Principle of Boiler Combustion

Introduction
• A knowledge of the principle of combustion is utmost important for
boiler or gas turbine operator for two (2) main reasons :

1. So that furnace / combustor explosions are avoided

2. So that boilers / GT are operated with maximum efficiency

The aim of this lecture is to promote an awareness of the conditions

which lead to a furnace explosion, the steps which must be taken to
avoid furnace explosions, an understanding of the combustion process,
and practices necessary for efficient & prudent boiler / GT operation.
 Definitions
• Combustion is the controlled generation of useful
heat by the rapid chemical combination of oxygen
with the combustible elements of a fuel.

• Explosion is the uncontrolled, extremely rapid,

chemical combination of a fuel with oxygen. It
results in a rapid expansion of combustion gases
which leads to a rapid increase of furnace
pressure.
 Furnace Explosions
• Statistics
Furnace explosions are much more frequent than people generally
realise. Although the majority of furnace explosions occur in coal fired
boilers, the same conditions leading to an explosion can occur in an oil
or natural gas fired boilers.
Studies of furnace explosion on a world basis have indicated that the
causes have been :
5% undetermined
21% malfunction of equipment
74% operating errors
The high “operating error” indicates the need for sound operating
procedures at all times. Operating conditions at the time of the
explosions are the most important – the above study indicated also that
90% of the explosions occurred during the boiler starting sequence.
 Conditions for Explosions
• In a boiler, ignition is provided as the fuel and air are
brought together so that there is a progressive burning of
fuel and a flow of combustion products to the chimney.
The mixing of air & fuel is carried out by the burner.
• Furnace Explosions result from the ignition of unburnt fuel
and oxygen after they have accumulated in the boiler, and
not in the burner itself as could be expected. Before the
accumulation can explode, air & fuel must be present in
certain ratios. When the ratio of the explosion has been
reached an ignition source is necessary, e.g. hot metal, hot
refractory, hot gases, stray zones of combustion.
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• 90% of explosions occurs during start-up can be further

broken down into :
44% improper ignition
24% supplying ignition energy to furnace full of
combustion mixture
14% fuel trip with fuel rich furnace
8% main fuel interruption
5% main air interruption
5% improper fuel preparation
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• The following notes give correct procedures for each

case above :
1. Improper Ignition

Fire has three ingredients

fuel (3) air (1)

ignition (2)
These three ingredients can be sequenced six different
ways.
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• 1.2.3. This sequence is the correct one & light off should give
no trouble
• 1.3.2. In THIS case an accumulation will occur before ignition
and an explosion will result
• 2.1.3. This is providing ignition before purge and an explosion
could occur
• 2.3.1 The fuel could not burnt without air and would
accumulate until the introduction of air in the final
stage. At this point the mixture would be ignited and an
explosion would result.
• 3.1.2. Similar to sequence 1.3.2.
• 3.2.1 Similar to sequence 2.3.1.
Note :
Unless Fuel Is Supplied LAST, AN Explosion is Likely
Air : Ignition : Fuel is the only safe sequence
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2. Supplying ignition energy to furnace full of combustible

mixture
The furnace must be purge :
a) Before light-off
b) After failure of burners to ignite
c) After flame off
d) If there is any appreciable delay between the first
purging and burner lighting
Purging is usually designed to supply the furnace with an air
volume which is 4 – 5 times the boilers’ total
combustion gas volume. For this purpose a minimum air
flow is necessary for a certain time.
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3) Fuel Rich Mixture

Whenever a fuel rich condition occurs – FUEL MUST BE
REDUCED (Or Even Tripped). Air must NOT be Increased.
4&5) Main Fuel and Air Interruption
This condition can occur at any time. It is only serious if the
majority of the burners is affected – a complete flame-out is
then likely
If air trips, fuel supply to all burners must be tripped as in (3)
above. This may not guarantee that no explosion will occur,
as purging will supply air to the fuel already in the furnace
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• If fuel trips, an air rich mixture will develop which,

depending on the mixture, could still be explosive
In both cases the boiler must be purged as soon as possible
after fuel is tripped.

