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CS 2740 Knowledge Representation

M. Hauskrecht
CS 2740 Knowledge Representation
Lecture 2
Milos Hauskrecht
[email protected]
5329 Sennott Square
Introduction to LISP
CS 2740 Knowledge Representation
M. Hauskrecht
LISP language
LISP: LISt Processing language
An AI language developed in 1958 (J. McCarthy at MIT)
Special focus on symbolic processing and symbol
manipulation
Linked list structures
Also programs, functions are represented as lists
At one point special LISP computers with basic LISP
functions implemented directly on hardware were
available (Symbolics Inc., 80s)
LISP today:
Many AI programs now are written in C,C++, Java
List manipulation libraries are available
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CS 2740 Knowledge Representation
M. Hauskrecht
LISP language
LISP Competitors:
Prolog, Python
but LISP keeps its dominance among high level (AI)
programming languages
Current LISP:
Common Lisp
Scheme
are the most widely-known general-purpose Lisp dialects
Common LISP:
Interpreter and compiler
CLOS: object oriented programming
CS 2740 Knowledge Representation
M. Hauskrecht
LISP tutorial
Syntax:
Prefix notation
Operator first, arguments follow
E.g. (+ 3 2) adds 3 and 2
A lot of parentheses
These define lists and also programs
Examples:
(a b c d) is a list of 4 elements (atoms) a,b,c,d
(defun factorial (num)
(cond ((<= num 0) 1)
(t (* (factorial (- num 1)) num))
))
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CS 2740 Knowledge Representation
M. Hauskrecht
LISP tutorial: data types
Basic data types:
Symbols
a
john
34
Lists
( )
(a)
(a john 34)
(lambda (arg) (* arg arg))
CS 2740 Knowledge Representation
M. Hauskrecht
LISP tutorial
For each symbol lisp attempts to find its value
> (setq a 10) ;; sets a value of symbol a to 10
10
> a ;; returns the value of a
10
Special symbols:
> t ;; true
T
> nil ;; nil stands for false or
NIL
> ( ) ;; an empty list
NIL
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CS 2740 Knowledge Representation
M. Hauskrecht
LISP tutorial
Lists represent function calls as well as basic data structures
> (factorial 3)
6
> (+ 2 4)
6
> (setq a (john peter 34)) ;; quote means: do not eval the argument
(john peter 34)
> (setq a ((john 1) (peter 2)))
((john 1) (peter 2))
CS 2740 Knowledge Representation
M. Hauskrecht
LISP tutorial: lists
List representation:
A singly linked list
> (setq a (john peter))
(john peter)
> (car a)
john
> (cdr a)
(peter)
car
cdr
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CS 2740 Knowledge Representation
M. Hauskrecht
LISP tutorial: list
List building functions
> (cons b nil) ;; quote means: do not eval the argument
(b)
> (setq a (cons b (cons c nil)) ;; setq a is a shorthand for set a
(b c)
> (setq v (list john 34 25))
(john 34 25)
> (setq v (list a 34 25))
((b c) 34 25)
> (append (1 2) (2 3))
(1 2 2 3)
CS 2740 Knowledge Representation
M. Hauskrecht
LISP tutorial
List copying
> (setq foo (list 'a 'b 'c))
(a b c)
> (setq bar (cons 'x (cdr foo)))
(x b c)
> foo
(a b c) ;; (cdr foo) makes a copy of the remaining list before
cons
> bar
(x b c)
Car and cdr operations are nondestructive.
