humanists and early modern
philosophers and scientists, rational thin%ing came to replace many intellectual
activities that had been under heavy influence of convention, superstition, and
religion. This line of answer is most frequently associated with Max 8eber, a
sociologist who is %nown to have pursued the answer to the above question.
!econd, an external factor is that coloni<ation, starting as early as the ge of
3iscovery, created exploitative relations between #uropean countries and their
colonies. This view has notably been explored by the world systems theory of
#manuel 8allerstein.
/t is also notable that such commonly5observed features of many modern
societies as the nuclear family, slavery, gender roles, and nation states do not
necessarily fit well with the idea of rational social organi<ation in which
components such as people are treated equally. 8hile many of these features
have been dissolving, histories seem to suggest those features may not be mere
exceptions to the essential characteristics of moderni<ation, but necessary parts
of it.
Modernity as hope, modernity as doom
Moderni<ation brought a series of seemingly undisputable benefits to people.
7ower infant mortality rate, decreased death from starvation, eradication of some
of the fatal diseases, more equal treatment of people with different bac%grounds
and incomes, and so on. To some, this is an indication of the potential of
modernity, perhaps yet to be fully reali<ed. /n general, rational, scientific
approach to problems and the pursuit of economic wealth seems still to many a
reasonable way of understanding good social development.
t the same time, there are a number of dar% sides of modernity pointed out by
sociologists and others.
Technological development occurred not only in the medical and agricultural
fields, but also in the military. The atomic bombs dropped on &iroshima and
1agasa%i during 8orld 8ar //, and the following nuclear arms race in the post5
war era, are considered by some as symbols of the danger of technologies that
humans may or may not be able to handle wisely.
!talinBs *reat "urges and the &olocaust 6or !hoah9 are considered by some as
indications that rational thin%ing and rational organi<ation of a society might
involve exclusion, or extermination, of non5standard elements. /t is pointed out by
some that homosexuals, criminals, and the mentally ill are also among the
excluded in the modern society.
#nvironmental problems comprise another category in the dar% side of modernity.
"ollution is perhaps the least controversial of these, but one may include
decreasing biodiversity and climate change as results of development. The
development of biotechnology and genetic engineering are creating what some
consider sources of un%nown ris%s.
:esides these obvious incidents, many critics point out psychological and moral
ha<ards of modern life 5 alienation, feeling of rootlessness, loss of strong bonds
and common values, hedonism, and so on. This is often accompanied by a re5
evaluation of pre5modern communities, though such criticism may slip into a
nostalgia for an ideali<ed past.
Modernity and the contemporary society
There is an ongoing debate about the relationship between modernity and present societies. The
debate has two dimensions. 4irst, there is an empirical question of whether some of the present
societies can be understood as a variation of modernity 6such as hyper5modernity9 or as a
distinctive type, such as postmodernity. !econd, there is a judgement of whether moderni<ation
has been, and is, desirable for a society. !eemingly new phenomena such as globali<ation, the
end of the (old 8ar, ethnic conflicts, and the proliferation of information technologies are ta%en
by some as reasons to adopt a new vision to navigate social development.
The Enlightenment
/n the period %nown as The Age of Enlightenment, #ighteenth5century #urope
saw remar%able cultural changes characteri<ed by a loss of faith in traditional
religious sources of authority and a turn toward human rights, science, rational
thoughts and the replacement of theocracies and autocracies with democratic
republicss.
'ne of the influences on the #nlightenment consisted of reports of (atholic
priests in (hina which served as a model for a secular enlightened despot.
The upheavals of the #nlightenment led directly to the merican 0evolutionary
8ar as well as the 4rench 0evolution and significantly influenced the /ndustrial
0evolution. #nlightenment ideas were also strongly influential in the (onstitution
of the =nited !tates.
The #nlightenment was also mar%ed by the rise of capitalism and the wide
availability of printeded materials. The 4rench encyclopedia 6L'Encyclopdie9
combined free5thin%ing articles with technological information.
'ne important response to the #nlightenment within the #uropean )ewish
community was the &as%alah movement.
The concept of a single, #urope5wide movement may of course be challenged in
detail@ it reflects a cultural dominance of 4rench thought. 'ne may also pursue
the *erman, !cottish and other national movements.