6) Improper Fuel Preparation

The condition of the fuel as it leaves the burner determines to
a large extent its ability to ignite rapidly and burn stably.
If fuel temperature is low, ignition may be difficult and
burning rate may be low, leading to fuel-rich conditions
 Furnace Combustion
• The mere fact that oxygen is brought into the presence of a
combustion substance does not mean that combustion will
automatically follow :

Fuel & Air require :

Temperature – ignition temperature must be reached before
combustion can start
Turbulence - necessary during mixing for air & fuel to be
intimately mixed
Time – time is required for complete burning to occur
 Ignition Temperature
Ignition Temperature
Is the minimum temperature at which the fuel will chemically
combine with oxygen. No combustion can occur bellow
this temperature.

• Ignition temperature range from 470oF for sulphur , 800-

925oF for coal, to 1200oF for methane (natural gas).
• When combustion has started, the heat evolved in the
oxidation of the combustible matter will maintain
sufficiently high temperature for further ignition.
 The Appearance of Combustion
The flame - is a mass of intensely heated gas.
It luminosity is due to the heating-to-incandescence of the as-yet unburnt
particles of combustion matter present in these heated gases. The
higher the temperature of these gases, the whiter the flame.
If it were possible for combustion of any fuel to be completed
instantaneously, there would be no visible flame, since the byproducts
(CO & H2O) are invisible.
Visible flame , then in evidence of incomplete or not-yet achieved
combustion.
Short flame – mean rapid & complete combustion
Long flame – delayed or imperfect combustion

Flame Temperature Range :

1000oF – a dark red flame to 3000oF for a dazzling white flame
 Fuel
The most common elements & compounds which combine
with oxygen and liberate heat are :
- Carbon
- Hydrogen
- Sulphur
- Hydrocarbon (compounds of carbon & hydrogen)

Fuel are made up of various combinations of these elements

and compounds

Fuel compositions (with combustible underlined) are given as

follows :
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» Coal (% wt) Fuel Oil (% wt) Gas (% wt)
• Carbon 37 81.76 -
• Hydrogen 2 12.4 -
• Oxygen 11 1.2 -
• Nitrogen 1 1.7 1.5
• Sulphur 1 3 -
• Moisture 31 - -
• CO2 - - 4.5
• Ash 17 - -
• Methane - - 82
• Ethane - - 7
• Propane - - 3.8
• Others - - 0.6
Calorific Value 6300 Btu/lb 18,700 22,300
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• Calorific value is the quantity of heat (in BTU) liberated

during complete combustion of 1 lb of the fuel. Two
calorific values are usually quoted : HCV and LCV or
(LHV : low heating value)

• HCV is the figures usually quoted and it differs from LCV

in that it includes the heat necessary to convert water
vapour into water liquid – produced by burning hydrogen.

• LCV = HCV – latent heat value

 Air
• Air has the following major components :

» % Volume % Weight

– Oxygen 21% 23.2%

– Nitrogen 79% 76.8%

In all combustion reaction, only oxygen is necessary – nitrogen is present

but plays no part in the reaction.
2 C + O2 = 2 CO + 4350 BTU/lb heat
2CO + O2 = 2CO2 + 10 240 BTU/lb heat
C + O2 = CO2 + 14 590 BTU/lb heat
2H2 + O2 = 2H2O + 61 340 BTU/lb heat
CH4 + 2O2 = CO2 + 2H2O + 23 860 BTU/lb heat
 Weight of Air for Complete Combustion
Knowing the composition of a fuel, the molecular weights of the
components and the equation of combustion for each of the
constituents, it is possible to determine how much oxygen is needed to
completely burn each pound of the fuel.

From this oxygen amount, we can derive the quantity of air is required to
burn one pound of fuel.

For each fuel, there is a quantity of air is required to theoretically

completely burn one pound of that fuel.

For fuel oil, 13.7 lb of air are theoretically required to completely burn
one lb fuel oil.
Practical Combustion