Description

of
Sample Problems






Introduction
to
Features in LS-DYNA

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LS-DYNA Description of Sample Problems
1.
Description of Sample Problems
This document is an introduction to some of the features of LS-DYNA. New features are
being constantly developed and added to LS-DYNA, and many of the newer capabilities are not
described in this document. If the following problems are taken as a starting point, the
incorporation of improved shell elements, different material models, and other new features can
be approached in a step-by-step procedure with a high degree of confidence.
The following ten sample problems are given for your introduction to LS-DYNA:
Sample 1: Bar Impacting a Rigid Wall
Sample 2: Impact of a Cylinder into a Rail
Sample 3: Impact of Two Elastic Solids
Sample 4: Square Plate Impacted by a Rod
Sample 5: Box Beam Buckling
Sample 6: Space Frame Impact
Sample 7: Thin Beam Subjected to an Impact
Sample 8: Impact on a Cylindrical Shell
Sample 9: Simply Supported Flat Plate
Sample 10: Hourglassing of Simply Supported Plate
Once completing a review of this document, it is highly recommended that you proceed to
the LS-DYNA3D Keyword Manual as the next step for additional understanding of the features
of LS-DYNA.
Description of Sample Problems LS-DYNA
2.
Sample 1: Bar Impacting a Rigid Wall
Sample 1 simulates a cylindrical bar (3.24 centimeters in length) with a radius of 0.32
centimeters impacting a rigid wall at a right angle (normal impact). The finite element model has
three planes of symmetry. The first two planes correspond to the x-z and y-z surfaces (see Figure
1 for finite element mesh). These two symmetry planes yield a quarter section model which
reduces the number of elements by a factor of four over a full model with no loss in accuracy.
Eight-node continuum brick elements are used.
Figure 1. Sample 1 mesh.
The third symmetry plane corresponds to the front x-y surface of the mesh, and simulates
a rigid wall. This could have been modeled using either a rigid wall or sliding surface definitions
at greater CPU cost.
A bilinear elastic/plastic material model (model 3) was used with the properties of copper.
Isotropic strain hardening is included. The material properties used are summarized in Table 1.
The bar is given an initial velocity of 2.27x10
-2
centimeters/microseconds in the negative
z-direction. View the time sequence of the deforming mesh. Also, view the contour deformation
time sequence in the z-direction. The displacement response shows a total z-displacement of
-1.087 centimeters. Thus the final length of the 3.24 centimeters long bar is 2.15 centimeters.
LS-DYNA Description of Sample Problems
3.
Material Model 3
Density (g/cm
3
) 8.93
Elastic Modulus (g/sec
2
cm) 1.17
Tangent Modulus (g/sec
2
cm) 1.0x10
-3
Yield Strength (g/sec
2
cm) 4.0x10
-3
Poissons Ratio 0.33
Hardening Parameter 1.0
Table 1. Material properties.
View the time sequence of the deforming mesh with contours of effective plastic strain.
Note that the boundary of plastic deformation moves up the bar in time. Also note the extreme
plastic strain near the impact surface. The model predicts a maximum plastic strain of almost
300% in this localized region.
Description of Sample Problems LS-DYNA
4.
Sample 2: Impact of a Cylinder into a Rail
Sample 2 models a hollow circular cylinder impacting a rigid rail in the radial direction.
The cylinder is 9 inches in diameter by 12 inches long with a 1/4 inch wall thickness. A rigid
ring is added to each end to increase stiffness and mass. The cylinder is given an initial velocity
of 660 inches/second toward the rail.
One quarter of the cylinder was modeled using two planes of symmetry. Figure 2 shows
the finite element mesh. The first plane of symmetry is the x-y plane on the right side of the
mesh. The second plane of symmetry is the y-z plane. The rail is modeled using a stonewall
plane on the top surface. The other surfaces of the rail are added for graphic display clarity and
serve no other purpose. Approximately 70 nodes on the cylinder in the vicinity of the rail are
slaved to the stonewall.
Figure 2. Sample 2 mesh.
The cylinder model has three brick elements through the wall thickness. This is the
minimum number required to capture bending stresses with plasticity. Note the higher element
density in the vicinity of the rail. The modeler anticipated that this region would undergo the
most deformation and decreased element density away from the rail to minimize the cost of the
analysis.
LS-DYNA Description of Sample Problems
5.
The cylinder uses an isotropic elastic/plastic material model (model 12) with the elastic
perfectly plastic material properties of steel. The rigid support ring on the end of the cylinder
uses material model 1, to represent a perfectly elastic material with twice the stiffness of steel.
The density of this material is approximately 20 times that of steel. Table 2 gives a summary of
the material properties.
