1

Advanced Finite Element Analysis

Prof. R. KrishnaKumar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Madras

Lecture - 14

In the last class, we started our study on continuum mechanics and we had defined what
we called as deformation to be a mapping function and then, we defined one of the most
important quantities in continuum mechanics which we called as F and which we named
as deformation gradient tensor.

(Refer Slide Time: 1:03)


Note that we defined this in such a fashion that any line element dx sitting at x or in other
words, if this is the body that we are considering and if this is a point say X and if this is
the dX, then this dX, when the body deforms, then this dX becomes small dx, at that
point small x and the transformation of capital X and small x, that is the transformation
which gets you small x, that is this deformation mapping and the one which gets us this
vector d small x from d capital X, that is the d small x is equal to or given by this
deformation gradient, F. This is what we saw.
2
We have not defined the reference configuration. Reference configuration is extremely
important in the study of mechanics. There are various definitions for this. One of the
major or very important aspects of reference configuration is whether it is a stress free
configuration. Most of the cases we treat a stress free configuration to be a reference
configuration. It is not necessary that a reference configuration should be reached in a
body, should be reached in a body, or in other words it is not necessary that when we start
the deformation that is a reference configuration. But, most of the times in normal
instances we define the reference configuration by this chi naught, where chi naught
indicates the configuration of the body when time t is equal to zero. But, it is not
necessary that this has to be the reference configuration.

Most of the times or successful applications are ones where reference configurations are
stress free configurations. For example, if you are doing say, analysis of a human heart,
now, what is the reference configuration for this? In other words, what is the stress free
configuration? That is never achieved. In fact, it is very difficult many times, especially
in biomechanics to say what a stress free configuration is, because that kind of thing will
not exist, as long as, I mean in the realm or region of time that is when the time of say,
for example, where we are interested in beating heart, the time at which it is functioning,
at that time it may not even reach this reference configuration. So, it is not necessary that
reference configuration should be reached at any time of interest to us. But, you should
understand that we need a reference configuration from which we would proceed for
further analysis. But, fortunately for us most of the time, most of the time, reference
configuration is defined very neatly for engineering structures and it happens to be, the
configuration at t is equal to zero.

With that in mind, let us proceed, let us see and of course we had defined F to be a two
point tensor and so on. Let us now study more about a deformation and the ensuing
quantities.



3
(Refer Slide Time: 5:24)


Now, one of the most important quantities that we will come across is what is called as C
defined to be F transpose F and is called as the Right, note this carefully, Right Cauchy-
Green deformation tensor and we define b to be, of course, these are tensors; we define b
to be F F transpose and is defined as Left Cauchy-Green deformation tensor. Now, look
at this. Why is it called as right and why is it called as left? The reason is very simple,
though people do not understand that it is just that F is written to the right of F transpose
or it is in the right and F is to the left and hence they are called as right Cauchy-Green
deformation tensor and left Cauchy-Green deformation tensor.

These two tensors are again going to play an extremely important role and it is very
interesting also to see that these two tensors are symmetric; it is very easy to see that. So,
when I take C transpose, look at that C transpose, then this would become F transpose F
and so it is symmetric. Is that clear? They are going to also be positive definite; we will
not work on it right now, we will indicate it later. On the other hand, you cannot say
about F as, of course as, symmetric because, we do not know yet whether it is symmetric
or not; from the appearance it does not look like that. But, of course, we had defined the
inverse of F, one which takes us from d small x to d capital X.
4
Having studied this, now let us go back and look at what we understand by the term
strain.

(Refer Slide Time: 7:50)


Of course, earlier in this course we had looked at small strains. Now, let us look at the
strains in a slightly different fashion. You will see that the definition what we are going
to put down will reduce to the small strain case under certain conditions; we will just wait
for it. Now, let us define what strain is. Before we do that, we will stick still to the
concept that we are looking at strains as something to do with lengths of material line
element. Remember that when we define strain in our say under graduate programs, we
define strain to be just change in length by original length. So, the concept that we are
going to introduce is very similar, but only thing is that that length what we are talking
about is not the usual bar which we had used in our earlier classes.






5
(Refer Slide Time: 8:55)


We used to have a bar like that and that is the bar which we used to define the strains.
But, here let us look at this material line element closely at every point x and see whether
we can do something with respect to the lengths of this material line element.