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CS 2740 Knowledge Representation
M. Hauskrecht
LISP tutorial: lists
> (setq bar (a b c))
(a b c)
> (setq foo (cdr bar))
(b c)
> (rplaca foo u) ;; replaces car component of foo (destructive op)
(u c)
> foo
(u c)
> bar
(a u c)
> (rplacd foo (v)) ;; replaces cdr component of foo (destructive)
(u v)
> bar
(a u v)
CS 2740 Knowledge Representation
M. Hauskrecht
LISP tutorial
The same effect as with rplaca and rplacd can be achieved
with setf
> (setq bar (a b c))
(a b c)
> (setq foo (cdr bar))
(b c)
> (setf (cadr bar) u)
u
> bar
(a u c)
> foo
(u c)
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CS 2740 Knowledge Representation
M. Hauskrecht
LISP tutorial
Evaluation rules:
A symbol value is sought and substituted
A quoted value is kept untouched
> (setq a 12)
12
> (setq b (+ a 4))
16
> (setq b (+ a 4))
(+ a 4)
> (eval b) ;; explicit evaluation call
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CS 2740 Knowledge Representation
M. Hauskrecht
LISP tutorial: functions and predicates
Some useful functions and predicates:
> (setq a (1 2 3 4 5))
(1 2 3 4 5)
> (length a) ;; gives the list length of the argument
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> (atom a) ;; checks if the argument is an atom
T
> (atom a)
NIL
> (listp a) ;; checks if the argument is a list
NIL
> (listp a)
T
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CS 2740 Knowledge Representation
M. Hauskrecht
LISP tutorial: function definition
Definition of a function
(defun <f-name> <parameter-list> <body>)
>(defun square (x)
(* x x))
SQUARE
>(square 2)
4
>(square (square 2))
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CS 2740 Knowledge Representation
M. Hauskrecht
LISP tutorial
Definition of a function
(defun <f-name> <parameter-list> <body>)
<body> can be a sequence of function calls, the function returns
the value of the last call in the sequence
> (defun foo (a)
(setq b (+ a 1))
(setq c (+ a 2))
c)
FOO
> (foo 2)
4
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CS 2740 Knowledge Representation
M. Hauskrecht
LISP tutorial: conditionals
Cond statement: sequentially tests conditions, the call
associated with the first true condition is executed
> (defun abs (a)
(cond ((> a 0) a)
(t (- a))))
ABS
> (abs 2)
2
> (abs -3)
3
CS 2740 Knowledge Representation
M. Hauskrecht
LISP tutorial
if statement:
(if <test> <then> <else>)
> (defun abs (a)
(if (> a 0) a (- a)))
ABS
> (abs 2)
2
> (abs -3)
3
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CS 2740 Knowledge Representation
M. Hauskrecht
LISP tutorial: equality
4 equality predicates: =, equal, eq, eql
> (= 2 4/2) ;; used for numerical values only
T
> (setf a '(1 2 3 4))
(1 2 3 4)
>(setf b '(1 2 3 4))
(1 2 3 4)
>(setf c b)
(1 2 3 4)
> (equal a b) ;; equal is true if the two objects are isomorphic
T
> (equal c b)
T
CS 2740 Knowledge Representation
M. Hauskrecht
LISP tutorial: equalities
>(eq a b) ;; eq is true if the two arguments point to the
same object
NIL
>(eq b c)
T
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CS 2740 Knowledge Representation
M. Hauskrecht
LISP tutorial: nil
Nil represents False and an empty list
> (null nil) ;; tests if the argument is NIL
T
> (null ( ))
T
> (null (a b))
NIL
> (not (a b))
NIL
CS 2740 Knowledge Representation
M. Hauskrecht
LISP tutorial: functions
Logical operators: and, or
> (and NIL T)
NIL
> (and T 2 3)
3
> (or nil (= 5 4))
NIL
> (or nil 5)
5
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CS 2740 Knowledge Representation
M. Hauskrecht
LISP tutorial: recursion
Recursive function definitions are very common in LISP
> (defun factorial (num)
(cond ((<= num 0) 1)
(t (* (factorial (- num 1)) num))
))
FACTORIAL
> (factorial 4)
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CS 2740 Knowledge Representation
M. Hauskrecht
LISP tutorial: recursion
Recursive function definitions are very common in LISP
> (defun check_lists (lis)
(cond ((null lis) nil)