Steel cylinder Added mass
Material Model 12 1
Density (lb-sec
2
/in
4
) 7.346x10
-4
1.473x10
-2
Shear Modulus (lb/in
2
) 1.133x10
5
N/A
Yield Strength (lb/in
2
) 1.90x10
5
N/A
Hardening Modulus (lb/in
2
) 0.0 N/A
Bulk Modulus (lb/in
2
) 2.4x10
7
N/A
Elastic Modulus (lb/in
2
) N/A 60x10
6
Table 2. Material properties.
View the time sequence of the deforming mesh. View the time history of the rigid body
displacement (node 4987) of the support ring in the y-direction. A maximum displacement of
-1.77 inches occurs at 4.6 milliseconds, after which the structure loses its elastic strain energy
and rebounds upward.
View the time history of the difference in nodal displacements (y-direction) between
nodes 205 and 860. Node 205 is located on the outside surface of the cylinder near the center of
the rail. Node 860 is located on the outside of the cylinder near the lower end of the support ring.
The difference between the y-displacements of these nodes is a measure of the depth of the dent
in the cylinder. It is seen that there is a maximum relative displacement of 1.70 inches which
then stabilizes to a 1.51 inch dent after the elastic strain energy is recovered. Experimental
measurements recorded a maximum residual dent of 1.44 inches. The post-peak oscillations are
due to elastic vibration of the cylinder about its deformed shape.
View the contours of effective plastic strain after the impact (t = 6.4 milliseconds). Most
of the contours shown represent less than 17% plastic strain. Some very localized plastic strain
of up to 29% is predicted on the outer surface at the center of the rail.
Description of Sample Problems LS-DYNA
6.
Sample 3: Impact of Two Elastic Solids
Sample 3 investigates the uniaxial strain wave propagation developed by two elastic solids
under normal impact. The finite element mesh (see Figure 3) is a column of 100 brick elements
arranged as a one-dimensional bar. The cross-section is square, one unit of length by one unit of
length with one element in each of the sectional directions. At the mid-length section the model
is separated by a sliding with voids (type 3) slide surface which divides the bar into two pieces.
Figure 3. Sample 3 mesh.
All nodal translational displacements are constrained in both the y and z directions, thus
only allowing translation in the x, or "length-wise," direction. This generates a uniaxial strain
state within the bar to represent the behavior of two impacting half spaces The left half of the
model is given an initial x-velocity of 0.1 length/time, while the right half is initially at rest.
The dynamics resulting from this collision are best seen by examining kinematic response
time histories of each of the two pieces of the model. The left piece begins with node 205
(leftmost end) and ends with node 405 (rightmost end). The right piece begins with node 1
(leftmost end) and ends with node 201 (rightmost end).
View the x-velocity time history of nodes 405 and 1. Node 405 (left piece) impacts node
1 (right piece) in a very short time. The initial shock from the impact has a rise time of
approximately 0.10 time units. During this time node 405 decelerates and node 1 accelerates
LS-DYNA Description of Sample Problems
7.
until a common velocity is attained. This common velocity is maintained as the strain wave
travels down each section of the bar. The strain wave in the left piece propagates from negative
x-direction, reflects off the free end and comes back towards the interface of the two pieces
traveling a distance equal to the length of the whole bar or twice the length of each piece. The
strain wave in the right piece travels from left to right and then returns back to the interface. The
time needed for the strain wave to propagate to the free surface, reflect, and propagate back to the
interface is approximately 1.0 time units. The wave velocity c in an elastic solid can be
approximated by
c = sqrt[(+2G)/] = sqrt(E/) for = 0.0
where is Lames first constant, E is the elastic modulus, G is the shear modulus, is the mass
density, and is Poissons ratio. The elastic material model specifies that E = 100 and = 0.01,
yielding a strain wave velocity of 100 (length/time). The time required for the strain wave to
travel a distance L is given by
t = L/c
In the present example, L = 100 and c = 100, thus the time required for each of the two strain
waves to travel the length of each piece and reflect back is 1 unit of time. This agrees well with
the LS-DYNA analysis results.
The two halves of the bar separate when the reflected strain waves reach the interface.
The left piece loses its kinetic energy to the right piece. As can be seen in the velocity plot, the
system is conservative since the right piece gains all of the velocity lost by the left piece due to
their equal masses.
Also of interest is the overshoot in velocity seen when the two pieces first impact. This is
partially due to the penalty formulation of the slide surface, and partially due to the finite spatial
discretization and sharp strain wave front. This effect is damped out quite rapidly and could be
made as small as desired through mesh refinement.
View the x-displacement time histories of nodes 405 and 1. Also view the x-velocity time
histories of nodes 205 and 405, and the x-velocity time histories of nodes 1 and 201.