(Refer Slide Time: 9:12)


From that point of view, let us see what d small x squared minus d capital X squared is.
Of course, this is the norm or indicates the length squared of dx or the magnitude as I said
6
of d capital X. Now, how do you write this down? Of course, I can write that down as F
dX minus dX square, sorry, yeah, or in other words, this is nothing but what is this? This
is nothing but the inner product and hence I can write that as dot F dX minus dX dot dX
and using the property of, of course, of all them are, hope I do not leave this and using the
property of transpose of a tensor, this can be written as dx dot F transpose F dX minus
minus dX dot dX, which again can be written as dX dot F transpose F minus I dX, where
I is, of course the unit tensor.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:12)


Let me define now E Cauchy-Green strain tensor to be half into F transpose F minus I. I
am defining that to be half into F transpose F minus I. Now, look at this term, look at this
term and look at this term here and see what we are trying to do. We are arriving at strain
tensor purely based on the concept of lengths. Now of course, we saw F transpose F as
what? As C; so, F transpose F can be written, this can be written as half into C minus I.
Now, this whole, this whole equations can also be written in another fashion; we will see
the equivalent of this with our small strain in a minute, but this whole set of equations can
be written in another fashion in terms of d small x; d small x.

7
In other words, I can write that dX is equal to F inverse d small x. J ust try it out; let us see
what you get. J ust look at these equations, substitute that and see what now the definition
is that you get out of it. E is defined as half into F transpose F minus I. I am defining E. I
will show you how this E is equivalent to that of small strain case when the deformation
is small; just wait for a minute. Before that let us look at now the same expression in
terms of d small x, d small x. What you do? Simple; so, keep this d small x, so that the
expression can now be written as dx dot dx, sorry minus d capital X square which can be
written as F inverse dx dot F inverse dx and now you can write that dx dot dx minus dx
dot F inverse transpose F inverse dx. Yeah; this is the definition of transpose. So, you just
get substituting for dx dx dot F inverse transpose F inverse dx.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:19)


Now, just take that out. dx I minus dx is my original thing and I define small e called
Almansi strain to be half of I minus F inverse as the, what is called as the Almansi strain.
Look at the difference between now capital E and small e. What I have essentially done is
to use the definition for transpose. Look back what we did before; look at these two
equations here. You see that the first equation, the Green strain tensor or Cauchy-Green
strain tensor, E is defined with respect to the Lagrangian frame of reference and this
Almansi strain tensor is defined in terms of the current co-ordinates or Eulerian co-
8
ordinates. So, this is the Lagrangean and this is Eulerian. So, the first thing we have done
is to define strains.

In order to see what the connection is between the large, this we would call as finite
deformation strain or large strain, compare this with infinitesimal strain, in order to do
that, let us introduce what we call as a displacement vector and talk in terms of
displacements and its gradients, so that we can compare, because we know epsilon
ij
to be
half of dow u
i
by dow x
j
plus dow u
j
by dow x
i
. In order to compare both, let us now
introduce the term called displacement. Is that clear?

(Refer Slide Time: 16:33)


Let the displacement u be, obviously, the displacement u at a point is x minus capital X;
that is the displacement. In other words, if that is the body where it is capital X,
Lagrangian frame of reference and we start here, say for example, most of the times I
have said reference coordinates and we go to this point x. Let u is equal to x minus
capital X. This is fine as far as both the coordinates or both the systems of coordinates,
that you use for both, are the same or else you can also write that as chi x minus x. Let
me define, many places I am defining; let me define the displacement gradient D to be
the gradient of u or Grad u. D is equal to the Grad u. Please note that whenever I put Grad
9
with the capital G it means that the derivative is with respect to the capital X. This is
nothing but dow u by dow X. Note that Grad u raises the order of this vector from u to a
second order tensor or in other words, D
ij
is equal to dow u
i
by dow X
j
. If I now put,
instead of capital G, if I now substitute this in terms of small g, if I say it is grad, small g,
then it means that the derivative with respect to small x which means that dow u
i
by say
dow X
j
. They go together and this and this they go together. Is that clear?

Now, define E in terms of this D. Let us see how you define D in terms of this. It is very
simple. I can extend that by differentiating this with respect to capital X. So, the first term
becomes what? The first term here becomes the deformation gradient tensor F minus the
second term becomes I. So, D which is given by this, D is equal to F minus I. Is that clear
or D
ij
is equal to F
ij
minus Kronecker delta
ij
. Now substitute this expression here into my
definition for E.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:07)


Please substitute that and see what you get as a result or in other words, substitute D is
equal to F minus I. J ust work it out in a minute, so that it will be a good exercise for you.
From here, substitute for F into this expression and see what the result is. What you do is
10
just F is equal to d plus I; so, F transpose D transpose plus I transpose, so, substitute it
here and let us see what is the result that you get?