(t (cons (listp (car lis)) (check_lists (cdr lis))))))
CHECK_LISTS
> (check_lists (list a (1 2) 3 (a b c) (a)))
(NIL T NIL T T)
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CS 2740 Knowledge Representation
M. Hauskrecht
LISP tutorial: local and global variables
> (setq a 12)
12
> (defun foo (n)
(setq a 14)
(+ n 2))
FOO
> a
12
> (foo 3)
5
> a
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CS 2740 Knowledge Representation
M. Hauskrecht
LISP tutorial: local variables
Defining local variables with let
> (setq a 7) ;store a number as the value of a symbol
7
> a ;take the value of a symbol
7
> (let ((a 1)) a) ;binds the value of a symbol temporarily to 6
1
> a ;the value is 7 again once the let is finished
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> b ;try to take the value of a symbol which has no value
Error: Attempt to take the value of the unbound symbol B
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CS 2740 Knowledge Representation
M. Hauskrecht
LISP tutorial: local variables
Defining local variables with let and let*
> (let ((a 5) ;; binds vars to values locally
(b 4))
(+ a b))
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> (let* ((a 5) ;; binds vars sequentially
(b (+ a 2))
(+ a b))
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CS 2740 Knowledge Representation
M. Hauskrecht
LISP tutorial: functions revisited
Standard function all parameters defined
(defun fact (x)
(if (> x 0)
(* x (fact (- x 1)))
1))
But it is possible to define functions:
with variable number of parameters,
optional parameters and
keyword-based parameters
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CS 2740 Knowledge Representation
M. Hauskrecht
LISP tutorial: functions revisited
Functions with optional parameters
> (defun bar (x &optional y) (if y x 0))
BAR
> (defun baaz (&optional (x 3) (z 10)) (+ x z))
BAAZ
> (bar 5)
0
> (bar 5 t)
5
> (baaz)
13
> (baaz 5 6)
11
> (baaz 5)
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CS 2740 Knowledge Representation
M. Hauskrecht
LISP tutorial: functions revisited
Functions with variable number of parameters
> (defun foo (x &rest y) y) ;; all but the first parameters are put
;; into a list
FOO
> (foo 3)
NIL
> (foo 1 2 3)
(2 3)
> (foo 1 2 3 4 5)
(2 3 4 5)
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CS 2740 Knowledge Representation
M. Hauskrecht
LISP tutorial: functions revisited
Functions with keyword parameters
> (defun foo (&key x y) (cons x y))
FOO
> (foo :x 5 :y (3))
(5 3)
> (foo :y (3) :x 5)
(5 3)
> (foo :y 3)
(NIL 3)
> (foo)
(NIL)
CS 2740 Knowledge Representation
M. Hauskrecht
LISP tutorial: arrays
List is a basic structure; but arrays and structures are
supported
> (setf a (make-array (3 2)) ;; make a 3 by 2 array
#2a((NIL NIL) (NIL NIL) (NIL NIL))
> (aref a 1 1)
NIL
> (setf (aref a 1 1) 2)
2
> (aref a 1 1)
2
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CS 2740 Knowledge Representation
M. Hauskrecht
LISP tutorial: structures
>(defstruct weather
temperature
rain
pressure)
WEATHER
> (setf a (make-weather)) ;; make a structure
#s(WEATHER :TEMPERATURE NIL :RAIN NIL :PRESSURE NIL)
> (setf a (make-weather :temperature 35))
#s(WEATHER :TEMPERATURE 35 :RAIN NIL :PRESSURE NIL)
> (weather-temperature a) ;; access a field
35
> (weather-rain a)
NIL
> (setf (weather-rain a) T) ;; set the value of a field
T
> (weather-rain a)
T
CS 2740 Knowledge Representation
M. Hauskrecht
LISP tutorial: iterations
Many ways to define iterations
Commands:
loop
dolist
dotimes
do, do*
Also we can write compactly the code for repeated
application of function to elements of the list:
mapc, mapcar
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CS 2740 Knowledge Representation
M. Hauskrecht
LISP tutorial: iterations
Iterations: loop
> (setq a 4)
4
> (loop (setq a (+ a 1))
(when (> a 7) (return a))) ;; return exists the loop
8
> (loop (setq a (- a 1))
(when (< a 3) (return)))
NIL
CS 2740 Knowledge Representation