View the difference in nodal displacements (x-direction) between nodes 1 and 405. This
quantity can be interpreted as the gap between the two pieces. During the collision when the two
pieces are mated, the gap distance is shown to be a small negative quantity. Of course, a physical
distance cannot be negative, and in fact should be zero in this case. This type of response is
typical of penalty-type slide surfaces in contact, and should not be cause for concern. This
Description of Sample Problems LS-DYNA
8.
negative gap can be decreased by increasing the penalty scale factor in LS-DYNA. Increasing the
penalty parameter over the default value can decrease the maximum allowable time step,
requiring the user to input a "time step scale factor" < 1.0 and thus increasing the cost of the
calculation. This may result in a larger amplitude on the overshoot discussed above. Depending
on the particular application, it is often best to accept a small amount of overlap or negative gap
when using slide surfaces instead of using too high of a penalty parameter. The default penalty
parameter has proven an effective choice for a wide range of applications.
LS-DYNA Description of Sample Problems
9.
Sample 4: Square Plate Impacted by a Rod
Sample 4 simulates a solid rod, 4 centimeters in radius by 25 centimeters long, impacting
a 62 centimeter by 62 centimeter square plate in the center. The plate is supported near the edges
by a plate frame that elevates the main plate 5 centimeters from the reference ground. The main
plate is 0.79 centimeter thick and the plate frame 0.5 centimeter thick. Both parts are modeled
using four-node Belytschko-Tsay shell elements. Figure 4 shows the finite element mesh of the
model. Table 4 lists the material properties of the rod, main plate and plate frame respectively.
Figure 4. Sample 4 mesh.
The impacting rod is given a rigid material model with eight node brick elements and an
initial velocity of 1.8x10
-3
centimeters/microsecond (18 meters/second) into the center of the
main plate which is initially at rest. The elastic modulus specified for the rigid material is used
only for slide surface calculations. Quarter symmetry boundary conditions were used on the rod.
The main plate is modeled using quarter symmetry boundary conditions. Quadrilateral
shell elements are used with an elastic/plastic material model. Both the rod and main plate are
given symmetric boundary conditions on the x-z and y-z surfaces to utilize the symmetries of the
problem and hence reduce the number of elements by a factor of four.
Description of Sample Problems LS-DYNA
10.
Rod
Material Model 20
Density (g/cm
3
) 1.9218x10
1
Elastic Modulus (g/sec
2
cm) 2.1
Poissons Ratio 0.0
Main plate
Material Model 3
Density (g/cm
3
) 7.85
Elastic Modulus (g/sec
2
cm) 2.1
Tangent Modulus (g/sec
2
cm) 1.24x10
-2
Yield Strength (g/sec
2
cm) 4.0x10
-3
Hardening Parameter 1.0
Poissons Ratio 0.3
Plate frame
Material Model 3
Density (g/cm
3
) 7.85
Elastic Modulus (g/sec
2
cm) 2.1
Tangent Modulus (g/sec
2
cm) 1.24x10
-2
Yield Strength (g/sec
2
cm) 2.15x10
-3
Hardening Parameter 1.0
Poissons Ratio 0.3
Table 4. Material properties.
A sliding with voids (type 3) slide surface is defined between the rod and the center of the
main plate as previously mentioned. This allows the rod to impart loads and deformations onto
the plate without node penetration.
The nodes of the innermost 4 square centimeters of the quarter model of the plate are
slaved to the bottom end of the rod which acts as the master surface for the slide surface
definition. By limiting the slave region as mentioned, the computation time can be greatly
reduced. The vertical support plates are attached 25 centimeters out from the center of the target
plate. The nodes of the support plates are merged with the nodes of the main plate, thus
simulating a welded union between the main plate and support plates.
LS-DYNA Description of Sample Problems
11.
View the time sequence of the rod impacting the plate. The sequence lasts for 1x10
4
microseconds. Note that the rod begins rebounding from the plate, reversing its velocity near t =
3x10
3
microseconds. This event is more clearly seen in the time history velocity plot
(z-direction) of nodes 1 and 4970. Node 1 corresponds to the front left node of the main plate,
node 4970 corresponds to the lower center node of the rod. One can see that in the early and later
stages of the impact the plate oscillates relative to the rod.
View the corresponding z-displacement of the rod (node 4970) and plate (node 1). The
maximum deflection occurs at 3x10
3
microseconds after which both the plate and rod rebound
back. At t = 4.5x10
3
microseconds the plate oscillates about its final deflection of approximately
2.5 centimeters and the rod rebounds at a velocity of 7.3 meters/second in the positive
z-direction. The initial and final kinetic energies of the rod are 0.97 kiloJoules and 0.16
kiloJoules, respectively. Thus, the rod lost approximately 85% of its energy to the plastic
deformation and motion of the target plate.
View the gap (difference in z-displacement of nodes 4970 and 1) between the rod and the
plate as a function of time. Note the positive finite gap of 0.1 centimeter during the simulated
contact. This is due to the measured displacements being on the rod centerline, and the target
plate cupping below the centerline of the rod. Contact is maintained between the outer edge of
the rod and the plate until separation. This cupping phenomenon is frequently observed
experimentally and is accurately predicted by LS-DYNA.