/mportant figures of the #nlightenment era include@
Thomas "aine
)ean le 0ond dBlembert
3enis 3iderot
#dward *ibbon
3avid &ume
Thomas )efferson
*otthold 7essing
)ohn 7oc%e
Montesquieu
/saac 1ewton
dam !mith
:enedict !pino<a
.oltaire
!ee also 4rench materialism, "rotestant 0eformation, enlightened absolutism
Industrial Revolution
The Industrial Revolution was a period of the +,th century mar%ed by social
and technological change in which manufacturing began to rely on steam power,
fueled primarily by coal, rather than on animal labor, or on water or wind powerE
and by a shift from artisans who made complete products to factories in which
each wor%er completed a single stage in the manufacturing process.
/mprovements in transportation encouraged the rapid pace of change.
The causes of the /ndustrial 0evolution remain a topic for debate with some
historians seeing it as an outgrowth from the social changes of the #nlightenment
and the colonial expansion of the +Fth century.
The /ndustrial 0evolution began in the #nglish Midlands and spread throughout
#ngland and into continental #urope and the northern =nited !tates in the +;th
century. :efore the improvements made to the pre5existing steam engine by
)ames 8att and others, all manufacturing had to rely for power on wind or water
mills or muscle power produced by animals or humans. :ut with the ability to
translate the potential energy of steam into mechanical force, a factory could be
built away from streams and rivers, and many tas%s that had been done by hand
in the past could be mechani<ed. /f, for example, a lumber mill had been limited
in the number of logs it could cut in a day due to the amount of water and
pressure available to turn the wheels, the steam engine eliminated that
dependence. *rain mills, thread and clothing mills, and wind driven water pumps
could all be converted to steam power as well.
!hortly after the steam engine was developed, a steam locomotive called The
0oc%et was invented by 0obert !tephenson, and the first steam5powered ship
was invented by 0obert 4ulton. These inventions, and the fact that machines
were not taxed as much as people, caused large social upheavals, as small mills
and cottage industries that depended on a stream or a group of people putting
energy into a product could not compete with the energy derived from steam.
8ith locomotives and steamships, goods could now be transferred very quic%ly
across a country or ocean, and within a reasonably predictable time, since the
steam plants provided consistent power, unli%e transportation relying on wind or
animal power.
'ne question that has been of active interest to historians is why the /ndustrial
0evolution occurred in #urope and not in other parts of the world, particularly
(hina. 1umerous factors have been suggested including ecology, government,
and culture. :enjamin #lman argues that (hina was in a high level equilibrium
trap in which the non5industrial methods were efficient enough to prevent use of
industrial methods with high capital costs. Cenneth "ommeran< in the Great
Divergence argues that #urope and (hina were remar%ably similar in +F00 and
that the crucial differences which created the /ndustrial 0evolution in #urope
were sources of coal near manufacturing centers and raw materials such as food
and wood from the 1ew 8orld which allowed #urope to economically expand in
a way that (hina could not.
The debate around the concept of the initial startup of the /ndustrial revolution
also concerns the +00 year lead *reat :ritain had over the other #uropean
countries. 8hile some have stressed the importance of natural or financial
ressources, others have loo%ed at the social aspects and theori<ed that the
:ritish advance was due to the presence of an entrepreneurial class which
believed in progress, technology and hard wor%. The existence of this class is
often lin%ed to the "rotestant wor% ethic and the particular status of dissenting
protestant sects that had flourished with the #nglish revolution.
The dissenters found themselves barred or discouraged from some public offices
when the restoration of the monarchy too% place and membership in the official
nglican church became once more an important advantage. &istorians
sometimes consider this social factor to be extremely important along with the
nature of the national economies involved. 8hile members of these sects were
excluded from certain circles of the government they were considered as fellow
protestants to a limited extent by many groups of the middle class, such as
traditional financiers or other businessmen. *iven this relative tolerance and the
supply of capital the natural outlet for the more enterprising members of these
sects would be to see% new opportunities in the technologies created in the wa%e
of the !cientific revolution of the +Fth century.
