Running Head: READING COMPREHENSION

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Reading Comprehension Intervention Strategies


EDPS 656

By:
Leora Fisher
Wanda Chaulk
Stephanie Janzen
Vicki Pederson





















READING COMPREHENSION 2
According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders Fourth
Edition-Revision (DSM-IV-TR), the essential feature of a Reading Disorder is reading
achievement (i.e., reading accuracy, speed, or comprehension as measured by
individually administered standardized tests) that falls substantially below the expected
given the individuals chronological age, measured intelligence, and age-appropriate
education (DSM-IV-TR, 2007, p.51). The purpose of this paper is to provide a
description and a variety of evidence-based interventions for the specific domain of
reading comprehension.
Reading comprehension is a complex task that requires a reader to identify the
words in a text, comprehend the meaning of the words, use prior knowledge to connect
ideas, and retain the information long enough to understand what is being read (Wendling
& Mather, 2009). Many components of reading can influence a readers ability to
comprehend text, such as fluent word identification, vocabulary knowledge, prior
knowledge, or reasoning abilities. If a reader has difficulty quickly decoding or
recognizing words, then comprehension can suffer. If a reader can decode the word but
does not comprehend what the word means, comprehension is difficult. If a reader has
difficulty connecting ideas in the text with prior knowledge, then comprehension can be
compromised. Each of these skills is important, yet none guarantee that comprehension
will occur. Therefore, comprehension is a complex domain that relies on the integration
of multiple factors and difficulty in any one of these factors can affect understanding
what is being read (Wendling & Mather, 2009). When planning appropriate intervention
programs for a student who has difficulty with reading comprehension, it is important to
consider which factor may be causing difficulty for the reader.
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There are many ways to define reading comprehension. For instance the National
Reading Panel defines it as being "an active problem solving process in which readers
relate the ideas in the text to their own knowledge and experiences which allows the
reader to create a mental construct in memory" (2000, p. 23). Whereas the B.C. Ministry
of Education defines it as being able to retrieve information, recognize meaning, interpret
and then analyze texts (B.C. Ministry of Education, n.d.). Although the wording is
different, there is the overarching agreement among academics that reading
comprehension requires a number of skills that involve recognizing information, relating
it to acquired knowledge, understanding it and then remembering it. Strategies that focus
on improving comprehension may vary slightly as the emphasis may be on one particular
factor or another, but each plays a role in helping the student understand the text that is
being read.
Reading comprehension is perhaps one of the most critical skills for student to
master as it touches on almost all other subjects. For instance, Science, Social Studies,
Literature all require the student to not only read excerpts from textbooks, but also be
able to understand the content and apply it to their learning. Thus, comprehension affects
all aspects of academic progress. Furthermore, if one has difficulty with reading
comprehension, the more they struggle, the more their interest will suffer, thus creating a
vicious circle. Therefore, if one has a reading comprehension disability, it is likely that
they will fall farther and farther behind. The full consequences of which are dire as it is a
critical foundation skill for later academic learning, many employment skills, and life
satisfaction (Kirby, n.d.).

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Graphic Organizers
Graphic organizers are visual and spatial displays that make the relationship
between concepts and related facts more apparent (Dexter & Hughes, 2011). They are
intended to promote comprehension through facilitating the learning and understanding
of new materials. The organizers make them more meaningful by making abstract
concepts more concrete and connecting new information with prior knowledge (Kim,
Vaughn, Wanzek, & Wei, 2004). There are many different types of graphic organizers
including: cognitive mapping, semantic mapping, semantic feature analysis,
syntactic/semantic feature analysis, and visual displays (Dexter & Hughes, 2011).
Graphic organizers may be used before, during, or after reading (Wendling & Mather,
2009). For example, when teaching narrative structures, a teacher might use a story map
to help students identify key elements of the narrative. When working with expository
text, graphic organizers may be used to help focus on main idea and supporting details,
sequencing, drawing conclusions, or categorization. Regardless of the type of graphic
organizer being used, it is imperative that the teacher explicitly teach students how to
effectively use the graphic organizer in order for it to be effective for the student (Dexter
& Hughes, 2011).
Research has indicated several consistent benefits of graphic organizers: (a)
they are more beneficial for students with lower verbal ability than students with higher
verbal ability; (b) students with little or no prior knowledge in a subject area gain more
from graphic organizers than students with strong prior knowledge; (c) graphic
organizers are helpful for factual recall; (d) graphic organizers need to be explicitly
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taught for maximum impact; (e) graphic organizers should connect concepts so readers
are more likely to perceive them as being interrelated; (f) graphic organizers should not
contain too much information, just what is important and relevant; (g) graphic organizers
minimize stress on working memory; and (h) graphic organizers can be effective when
used before, during, or after a lesson (Dexter & Hughes, 2011). Kim et al. (2004)
specifically examined the effects of graphic organizers on reading comprehension of
students with learning disabilities, and found that a synthesis of several studies revealed
them to be overall beneficial for this population. Though further research needs to be
done on the effectiveness of using graphic organizers with younger students, as most of
the current studies focus on upper elementary and high school students (Kim et al., 2004).