View the contours of z-displacement of the main plate at t = 1x10
4
microseconds. Note
that even though the simulation is terminated at t = 1x10
4
microseconds the plate is still
responding dynamically i.e., it has not yet reached static equilibrium. View the contours of
effective plastic strain (mid-surface) in the main plate at t = 1x10
4
microseconds. The majority
of the plastic strain occurs in the vicinity of the impact, with a small zone along the 45 diagonal
of the plate due to strain wave focusing effects. View the contours of effective stress (maximum)
in the target plate. Many of the contours represent the effects of transient strain waves in the
plate at this time.
Overall, this model is a good example of the robust dynamic impact capabilities of
LS-DYNA.
Description of Sample Problems LS-DYNA
12.
Sample 5: Box Beam Buckling
Sample 5 investigates the buckling of a slender beam. The beam, made of 0.06 inch thick
sheet metal, is 12 inches long and its cross-section measures 2.75 by 2.75 inches. A quarter
symmetric model is used in this analysis. The right 2 inches of the length of the beam is loaded
by a constant velocity field, which acts in a direction parallel to the beams longitudinal axis.
Figure 5 shows the finite element mesh used for this model. The mesh is composed of
1800 four node shell elements using three integration points through the thickness. The material
model used is bilinear elastic/plastic with isotopic hardening and the (model 3) material
properties of steel. A summary of the material properties is given in Table 5.
Figure 5. Sample 5 mesh.
Buckling is an unstable physical phenomena which complicates the development of a
realistic numeric model. Physically, buckling is sensitive to imperfections in a structure, which
must be incorporated in some way into the numerical model to obtain meaningful results. This
model uses a carefully constructed mesh incorporating nodal displacement constraints for quarter
symmetry, slide surfaces to prevent element interpenetration, and initial displacements to model
geometric imperfections. The mesh uses 900 elements for each side of the quarter sector, 10
elements for the flange width and 90 elements for the flange length.
LS-DYNA Description of Sample Problems
13.
Material Model 3
Density (lb-sec
2
/in
4
) 7.1x10
-4
Elastic Modulus (lb/in
2
) 3.0x10
7
Tangent Modulus (lb/in
2
) 6.0x10
4
Poissons Ratio 0.3
Yield Strength (lb/in
2
) 3.0x10
4
Hardening Parameter 1.0
Table 5. Material properties.
The nodes located at the left end of the model are given a completely fixed displacement
constraint to prevent rigid body motion when loaded. Note that the length of the part (z-axis) is
divided into two sections. The right section has all nodal displacements constrained with the
exception of z-translation. The right edge is given a prescribed constant velocity in the negative
z-direction of 273 inches/seconds. These two kinematic features of the right portion allow it to
act as rigid ram, causing the left portion into buckling.
The lower lengthwise edge has symmetry boundary conditions (nodal displacement
constraints in the translational y, rotational x and z directions). The upper lengthwise edge has
the translational x, rotational y and z displacements constrained. All internal nodes have no
displacement restrictions on the left portion of the part.
The most unstable stage of the buckling is the initiation of lateral deflection. This is
numerically stabilized in the model by using a small crease or initial displacement in the part at
the interface between the right and left portions. This crease starts the buckling in a
predetermined direction, thus eliminating the initial numeric instability. Physically, parts exhibit
buckling behavior that can, in some cases, be quite sensitive to initial imperfections.
The appropriate inclusion of initial imperfections is one of the most important modeling
choices in a buckling analysis.
View the sequential deformation of the model. Note that the box beam walls folds onto
itself in a distorted sinusoid pattern. To prevent the contacting surfaces from penetrating each
other a slide surface is defined. The particular slide surface used is the single surface contact
(type 4) slide surface. The key feature of this type of slide surface is that every node in the
definition is a slave to all other nodes. The advantage of using this type of slide surface lies in
the fact that any portion of the defined area can contact any other portion without undesirable
penetration. The disadvantage is that the computation time required for such a slide surface is
somewhat longer than for the other slide surfaces. Even though both the outside and inside
surfaces of the model may fold into contact, only one type 4 slide surface needs to be defined.
Description of Sample Problems LS-DYNA
14.
This surface is chosen to have normal vectors pointing toward the center or longitudinal axis of
the box beam, although outward normal vectors would yield the same solution.
In the single surface contact algorithm, every segment in the definition must check every
other segment in the definition for penetration. Thus, computation time increases greatly with
the number of segments in the definition. When using this type of slide surface, extra time spent
by the analyst in reducing the number of segments in the definition will substantially reduce
computation time and hence cost.