(Refer Slide Time: 20:47)


Half will remain the same, so, you will have actually three terms - D plus D transpose
and then what is the third term plus D transpose D. So, that is the thing you will have;
these are three terms you will have. Now, just contemplate on the difference between this
and our definition for small strain. Now, actually what is this? If you want to understand
this, let me write down in an indicial notation. Actually I should write capital IJ , but
because you are familiar with small ij with respect to small e, let me write that down; half
into, what is this? dow u
i
by dow X
j
plus what is the next one? dow u
j
by dow X
i
plus,
how do you write D transpose D? No; it is dow u
k
dow X
i
dow u
k
by dow X
j
. That is the
D transpose D.

Yes, you are correct. I should have written it as capital I capital J and because I want it to
compare with small e
ij
with which you are familiar with, I am writing it for the time being
like that. You are absolutely right. All these is and j should be in capital letters. X also is
capital, because if you look at how we defined the displacement gradient, look at this;
look at that here.
11
(Refer Slide Time: 22:56)


That you had defined the displacement gradient to be capital G; capital G, so, that is the
reason why you have this to be like that. Now, look at these terms carefully. All of them
are capital. This is capital; capital. I hope it is clear. Now, your definition, if you
remember, for e
ij
was half into u i comma j plus u j comma i. That was the definition for
small strain. So, see how it reduces, this reduces to that. Once, if small x and capital X
are not very different, in other words, deformations are very small that are infinitesimally
small, so that capital X and small x are not very different, then I can replace, number 1,
all the capital X by small x and number 2, when the gradients of displacement are also
very small such that the gradient is far less than say, dow u by dow x is far less than, 1,
then this term goes off.

What we say is we have linearised these quantities. So, linearization of my displacement
would result in E
ij
, capital E
ij
to be equal to small e
ij
. So, in other words, the concept
though it looked initially as if I had defined half F transpose F minus I arbitrarily, it is not
arbitrary. Actually if you look at that closely, I had dx, d capital X on either side. So,
there is a length scale there as well and now you see that it actually reduces to my old
definitions here. Is that clear? So, both the definitions go together.

12
Having now defined what strain is, let us now look at what is called as stretch, what is
called as stretch. In other words, what it really means is my next concept on stretch
means that there are different ways in which you can study how a material line element
would deform. One way to study it is to define them using E, another way is to study
using stretch. There are so many other definitions for strains. So, strain is not just one
quantity. Now itself, we have seen capital E and as well as the other, what we called as
the Almansi strain; Almansi strain.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:09)


Please note, this small e is from our epsilon. I should put epsilon here, so that there is no
confusion here. We should put epsilon here. That small e what we use right now, in this
course from now onwards, will be for Almansi strain. Already we have defined two
strains. In fact, there are a number strain measures as we call it and we may define them
later for use in certain constitutive models. But before we go further, we have to define
what is called as stretch. As the name indicates, stretch means that the stretching of this
line element d capital X or in other words, when I say stretch, obviously what we are
interested in is the amount to which or ratio of dx by d capital X.


13
(Refer Slide Time: 27:07)


What is that? Now, this d small x and d capital X can also be defined by using unit
vectors along their directions or in other words, dX vector is unit vector say, M into the
magnitude d capital X, d small x can be defined as m d small x, so that dx using a
deformation gradient tensor can be written as F M dX. So, this can be written as m dx is
equal to F M dX. M is the unit vector along the direction which we have chosen, d capital
X. Is that clear?

Student: is it along the line element?










14
(Refer Slide Time: 28:44)


Yes; say for example, if this is the body which you are considering and if this is the point
X, capital X, and I am interested in this line element d capital X; that is the line element
which I am going to follow. Let capital M be a unit vector along that direction. So, d
capital X can be written as M, which indicates the direction multiplied by the magnitude;
nothing very difficult about it.

Student: one more question.

Yes.

Student: we can define the strain by taking two parts in the body, sir arbitrarily. So, is
there any difference between this and that, sir. Now, we are taking one part and we are
taking the line element, like that we are taking. Instead of that we define, if we take two
arbitrary points and ...

Yes; please note that, yes I understand. What you are saying is that can I take two
different points? Please note that we are looking at the situation it can either be
homogenous or non-homogenous. We are looking at a situation where strain is defined
15
throughout the body at every point. So, I have to take an infinitesimal line element. It is
not the strain of the total body. It was okay for a uni-directional case. Suppose I take a bar
and then apply here, it can be a homogenous deformation. That is a different thing all
together. But, when we take a body, general body of interest, then we have to take, you
cannot take the whole body; we have to take a very small region around the body in order
to define what strain is.