K-W-L
K-W-L is a three-phase reading comprehension intervention that is shorthand for
Know, Want to know, and Learnt. Its intention is to help students develop their
independent skills in comprehending, composing and learning in regards to reading. It
helps student engage with the reading material by first activating prior knowledge (K),
then by predicting what additional information they are likely to need (W), and by
developing a plan to gather that information. Then lastly to help students reflect on the
new knowledge generated or retrieved as the plan is implemented (L).
The first phase of implementation is for the student to make a chart used to
present the chosen passage. The chart has three columns with the titles: K What do I
know?, W What do I want to know?, and L- What have I learnt? The student should
examine the title of the text and list what is known about the topic in the K
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column. The teacher then engages the class in an oral discussion about the topic and
builds the list as a group. Part of this phase is to think about this knowledge objectively
by asking questions about sources and substantiveness such as where did you learn
that, or how could you prove that. This challenges them to a high level of
thinking. The teacher then asks them to put the information generated into
categories. This helps those students who are unaccustomed to thinking in content
structuring terms. For instance, some information about turtles could be put into the
category diet or life cycle.
The next step is to then ask the students to list what they want or need to know
about the topic in the W column. This can be done as a group, but the student should
first write down his or her own question so that they develop a personal commitment that
will guide the reading. The teacher then reads the chosen text to the students or have
them read it themselves.
Lastly, the teacher should ask the students what knowledge they have gained from
the text and list this in the L column. The teacher should have them check the
questions to determine if the article dealt with their concerns. If some of their questions
have not been answered, the teacher should suggest further reading as this sets a clear
priority of their personal desire to learn over simply taking in what the author has chosen
to include.
Variations of this strategy include asking student to work individually and record
their own KWL ideas and then trade sheets with another students and discuss the
differences. Another good strategy is to have students use a KWL journal during
independent silent reading. Then ask the students to share and compare their entries in
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literature circles, which are groups of students reading the same book at the same time.
The benefit of the K-W-L strategy for reading comprehension is that it takes into
consideration the importance of what kids bring to reading, rather than rely on just
practicing scripts. Rather, they must first elicit background knowledge before they can
begin to understand and analyze the information being processed. The brainstorming
session also activates prior knowledge of the topic and it in turn develops their interest,
curiosity and motivation. The process also helps them identify why they want to learn
about this topic, and then marking their progress on the sheet helps them monitor their
own comprehension. Lastly, the instructional demands are very simple, thereby making
it appealing to teachers.
The limitations of this strategy are that it does not allow the student to reflect on
their prior knowledge to determine if what they already know is correct. It also does not
encourage vocabulary growth, such as identifying unknown words and learning the
definition. Lastly, it does not encourage them to look for emotional or experiential links
to material being read. For instance there is no column where they are asked how they
feel about a particular text or topic.
There have not been many studies on this K-W-L strategy despite the fact that
teachers have used it often since its creation by Ogle in 1986. Part of the reason is most
likely because there have been so many variations on this strategy since. Of the research
that has been done, one study that was done on the K-W-L with 5
th
grade readers found
that the quality of thinking improves, (and) involvement in and enthusiasm for reading
non fiction becomes keen (Burns, 1994). Though it should be noted that this was a
small study where the results were based on informal teacher evaluations of the strategy.
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Another study done by McLain (1991) compared groups of 3
rd
and 5
th
grade
readers on their comprehension. One group used the K-W-L strategy, another used the
Predicting/Evaluating comprehension monitoring strategy, (a checklist strategy where
students check off questions that assess their predictions after reading), and another was a
control group. Results found that the metacognitive awareness may be a late-developing
process that is not sensitive to type of strategy taught. Therefore, although the K-W-L
strategy is most likely quite effective in strengthening reading comprehension, it may not
be significantly more effective than another reading comprehension strategy.
The only consideration that must be made is in deciding which populations to use
this strategy on. As the aforementioned study by McLain mentioned, reading
comprehension is likely a late-developing process, and so will not be beneficial to those
students who are still learning the basics of reading (kindergarten to grade 3)
(1991). Apart from age and grade considerations, this strategy can be used on any
population provided that they have a working knowledge of the primary language being
used.
Mental Imagery Improving Text Recall
Mental Imagery is a strategy of constructing mental pictures of what is being
read in addition to studying text illustrations in order to increase their reading
comprehension. This strategy may come naturally to strong readers, however many
children who hold strong reading decoding skills often have limited recall of what they
read. This population of students that would lack the skill of mental imagery would also
do poorly when a passage is read to them.
Paivo (2006) introduced the dual coding theory that presents cognition as
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involving two distinct subsystems: a verbal system that uses language, and a nonverbal
system that uses imagery. He proposes these two systems work together to improve
memory and understanding of material read. Nanci Bell created an instructional
program for this population of students that is based on Paivos dual coding theory. Her
program is entitled Visualizing and Verbalizing and is an effective remedial program
for students who lack the skill of creating mental imagery. Visualizing and verbalizing
entails a progressive buildup of imagery from smaller to larger segments of texts,
beginning with words, phrases, and increasing the skill to sentences and an entire text.
Mental imagery can be explicitly taught through a direct instruction approach. A
formal program such as Visualizing and Verbalizing is not necessary to teach the skill. In
preparation for each lesson the teacher would decide on and make copies of narrative or
expository passages to present to the students. Interventions Central, a website that
provides a wide range of academic interventions, presents the following steps to teaching
mental imagery:

Step 1: Tell students that they can remember more of what they read by
making pictures in their mind of what they are reading and by carefully
studying pictures or illustrations that appear in their reading or text books.
Step 2: Using a "think-aloud" approach, read through a short sample narrative
or expository passage. Pause at several points to tell the class what "mental
pictures" come to your mind as you read; ask students to describe their own
mental imagery as they react to the same passage. As you come across pictures
or illustrations in the passage, study them and reflect aloud on what clues they
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give you about the passage's meaning.
Step 3: Read aloud from additional passages. Stop at key points in the passage
and call on students to relate their mental imagery evoked by the passage or to
give their interpretation of the significance of illustrations or pictures.
Step 4: When students are able to use mental imagery independently, use a
prompt at the start of reading assignments to cue them to use the strategy. You
might say, for example, "Now we are going to read about what life is like in a
country village in Zimbabwe. Remember to make pictures in your head about
what you are reading and study the pictures carefully."

As students become more skilled at mental imagery invite them into evaluative
discussions on how clearly an author writes based on their ability to create a mental
imagery of what was read. Using the language in context will support the student in
understanding and ultimately using the language to express the comprehension strategy
they are using.
Although studies have been conducted on use of mental imagery to improve
comprehension, they lack adequate standardized populations and/or control groups.
Therefore limited research is available in terms of populations this strategy would be
most effective for. Truch (2004) demonstrated how the Visualizing and Verbalizing
program was effective with hyperlexic learning disabled students, ages 6 18+ who had
high reading decoding but poor comprehension. He found the program effective in
recalling information, but his study didnt look into higher levels of reading
comprehension. Gambrell & Bales (1986) completed a study on poor readers in grade 4
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and 5. Their study supported that poor readers do not automatically use mental imagery
when reading, and employ far more energy to comprehend compared to good readers
who use mental imagery. They felt their study supported mental imagery as an effective
strategy for helping poor readers evaluate their own comprehension. Overall this strategy
is supported for children who are strong decoders with poor comprehension.
Mental imagery is a skill that can be taught within the classroom or in a small
intervention group. It requires very little preparation, however the teacher will need
training on how to direct the dialogue to support students in how to create mental
images. It is imperative to begin small with instruction using words and simple
sentences, allowing students time to develop confidence in a new but crucial skill in
reading comprehension.
Guided Reading
Guided reading is one component of the Four Blocks Reading program developed
by Pat Cummingham and Dottie Hall. This instructional strategy is teacher directed for
small, flexible groups of readers who are placed in reading groups according to their level
of achievement on a reading assessment. A teacher skillfully scaffolds childrens
discussion and development of reading comprehension in these small groups (Philips,
2013). The goal of this instructional strategy is that students will independently apply
strategies to make meaning from print. Although guided reading has been traditionally
associated with primary grades it can be modified and used successfully in all grade
levels (Instructional Strategies On-Line).
Implementing guided reading involves a fair amount of preparation. Prior to
placing students into reading groups the teacher will individually administer a reading
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assessment to each student such as PM Benchmarks, Fountas and Pennell, or
Developmental Reading Assessment. Upon interpretation of the reading results the
following steps are general guidelines to implementing guiding reading: (Instructional
Strategies On-Line)
Step 1: Students should be divided into small groups (4-6 students). The
younger the students the smaller the groups.
Step 2: Plan guided reading lessons to be 15-20 minutes in duration.
Step 3: Gather appropriately leveled reading materials for the group, and each
child should have his/her own copy of the literature.
Step 4: Pre-Reading -The teacher establishes a purpose for reading through
prediction making, vocabulary introduction, or discussing ideas that will
provide the readers with the background knowledge required for the text.
Step 5: Reading -The teacher observes the students as they read the text softly
or silently to themselves. The teacher provides guidance and coaching to
individuals based on her/his observations by providing prompts, asking
questions, and encouraging attempts at reading strategy application. At this
stage the teacher is either practicing a new strategy with the student or
encouraging the student to apply a previously introduced strategy.