Many times the modeler can use engineering intuition to eliminate areas from the slide
surface definition that will not contact other areas. A few such examples can be found in this
model. The right portion used as the ram contains 300 elements, 200 of which do not contact any
other portion. These right 200 elements could therefore be excluded from the slide surface
definition without degrading the results. In the initial analysis, contact of these elements in the
vicinity of the buckle may have been questionable. However, if parameter studies were to be
conducted, these elements could be deleted from the slide surface definition for all subsequent
runs resulting in a substantial decrease in run time. Additionally, this right portion should not
contact the left 200 or 300 elements due to the imposed displacement constraints. Here, two or
three separate slide surface definitions could be used. By dividing the slide surface definition
into three parts (right, middle, and left), one could use the intuition that the right portion might
contact the middle but not the bottom portion and the middle portion may contact both the right
and left portions. Computation time could be saved by using a single surface contact definition
on the middle section while the right and left sections are separately slaved to the middle using a
less costly type of slide surface. The extent of the middle section would decrease with increased
intuition of the behavior. With the insight gained from this model one could probably limit the
slide surface definition to the middle section only.
Also of interest in this calculation is the use of four-node Belytschko-Tsay shell elements
with three integration points through the thickness. Three integration points is the minimum
number required to capture bending with plasticity. Purely elastic bending can be captured by
two points through the thickness due to the linear stress distribution. Of course, the more
integration points used the larger the computation time, with increased accuracy in capturing a
complex stress distribution through the thickness.
This part could have been modeled using eight node brick elements. Since brick elements
have only one integration point, they would have to be layered at least three deep to capture a
stress distribution due to bending, thus substantially increasing the number of elements needed.
Another consideration is the ratio of maximum to minimum lengths of the three sides of a brick
element. This aspect ratio is best kept less than four for reliable accuracy. Using three elements
through the thickness for a given plate thickness will thus severely reduce the in-plane
LS-DYNA Description of Sample Problems
15.
dimensions of the element, hence requiring a very large number of small elements to be used.
The formulation of the shell element does not constrain the in-plane dimensions of the element
regardless of the thickness, except that the thickness must be sufficiently small that shell theory is
applicable. Thus, for problems where the stress gradients through the thickness are small relative
to the in-plane stress gradients, as is the case in thin shells and membranes, the shell clement will
permit fewer elements to be used when compared to brick elements. Also worth noting is the fact
that a three node Belytschko-Tsay shell element with three integration points through the
thickness is only slightly higher in CPU cost than an eight node brick clement which has one
integration point.
Another advantage of the shell clement is the time step computed by LS-DYNA. For the
brick clement, the time step has a linear dependence on the minimum side length, which in the
present case would be the thickness. The time step computed for the shell clement has a much
weaker dependence on the thickness, thus allowing larger time steps to be used for a given
element thickness. If wave propagation through the thickness of the structure is not of major
concern, then the shell element can be used with greater efficiency and substantial savings in cost
over a comparable model with brick elements.
Overall, this problem is an excellent example of the non-linear buckling simulation
capabilities of LS-DYNA. View the z-displacement contour of the model after buckling (t =
1.72x10
-2
seconds). The right or ram portion of the model has displaced almost 40% the original
height of 12 inches with realistic deformation.
Description of Sample Problems LS-DYNA
16.
Sample 6: Space Frame Impact
Sample 6 models the impact of a rigid mass onto a thin plate supported by a space frame.
Figure 6 shows the quarter symmetry finite element mesh. The lower portion is a space frame 2
inches in diameter and 2 inches tall, composed of beam elements. Rigidly connected to the top of
the space frame is a thin plate. A 5 pound mass, initially 0.2 inches above the plate, is given an
initial velocity of 1000 inches/second towards the plate.
Figure 6. Sample 6 mesh.
The space frame is constructed with three main components. The first component is the
lower ring. This uses 3 Belytschko-Schwer beam elements for the quarter model. The end nodes
of each element are given fixed boundary conditions, hence these elements experience no loads
and are for visual effect only. The second component is the upper ring, also composed of three
beam elements. The end nodes of these beam elements are merged to the local nodes of the plate,
thus receiving both translational and rotational stiffness from the plate. The third component of
the space frame is the vertical columns connecting the lower and upper rings. Each column has
ten elements in order to capture the anticipated bending. These columns are not perfectly straight
but are slightly bowed out at midspan. This geometric feature was incorporated as a perturbation
to help initiate and numerically stabilize the buckling behavior. The beam elements have the
LS-DYNA Description of Sample Problems
17.
cross-sectional properties of a 1/4 inch solid cylindrical rod. The material properties of all parts
are given in Table 6.
Beam Elements
Material Model 3
Density (lb-sec
2
/in
4
) 2.77x10
-4
Elastic Modulus (lb/in
2
) 3.0x10
7
Tangent Modulus (lb/in
2
) 3.0x10
4
Poissons Ratio 0.3
Yield Strength (lb/in
2
) 5.0x10
4
Hardening Parameter 1.0
Impacting Mass
Material Model 1
Density (lb-sec
2
/in
4
) 2.77x10
-3
Elastic Modulus (lb/in
2
) 3.0x10
8
Poissons Ratio 0.3
Plate
Material Model 1
Density (lb-sec
2
/in
4
) 2.77x10
-4
Elastic Modulus (lb/in
2
) 3.0x10
7
Poissons Ratio 0.3
Table 6. Material properties.