Please note that in our earlier class we did a very similar thing. But, instead of taking this
line element here, we took an infinitesimal cube. In fact, what we did was to look at the
way this cube deformed at a point. Remember, all our analysis before was also based on
the deformation of the cube, whether we define the stress or the strain and so on. In this
case we are taking a material line element and the orientation of material line element
may change and accordingly each stretch would also change and that is the reason why
we have M here. In other words, as I take, I go to this point x and I take this small
material line element and as I start sweeping it, I may get different stretches that prompts
us to define certain very important quantities like principle stretch and so on.

But before we go further, let us now look at what we are going to get out of this. So, this
can be defined here in this case as dx squared, small dx squared will take the dot product,
the inner product on either side.











16
(Refer Slide Time: 31:54)


So, this would become, is equal to F M dot F M d capital X squared. This can be written
by using the transpose formula M F transpose F M dx squared. No; this is the capital;
small m, obviously will go off, m dot m. What is m? Because unit vector; we have been
talking about that, unit vector, so, that will go off. Obviously what you will have is only
the capital M. So, that is in other words, this is F M dX squared is equal to d small x
squared. In other words, we define stretch along M, note that carefully; at a point X along
M to be d small x by d capital X that is equal to the magnitude of F M, the magnitude of
F M. So, that is what is called as the stretch. Sometimes, lambda M minus 1 is called as
the extension ratio; is called as the extension ratio. Is this clear?

So, stretch is defined, note that; again I am repeating it. Note that stretch is defined with
respect to M. So, when I change M, that is what I just now said, then the stretch would
change. This is exactly how you would look at also the small strains. We had taken a
cube such that, the faces of the cube and hence it normals are along 1 2 3. We defined
epsilon
11
epsilon
22
epsilon
33
and so on with respect to those faces and its expansion. Of
course, we defined what we call as shear to be that change in the angle between these
faces. Here, it is much more general than that. So, it is defined with respect to a given M.
17
There also, given any other plane or any other direction, it is possible for me from this
epsilon
ij
to determine what would be the strain in any other direction.

Now, how do I define what we call as the shear part of it?

(Refer Slide Time: 35:26)


In order to define shear, if you remember, we have, we had say 2D; we had two lines and
we were looking at what happens to the angle between the two lines. This is what we
were looking at. So, in this case, what we are going to do is to take two line elements. In
other words, we are trying to explicitly find out a formula here in this case, what would
be the change of the angle of two arbitrary line element.








18
(Refer Slide Time: 35:55)


In other words, suppose I have say, let me define that as M and M prime at a point X;
actually, I am just zooming into a point X in a body. Let me call that as capital theta. My
whole job here is to find out, what happens to this capital theta under deformation or in
other words, what is the small theta that is formed at small x or let me exaggerate that;
small theta at small x, small x being the point to which capital X is carried to, due to
deformation. So, these line elements now become small m and small m prime
respectively. Please look at that. Again, I will give you a minute; let us see whether you
can think as to how we can find out what is this theta minus theta. I am interested in this
theta minus theta, how we can find out.

Yes; dot product. Please work it out; let us see where you come to in this. Look at that
and look at this expression. Look at this expression here and then just see how you can do
that. You correctly said that you have to use the cos theta definition. Cos theta in this case
happens to be, if you want I can write that down, cos of theta is equal M dot, M is what?
M is a unit vector; very good; M prime is also unit vector. So, M dot m prime is the cos
theta in this case and of course cos theta in this case happens to be what? Small m dot
small m prime. But I will give you a small exercise, right now. Let me see or let me
check how you calculate that.
19

J ust look at that and see how we can calculate that small m; small m, this quantity.
Fantastic; so, that is exactly what I am looking at. So, this can be written in terms of
stretch. What is that? That happens to be F capital M divided by lambda M. Please write
that down; write it down in terms of the transpose. Have a look at this and write it down
in terms of the transpose. This becomes F M divided by lambda M F M capital M prime
by lambda M prime and then you can write that down in terms of M dot F transpose F M
divided by lambda M lambda M prime. That becomes cos of small theta. That is all; so
substitute this, F M lambda M dot F M prime.

(Refer Slide Time: 39:24)


Is that clear? Now, small theta minus or the difference between them, small theta minus
capital theta is called as the angle of shear, angle of shear.