Step 6: Post Reading: The teacher asks questions to ensure that the text has
been comprehended by the readers and praises their efforts. Further, the teacher
may observe gaps in strategy application and address these gaps following the
reading in a mini-lesson format.
While teaching guided reading to one small group, the other students in the class must be
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kept engaged in an independent literacy activity.
When implemented according to the presentation standards, guided reading
produces critical readers who apply reading comprehension strategies to make meaning
from the text. A teacher must be skilled at questioning and providing open-ended
responses to coach student dialogue in developing inferential comprehension. Phillips
(2013) research on questioning techniques effective for developing childrens reading
comprehension focused on this critical area.
The conclusion of relaxation in questioning guided conversations between pupils
and teacher was more effective than intense questioning. However the research was
based on grade 3 students with achievement slightly higher than national standards
therefore cannot be generalized to all populations of students. Fisher (2008) had studied
the implementation of guided reading in three schools with teachers of various skill
levels. This study highlighted the importance of understanding the purpose of guiding
reading and the need for training of teachers to become skilled in the instructional
strategy; lacking these standards may lead to guided reading being perceived as a mere
lesson of listening to students read.
While guided reading is becoming a common practice in many schools, there
remains a deeper understanding of the reading process and the text characteristics of
leveled books (Fountas & Pennel, 2012). Guided reading also has promise in teaching
English as a Second Language. For instance, Nayak and Sylva (2013) demonstrated
significant growth in reading comprehension amongst young Chinese students learning
English compared to a control group. To support the importance of following
presentation standards to achieve critical readers, companies such as Scholastic Canada
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are now producing guided reading kits that consist of leveled books and a teacher plan
with scripts on how to present each lesson. These kits are available for children from
Kindergarten to Grade 8.

Conclusion
In summation, the overall conclusion for reading comprehension indicates that
teaching explicit reading strategies such as graphic organizers, K-W-L, mental imagery
and guided reading are particularly effective for developing ones reading comprehension.
As a student learns to read, they tend to put most of their energy on decoding and reading
each word flawlessly. Yet, students must also be able to obtain meaning from what has
been read. Unfortunately, students with learning disabilities often experience
considerable difficulty in comprehending what had been read aloud or silently. They may
struggle with processing the main ideas, with relating new information to previously
learning facts, or with using higher order thinking skills to organize, sequence, or
prioritize information appropriately. Therefore, it is vital for educators to use strategies
such as graphic organizers, K-W-L, mental imagery and guided reading to improve a
students understanding of text.
Graphic organizers are very efficient as they are easy to construct and utilize.
However, current studies have only shown their effectiveness on upper elementary and
high school students. K-W-L is a very popular reading comprehension strategy, as it is
known to be very efficient. Educators can easily use this strategy by engaging the class in
an oral discussion about a topic of choice and build on that list as a group. In addition,
students can also work independently on a K-W-L chart. Unfortunately, despite the fact
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that teachers often use K-W-L there has not been much research on their effectiveness.
Many educators use mental imagery as it is a very efficient reading
comprehension strategy. It can be implemented in the classroom or small group setting
and requires very little preparation. Although studies have been conducted in the use of
mental imagery to improve reading comprehension they lack adequate standardized
populations or control groups. Nevertheless, some studies have supported the use of
mental imagery as an effective strategy for helping poor readers evaluate their own
comprehension. In contrast to all the other reading comprehension strategies guided
reading requires a fair amount of preparation. An experienced educator needs to
administer a reading assessment to each student before placing them in an appropriate
reading group. In addition, in order for guided reading to be an effective tool teachers
need to be well trained.
Finally, before a strategy or intervention is selected one should examine the
ability and grade level of the student to determine which intervention fits the students
needs. Graph organizers are more effective for upper elementary and high school
students, while guided reading works well in lower elementary. Still, it is important to
remember the strength of any reading comprehension strategies lies in the way it is
explicitly taught and reinforced.





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