The plate is circular with a 1 inch inner diameter, a 3 inch outer diameter, and 1/4 inch
thickness. The impacting mass is a 1.8 inch long thick tube. The inner and outer diameters
match that of the plate. The mass is constructed of brick elements and given a very stiff elastic
material model. All nodes of this part have constrained translational degrees of freedom in the x
and y directions. A sliding with voids (type 3) slide surface is defined between the mass and the
plate to prevent node penetration between the two parts.
View the time sequence of the deforming mesh. Contact between the mass and the plate
is made at time 2.0x10
-4
seconds, after which the columns of the space frame begin to buckle.
All columns buckle outward due to the geometric perturbation.
Description of Sample Problems LS-DYNA
18.
View the time history of node 54 z-displacement, which is located on the plate near the
upper end of one of the space frame columns. Since the deformations are symmetric and the
plate quite rigid, this can be interpreted as the vertical deflection of the columns. Deflection
begins at 2.0x10
-4
seconds and reaches a maximum of 0.159 inches or 8% of the column length
at 5.8x10
-4
seconds. The columns regain a small portion of the deformation and oscillate about
the 0.156 inch permanent vertical deflection imparted by the impact. It is apparent from the time
history plot of node 54 that most of the deformation is plastic.
View the contours of effective stress on the plate at the time of maximum deflection (t =
5.8x10
-4
seconds). The regions of highest stress occur were the columns attach to the plate.
LS-DYNA Description of Sample Problems
19.
Sample 7: Thin Beam Subjected to an Impact
Sample 7 models a thin rectangular beam 0.6 inches wide by 10 inches long with a
thickness of 0.125 inches. Symmetry is used about the plane in the center of the span thus
reducing the number of elements by one half. Figure 7 shows the finite element mesh. The end
boundary condition is fixed with the displacements on the x-z surfaces constrained in the
y-direction.
Figure 7. Sample 7 mesh.
Ten four-node shell elements are used, with five evenly spaced integration points through
the thickness (trapezoidal integration). Using the trapezoidal integration option with three or
more points in odd increments allows the surface and mid-plane stresses and strains to be
captured exactly, as opposed to using Gauss quadrature which requires these stresses and strains
to be extrapolated or interpolated. The shell elements are given the elastic/perfectly plastic
material properties of 6061-T6 aluminum using material model 3 in LS-DYNA. These properties
are listed in Table 7.
The middle 2 inches of the ten inch span are given an initial velocity of 5,000
inches/second in the negative z-direction. The response is simulated for 2.0 milliseconds. View
the time sequence of the deforming mesh. View the kinematic responses (displacement and
velocity in z-direction) of node 19, which is at the center of the span. The simulated impact
Description of Sample Problems LS-DYNA
20.
produces a maximum deflection of 0.752 inches at the center. This deflection, more than six
times the shell thickness, is sufficient to make large deformation effects important in this
problem.
Material Model 3
Density (lb-sec
2
/in
4
) 2.61x10
-4
Elastic Modulus (lb/in
2
) 1.04x10
7
Tangent Modulus (lb/in
2
) 0.0
Poissons Ratio 0.33
Yield Strength (lb/in
2
) 4.14x10
4
Hardening Parameter 1.0
Table 7. Material properties.
The low frequency transverse structural vibration resulting from the impact can be seen
most clearly in the displacement response. Note that the center of the span is oscillating in time.
The period of oscillation is approximately 0.6 milliseconds. View the deformed mesh at 0.9
milliseconds and 1.4 milliseconds with the z-displacements amplified by a factor of 3. The
deformed mesh at 0.9 milliseconds has three troughs and four crests over the ten inch span. This
shape occurs again at 1.4 milliseconds which is in the second cycle of structural vibration. These
transverse waves propagate from the center of the span to the fixed ends where they are reflected
back towards the center for another cycle.
The deformed shapes in are characteristic of the third mode of vibration. Elastic
transverse vibration theory for a fixed end beam with similar stiffness and mass properties
predicts a third mode natural period of 0.7 milliseconds. Even though the model experiences
plastic strains, the elastic theory can be used for an approximate comparison. The first and
second modes are not distinguishable in the given time interval. Higher modes can be seen in the
velocity and acceleration responses but they are indistinguishable in the deformed geometry
plots, because their amplitudes are relatively smaller.
View the time sequence of the deforming mesh with contours of effective plastic strain for
the bottom surface, the mid-plane surface, and the top surface. The bending stresses add to the
membrane stresses at the bottom surface and subtract from the membrane stresses at top surface,
thus the bottom fibers suffer the most plastic strain. The membrane stresses appear to be
significantly larger than the compressive bending stresses on the top surface (layer 3) at the
center element.
LS-DYNA Description of Sample Problems
21.