Having studied a line element and also having taken into account what would be the
change in the angle between two line elements, now let us look at what happens to a
volume element and a surface element. They are very important for us later, for certain
constraint definitions or equations to write down constraints as well as stresses. Let us
now look at what happens to a volume element and how that would change under
20
deformation at a point X. In order to define a volume element, let me take now at this
point same capital X, three vectors say, called as dX 1 dX 2 dX 3 or triads of vectors dX
1 dX 2 and dX 3.

Student: In the .., how we define small m, sir? Because, theta I mean

Yes, what is small m?

No actually .

What we mean by small m is the vector this capital M becomes, after deformation. This is
before; this is a part of the body before and that is after.

(Refer Slide Time: 41:20)


So, small x is the one to which capital X goes to and this capital M goes to small m and
this goes to

Student: No; but actually element is, I mean that point is rotating.

21
Yeah, of course. So, if you want, you need not draw the graph like that; you can draw the
graph like this.

Student: So, that way, that way theta, small theta and big theta should be same,
because.

It cannot be, because it is not necessary that these two lines ., that is what is shear.

Student: No, because M we can define in any direction.

No, no, no; this capital M, please note that this capital M and this capital M prime are the
ones which we are defining. These are the line elements say, line elements it is difficult
for you to imagine. J ust say that you are drawing two lines at a point, infinitesimal lines
at the point X. That is what you are drawing. These two lines you are drawing there and
what you are doing is to follow what happens to these two lines which you have drawn,
after deformation. So, those two lines now become like this. Let me call that as m and m
prime. It is not that small m small m prime, you can draw arbitrarily; it is not arbitrary.
But, we are following the deformation of these lines and that is why we are interested in
the change of the angle between these two.

Let us now look at volume change. So, volume change, as I told you, we have to see not
just two elements, but three elements, a triad as it is called.









22
(Refer Slide Time: 43:09)


So, let these three line elements at a point X, they are non-coplanar, of course. They have
to be non-coplanar; then only we will be able to get volume out of these three elements.
The three elements define volume are say, dx 1 dx 2 and dx 3 say, at the point X. They
define say, that is dx 1, that is dx 2 and that is dx 3; 1 2 and 3, so that dV from our good
old calculus or vector analysis, we know to be, so, let me put this 1 here, so that you do
not get confused with the indices. So, that 1 means that it is a vector dot dx 2 cross, this is
a simple definition, 3; scalar, the result is a scalar, it is a triple product.

Now, what is that we are going to do? We are going to see or follow like what we did for
the capital M, follow what happens to this d capital X 1 2 and 3 at this point, so that we
will find out now what would be the volume that is defined after deformation by these
three line elements d small x 1 small x 2 small x 3, after say, let us say that the body after
deformation becomes like this and that point is now here and that is small x and the
corresponding lines now, that line becomes dx1 and that line becomes dx 3 and this line
becomes say, dx 2. What I am interested in is to find out what is the relationship between
d capital V and d small v? d small v we define now, dot dx 2 cross dx 3.

23
What I am going to do is again very simple; very simple. What I am going to do is to
substitute for F. But before we do that, we remember how we calculate this triple product.
That is nothing but the determinant, if you remember.

(Refer Slide Time: 45:49)


dV is equal to nothing but the determinant of dx 1 comma dx 2 comma dx 3. This is the
definition for that, this operation. This is from our vector algebra, may be in high school
level. So, d small v is now defined to be determinant of d small x 1 d small x 2 and d
small x 3. Now, substituting in terms of my deformation gradient, so, this can be written
as the determinant of F dX 1 comma F dX 2 comma F dX 3.

Yes, because we are interested in finding out what happens to capital dV after
deformation that is small dv that is what we are interested in. Hence we are writing this
down in terms of small dx 1 2 and 3 and what happens to this. We get that directly from
our earlier expression on deformation gradient, so, we write it down like that. So, using
the concept of determinant, determinant of ab, determinant of a and determinant of b, I
can write that down to be determinant of F into determinant of dx 1 dx 2 dx 3, which is
equal to dV.

24
(Refer Slide Time: 47:55)


So, we come to a very, very important relationship now, which states that d small v by d
capital V, the ratio of the volumes at a point is given by the determinant of the
deformation gradient at that point. Please note that all these material line elements are
very small line elements. So, you can say that this would give rise to that small volume
change. Imagine that if you want to be a cube and what happens to that? Now, if the
material happens to be incompressible, then what would happen? d small v is equal to d
capital V or determinant F, many times written as J acobian or J , that it happens to be
equal to 1. Having seen how deformation of a small line element takes place, let us look
at how a surface element deforms under loading in the next class. We will stop here; we
will continue in the next class.