This argument has on the whole tended to neglect the fact that several inventors
and entrepreneurs were rational free thin%ers or ?"hilosophers? typical of a
certain class of :ritish intellectuals in the late +,th century, and were thus not
considered as good nglicans. #xamples of these free thin%ers were the 7unar
!ociety of :irmingham 6flourished +F>-5+,0;9. /ts members were exceptional in
that they were among the very few who were conscious that an industrial
revolution was ta%ing place in *reat :ritain. They actively wor%ed as a group to
encourage it, not least by investing in it and conducting scientific experiments
which led to innovative products.
The transition to industrialisation was not wholly smooth, for in #ngland the
Luddites 5 wor%ers who saw their livelihoods threatened 5 protested against the
process and sometimes sabotaged factories.
/ndustrialisation also led to the creation of the factory, and was largely
responsible for the rise of the modern city, as wor%ers migrated into the cities in
search of employment in the factories.
Arts and Crafts movement
The Arts and Crafts Movement is the name given to a reformist movement at
first inspired by the writings of )ohn 0us%in that was at its height ca +,,05+;+0.
The movement influenced :ritish decorative arts, architecture, furniture design,
crafts and even the BcottageB garden designs of 8illiam 0obinson or *ertrude
)e%yll. /ts main publicists were 8illiam Morris, (harles 0obert shbee and 8alter
(rane. (harles 0ennie Mac%intosh, and artists in the "re50aphaelite movement.
The rts and (rafts movement was part of the major #nglish aesthetic movement
of the last years of the +;th century.
The rts and (rafts Movement began primarily as a search for authentic and
meaningful styles for the +;th century and as a reaction to the eclectic historicism
of the .ictorian era and to BsoullessB machine5made production aided by the
/ndustrial 0evolution. (onsidering the machine to be the root cause of all evils,
the protagonists of this movement turned completely away from the use of
machines and towards handcraft, which tended to concentrate their productions
in the hands of sensitive but well5heeled patrons. Though the spontaneous
personality of the designer became more central than the historical BstyleB of a
design, certain tendencies stood out@ reformist *othic influences, rustic and
BcottageyB surfaces, repeating designs, vertical and elongated forms. /n order to
express the beauty inherent in craft, some of the products were deliberately left
slightly unfinished, resulting in a certain rustic and robust effect. There were also
sentimental !ocialist undertones to this movement in that another primary aim
was for people to derive satisfaction from what they do. This satisfaction, the
proponents of this movement felt, was totally denied in compartmentalised
machine production.
The 0ed &ouse, :exleyheath, 7ondon 6+,-;9, by architect "hilip 8ebb for
8illiam Morris himself, is a wor% exemplary of this movement. There is a
deliberate attempt at expressing surface textures of ordinary materials such as
stone, tiles, etc., with an asymmetrical and quaint building composition. 8illiam
Morris formed the Celmscott "ress and also had a shop where he designed and
sold products such as wall paper, textiles, furniture etc.
8idely exhibited in #urope, the rts and (rafts MovementBs qualities of simplicity
and truthful expression negating historicism inspired designers li%e &enry van de
.elde and movements such as rt 1ouveau, the 3utch 3e !tijl group, .iennese
!ecessionstil and eventually the :auhaus.
/n the =nited !tates, it spawned complimentary and sympathetic movements
such as the BMissionB furniture of *ustave !tic%ley, the B"rairie !choolB architects
and designers round the youthful 4ran% 7loyd 8right, and (raftsman style studio
pottery, exemplified by 0oo%wood pottery emphasi<ed the craftsmanBs touch.
Art Nouveau
Daum, 1ancy circa +;00
Art Nouveau is an art and design style that pea%ed in popularity at the turn of
the 20th century. t the time it was often simply referred to as Modern style, as
was the 0ococo style in its own time. 'ther, more locali<ed terms for the cluster
of self5consciously radical, somewhat mannered reformist chic that formed a
prelude to 20th5century Modernism, included Jugendstil in *ermany, named for
the snappy avant5garde periodical Jugend 6B2outhB9, Sezessionstil in .ienna,
where forward5loo%ing artists and designers seceded from the mainstream salon
exhibitions, to exhibit on their own in more congenial surroundings. /n /taly, Stile
Liberty was named for the 7ondon shop that had been distributing good modern
design emanating from the rts and (rafts movement, a sign both of the rt
1ouveauBs commercial aspect and the BimportedB character it always retained in
/taly.
rt 1ouveau started in the +,,0s and had its climax in years +,;25+;02. The
name Brt 1ouveauB derived from the name of a shop in "aris, run by !amuel
:ing, who showcased some objects that followed this approach to design.