Sample 8: Impact on a Cylindrical Shell
Sample 8 models a section of a circular cylindrical shell with a radius of 2.938 inches,
length of 12.56 inches, and thickness of 0.125 inches, subjected to an impact load that causes
large deformation in the radial direction. Figure 8 shows the finite element mesh used in this
model. Symmetry is used about the y-z plane by constraining the nodal x-displacements as well
as y and z rotations. The ends of the cylinder have the x and y displacements constrained while
the bottom edge has all displacements and rotations constrained.
Figure 8. Sample 8 mesh.
The elements used in the model are four-node Belytschko-Tsay shell elements with 5
gauss integration points through the thickness and the material properties of an elastic/perfectly
plastic 6061-T6 aluminum. Each element has a uniform thickness of 0.125 inches. A summary
of the material properties can be seen in Table 8.
An initial velocity of 5650 inches/second in the negative y-direction is given to 65 interior
nodes. The resulting deformation can be seen by viewing the time sequence of the deformed
mesh.
View the kinematic responses (displacement and velocity in y-direction) of node 8, which
is centrally located on the top of the shell. The maximum deflection of 1.27 inches occurs at
Description of Sample Problems LS-DYNA
22.
0.425 milliseconds in the 1.0 millisecond simulation. All plots show structural vibration as a
result of the impact. The lowest mode appears to have a period of approximately 0.7
milliseconds as seen in the displacement response. Higher modes can be found in the velocity
time history.
Material Model 3
Density (lb-sec
2
/in
4
) 2.50x10
-4
Elastic Modulus (lb/in
2
) 1.05x10
7
Hardening Modulus (lb/in
2
) 0.0
Poissons Ratio 0.33
Yield Strength (lb/in
2
) 4.4x10
4
Hardening Parameter 1.0
Table 8. Material properties.
View the contours of y-displacement at 1.0 millisecond. The deformed shape is
representative of a real impact on such a structure. View the contours of effective plastic strain
of the inner (layer 2), middle (layer 1), and outer (layer 3) integration points through the
thickness.
Note that the maximum effective plastic strain of 27.2% occurs on the inner surface at
node 96, and 21.3% on the outer surface at node 97, while the mid-surface maximum effective
plastic strain is less than 11.2% at node 96. This strain distribution is the result of both
membrane and bending stresses. These high strains occur near the lengthwise crease in the shell
(use profile feature of contour values to view sorted nodes). This model is a good example of the
use of four-node shell elements combined with an elastic/plastic material model to analyze a thin-
walled structure under impact loads.
LS-DYNA Description of Sample Problems
23.
Sample 9: Simply Supported Flat Plate
Sample 9 models the response of a simply supported flat plate subjected to a rapidly
applied uniform pressure load. The 10 inch by 10 inch, 1/2 inch thick plate is modeled using two
planes of symmetry: the x-z plane and the y-z plane as seen in Figure 9. A total of 16 elements
are used in the quarter model, each having five gauss integration points through the thickness.
Material model 3 (elastic/plastic) is used with the properties of a perfectly elastic aluminum (the
yield stress is set artificially high to prevent plasticity). A summary of the material properties is
shown in Table 9.
Figure 9. Sample 9 mesh.
Material Model 3
Density (lb-sec
2
/in
4
) 2.588x10
-4
Elastic Modulus (lb/in
2
) 1.0x10
7
Hardening Modulus (lb/in
2
) 0.0
Poissons Ratio 0.3
Yield Strength (lb/in
2
) 1.0x10
5
Hardening Parameter 1.0
Table 9. Material properties.
Description of Sample Problems LS-DYNA
24.
A uniform pressure load of 300 lb/in
2
is applied on the top surface instantaneously at time
zero and held constant for the entire 1.2 millisecond simulation. View the (z-direction)
displacement, velocity, and acceleration time histories of node 1, which is located at the center of
the plate (left corner of quarter model). The maximum deflection of 0.2201 inches in the
negative z-direction occurs at 0.535 milliseconds.
Now consider an approximate analytical estimate of the deflection. The equation below
expresses the maximum deflection of a square plate in terms of the uniform pressure load q, side
length a, flexural rigidity D, and semiempirical coefficient . This equation, derived from elastic
plate theory, assumes the plate consists of perfectly elastic, homogeneous, isotopic material with
uniform thickness which is small in comparison to the edge lengths. Deflections are assumed
small in comparison to the thickness as well as the load being static.
d = qa
4
/D
This equation predicts a maximum static deflection at the center of the plate of 0.11
inches for the given configuration. Dynamic load deflections in general amplify the static
deflection for a given load by an amount equal to the dynamic load factor. Such a load factor is
not easily calculated for a plate under large deflections, but a reasonable approximation is 2.0.
The LS-DYNA results agree well with the analytical estimate based on this assumed value of
dynamic load factor.
Also of interest is the natural free vibration frequency of the plate. Viewing the
displacement response indicates a fundamental period of 1.10 milliseconds (frequency of 909
Hz). The fundamental period of a square plate is expressed in terms of the side length a, flexural
rigidity D, mass density , and plate thickness t. The same assumptions that applied to the
deflection relationship above also apply here. This expression predicts a fundamental period of
1.07 milliseconds (frequency of 935 Hz). which is in excellent agreement with the LS-DYNA
results.