M. Hauskrecht
LISP tutorial: iterations
Iterations: dolist
> (dolist (x '(1 2 3 4)) (print x))
1
2
3
4
NIL ;; NIL is returned by dolist
>
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CS 2740 Knowledge Representation
M. Hauskrecht
LISP tutorial: iterations
Iterations: dotimes
> (dotimes (i 4) (print i)) ;; starts from 0 and continues till
limit 4
0
1
2
3
4
NIL ;; returns NIL
CS 2740 Knowledge Representation
M. Hauskrecht
LISP tutorial: iterations
Iterations: do
> (do ((x 1 (+ x 1)) ;; variable, initial value, next cycle update
(y 1 (* y 2))) ;; the same
((> x 5) y) ;; end condition, value do returns
(print (list x y)) ;; body of do a sequence of operations
(print next))
(1 1)
NEXT
(2 2)
NEXT
(3 4)
NEXT
(4 8)
NEXT
(5 16)
NEXT
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CS 2740 Knowledge Representation
M. Hauskrecht
LISP tutorial: iterations
Iterations: do *
> (do* ((x 1 (+ x 1)) ;; variable, initial value, next cycle update
(y 1 (* x 2))) ;; <<< --- update based on x
((> x 5) y) ;; end condition, value do returns
(print (list x y)) ;; body of do a sequence of operations
(print next))
(1 1)
NEXT
(2 4)
NEXT
(3 6)
NEXT
(4 8)
NEXT
(5 10)
NEXT
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CS 2740 Knowledge Representation
M. Hauskrecht
LISP tutorial: mapcar
Repeated application of a function to elements of the list
> (mapcar #oddp (1 2 3 4 5)) ;; named function
(T NIL T NIL T)
> (mapcar #(lambda(x) (* x x)) (1 2 3 4 5)) ;;temp function
(1 4 9 16 25)
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CS 2740 Knowledge Representation
M. Hauskrecht
LISP tutorial
Evals and function calls
A piece of code can be built, manipulated as data
What if we want to execute it?
> (setq b (+ a 4))
(+ a 4)
> (eval b) ;; explicit evaluation call
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> (funcall #+ 2 4) ;; calls a function with args
6
> (apply #+ 2 (5 6)) ;; calls a function with args
(last args as a list)
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CS 2740 Knowledge Representation
M. Hauskrecht
LISP tutorial: input/output
You can input/output data to:
standard input/output,
string or
file
A number of functions supported by the Lisp:
(read) ;; reads the input from the standard input
(print a) ;; prints to the standard output
(scanf ) (printf ) (format ) for formatted input and output
(open ..) (close ..) for opening and closing the files
(load ..) reads and executes the file
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CS 2740 Knowledge Representation
M. Hauskrecht
LISP tutorial: program calls
Assume you have your lisp code ready in the .lisp file
This is how you load it
(load "~/private/lsp/file-to-load.lisp")
and you can call another load from it as well
CS 2740 Knowledge Representation
M. Hauskrecht
Running LISP for CS Students
Remotely login via ssh to elements.cs.pitt.edu
LISP is installed in the following directory:
/usr/local/contrib/cmucl-19d/
You can run lisp from linux by typing /usr/local/contrib/cmucl-
19d/bin/lisp
You may want to provide a path to the lisp directory so that the
executable is seen from anywhere
To do this, edit your .cshrc.custom file under your home
directory and add the following line:
set path = ($path /usr/local/contrib/cmucl-19d/bin)
Use the command (quit) to quit LISP
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CS 2740 Knowledge Representation
M. Hauskrecht
Running LISP for Non-CS Students
Remotely login via ssh to unixs.cis.pitt.edu
LISP is installed in the following directory: /usr/pitt/franz-lisp/
You can run lisp from unix by typing: /usr/pitt/franz-lisp/mlisp
You may want to provide a path to the lisp directory so that the
executable is seen from anywhere
To do this, edit your .cshrc file under your home directory and add the
following line:
set path = ($path /usr/pitt/franz-lisp)
If .cshrc is read-only, then add write permission with the
command: chmod u+w .cshrc
Use the command (exit) to quit LISP