'ne of the most important characteristics of the style is a dynamic, undulating
and flowing, curved BwhiplashB line of syncopated rhythm. (onventional moldings
seem to spring to life and BgrowB into plant5derived forms.
s an art movement it has certain affinities with the "re50aphaelites and the
!ymbolist painters, and certain figures li%e ubrey :eardsley. lfons Mucha,
#dward :urne5)ones, *ustav Climt, and )an Toorop could be classed in more
than one of these styles. =nli%e !ymbolist painting, however, rt 1ouveau had a
distinctive visual loo% of its ownE and unli%e the bac%wards5loo%ing "re5
0aphaelites, rt 1ouveau was not shy about the use of new materials, machined
surfaces, and abstraction in the service of pure design.
*lass ma%ing was an area in which the style found tremendous expressionG for
example, the wor%s of 7ouis (omfort Tiffany in 1ew 2or% and #mile *allH in
1ancy, 4rance.
rt 1ouveau in architecture and interior design eschewed the eclectic historicism
of the .ictorian era. Though rt 1ouveau designers did select and Bmoderni<eB
some of the more abstract elements of 0ococo style, such as flame and shell
textures, in place of the historically5derived and basically tectonic or realistic
naturalistic ornament of &igh .ictorian styles, rt 1ouveau advocated the use of
highly5styli<ed 1ature as the source of inspiration and expanded the BnaturalB
repertory to embrace seaweed, grasses, insects. (orrespondingly organic forms,
curved lines, especially floral or vegetal, etc., began to be used. )apanese wood5
bloc% prints with their curved lines, patterned surfaces and contrasting voids, and
flatness of their picture5plane, also inspired rt 1ouveau. !ome line and curve
patterns became graphic clichHs that were later found in wor%s of artists from all
parts of the world. n important fact is that rt 1ouveau did not negate the
machine as other movements such as the rts and (rafts Movement but used it
to its advantage. /n terms of material usage, the principal ones employed were
glass and wrought iron, leading to a very sculpturesque quality even in
architecture.
rt 1ouveau at its best is considered a total style, meaning that it encompasses
a hierarchy of scales in designG architecture, interior design, furniture and textile
design, utensils and art objects, lighting, etc.
high point in the evolution of rt 1ouveau was the =niversal #xposition of +;00
in "aris, in which the BModern !tyleB triumphed in every medium. /n the following
decade, the new style was so rapidly commerciali<ed in trivial mass5production
that rt 1ouveau was loo%ed down upon after about +;0F, and the term was
ascribed a pejorative meaning.
The principal centers of the style were @
7ondon
"aris
:russels
1ancy
(hicago
1ew 2or%
*lasgow
:arcelona
msterdam
3armstadt
Munich
:erlin
.ienna
Ilesund
'slo
0iga
mong the most remar%able artists of rt 1ouveau are@
rchitecture
o ugust #ndel
o ntoni *audi
o .ictor &orta
o )osef &offman
o &ector *uimard
o (harles Mac%intosh
o 7ouis !ullivan
o 'tto 8agner
3rawing, *raphics
o ubrey :eardsley
o *aston *erard
o lfons Mucha
o #dvard Munch
o &enri de Toulouse57autrec
o "ierre :onnard
4urniture
o (arlo :ugatti
o #ugJne *aillard
o 7ouis Majorelle
o &enry van de .elde
*lassware
o 3aum 4rJres
o #mile *allH
o 0enH 7alique
o 7ouis (omfort Tiffany
'ther decorative arts
o (harles 0. shbee
o !amuel :ing
o 8illiam :radley
o )ules :runfaut
o &ermann 'brist
o "hilippe 8olfers
Murals and mosaics
o *ustav Climt
1owadays rt 1ouveau is viewed as a forerunner of the most innovative cultural
movements of the 20th century li%e expressionism, cubism, surrealism, and rt
3eco.
External link
7Bart nouveau K :ruxelles @ cfr #uro:0=.64rench9