T = (a
2
/) sqrt(t/D)
View the time history plot of the stress
xx
in element 1, which is located at the center of
the plate and that which corresponds to the bottom or tension surface (layer 2) of the plate. The
response of the stress
yy
is identical due to symmetry. The peak stress occurs 0.035 milliseconds
prior to the maximum deflection with a value of 67,600 lb/in
2
. Using a maximum deflection of
0.22 inches in the deflection expression and solving for the load q gives 619 lb/in
2
. The
maximum stress
xx
,max in the plate is expressed in terms of the load q, side length a, thickness t,
LS-DYNA Description of Sample Problems
25.
and semiempirical coefficient . This expression is also based on elastic theory. Using a load of
619 lb/in
2
in the stress expression yields a maximum stress of 71,200 lb/in
2
, which agrees well
with the numerical analysis.

xx
,max = qa
2
/t
2
View the contour plot of the z-displacement at t = 0.535 milliseconds. The displaced
shape is in good agreement with analytical contour plots. View the
xx
contour plots for the
upper, middle, and lower quadrature points through the thickness at time equal 0.535
milliseconds.
Description of Sample Problems LS-DYNA
26.
Sample 10: Hourglassing of Simply Supported Plate
Sample 10 is an exact duplicate of sample 9 with the exception of the hourglass viscosity
coefficient value. Figure 10 shows two corner supported plates. The plate on the top has
undergone deformation with no appreciable hourglassing of the elements. The plate on the
bottom has experienced hourglassing of its elements in the so-called w-mode or eggcrate
mode, named for the alternate up and down displacements of the nodes. There are several other
modes of hourglassing that can occur, including both in-plane and out-of-plane modes. In
general, hourglassing involves the nodal deformations of finite elements that do not contribute to
the strain energy of the element.
Hourglass modes arise from the use of single point Gauss quadrature to evaluate integrals
appearing in the shell element formulation. It is necessary to use single point integration in an
explicit code like LS-DYNA, and therefore some techniques for stabilizing the spurious hourglass
modes must be implemented. LS-DYNA offers both viscous hourglass control (the default) and
stiffness hourglass control. The default parameters have been chosen to give acceptable
performance over a wide range of problems.
Hourglass modes tend to form over a time duration that is typically much shorter than the
time duration of the structural response, and they are often observed to be oscillatory. Hourglass
modes that are a stable kinematic component of the global deformation modes occur over a much
larger time frame and must be admissible. Therefore, LS-DYNA resists undesirable hourglassing
with viscous damping capable of stopping the formation of anomalous modes but having a
negligible affect on the stable global modes. Since the hourglass modes are orthogonal to the real
deformations, work done by hourglass resistance is neglected in the energy equation. This can
lead to a slight loss of energy, however, hourglass viscosity should always be used.
The default value for the hourglass coefficient is 0.10. The recommended range is 0.05 to 0.15.
These values apply equally to the shells and eight-node brick element. The values used in
samples 9 and 10 are 0.05 and 0.005 respectively. The QH entry in the hourglass data input is
used to specify this value when different from the default.
View the kinematic responses of the center node (node 1) of the plate. As a result of
reducing the hourglass coefficient an order of magnitude, the displacement of the center node has
increased slightly in amplitude. The maximum deflection of -0.2213 inches occurs at 0.535
milliseconds, compared to the maximum deflection of sample 9, -0.2201 inches, also occurring at
0.535 milliseconds. This node then rebounds, reaching a maximum positive deflection of 0.0031
inches. The response of sample 9 rebounded to 0.0003 inches. Both of the maximum rebound
deflections occur at 1.1 milliseconds. The difference is small (0.6%), and it is not apparent
which is more accurate.
LS-DYNA Description of Sample Problems
27.
Figure 10. Hourglassing of corner supported plate.
The velocity response of the center node (node 1) shows a similar amplitude increase.
Sample 10 with the lower hourglass coefficient shows a 2.6% larger amplitude then sample 9. A
3% increase in acceleration amplitude can be found in sample 10 when compared to sample 9.
View the bottom surface x-direction stress time history of the center element (layer 2 of element
1). A 0.7% increase in peak stress can be found in sample 10 response over sample 9.
Description of Sample Problems LS-DYNA
28.
Thus, although small, the damping effect of the hourglass coefficient can be seen,
especially in the velocity and acceleration responses. Note from the z-displacement and x-stress
contour plots that no hourglass modes are apparent. This example problem demonstrates the
more subtle aspects of hourglass control, i.e., the effect of hourglass control parameters on the
various response parameters as opposed to outright element hourglassing. As mentioned above,
the hourglass control is not intended to affect normal modes of deformation, but from this
example it is seen that it can. The difference in responses between sample 9 and sample 10 are
quite small. Any adjustment of this parameter is best left to the experienced user.