Solutio

n &
Solubility
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Solution
Solutions are homogeneous mixtures of two or more pure
substances.
In a solution, the solute is dispersed uniformly throughout the
solvent.
A homogenous mixture of a solute dissolved in a solvent.
The solubility (ability to dissolve) of a solute in a solvent is
dependent on the
a. Temperature
For solid solutes
as temperature increases, solubility increases.
For gas solutes
:as temperature increases, solubility decreases.



b. Pressure
For solid solutes
as pressure increases, solubility remains the same.

For gas solutes:
as pressure increases, solubility increases
c. Nature of Solute/Solvent
Like dissolves in like.

Solute Type Non Polar Solvent Polar Solvent

Non Polar (Fat Grease)

Soluble (Soap)

Insoluble (Water)
Polar Insoluble Soluble (Water)
Ionic (Salt) Insoluble Soluble (Water)
High Solubility-Soluble Low Solubility-insoluble
Solubility
Maximum grams of solute that will dissolve in 100 g of solvent at
a given temperature.
Solubility=
Varies with temperature
Based on a saturated solution

Gram of solute
100 g of Water
The bond between solubility and
temperature can be expressed by a
solubility curve. The solubility curves
of several compounds are shown on
the right. Such curves disclose the
maximum amount of solute that can
be dissolved in 100 grams of water
over a range of temperatures.
The solubility of most compounds
increases as temperature increases,
although exceptions do exist.
Types of Solution
1. An unsaturated solution is a solution in which more solute can
be dissolved at a given temperature.
2. A saturated solution is a solution containing the maximum
amount of solute that will dissolve at a given temperature.
3. A supersaturated solution is a solution that contains more solute
than would dissolve in a saturated solution at a given
temperature.
SATURATED SOLUTION
no more solute dissolves

UNSATURATED SOLUTION
more solute dissolves

SUPERSATURATED SOLUTION
becomes unstable, crystals form
increasing concentration
Saturated
Solvent holds as much solute as is possible at that
temperature.
Dissolved solute is in dynamic equilibrium with
solid solute particles.
Types of Solution
Unsaturated
Less than the maximum amount of solute for that temperature is
dissolved in the solvent.
Saturated
Supersaturated
Solvent holds more solute than is normally possible at that
temperature.
These solutions are unstable; crystallization can usually be stimulated
by adding a seed crystal or scratching the side of the flask.
Solubility Rules
1. Not all ionic compounds are water soluble.
2. There are some general rules for compounds that are water
soluble:
Group 1 ionic compounds and ammonium (NH4+) are always
water soluble
Group 17 ionic compounds are water soluble except when paired
with Ag, Pb, and Hg ions
1. A salt is soluble in water if it contains any one of the following
ions:
NH
4
+
Li
+
Na
+
K
+
or NO
3
-


Examples: Soluble salts
LiCl Na
2
SO
4
KBr Ca(NO
3
)
2

Solubility Rules
2. Salts with Cl
-
are soluble, but not if the positive ion is :
Ag
+
, Pb
2+
, or Hg
2
2+
.
Examples:
Soluble Insoluble
MgCl
2
AgCl , PbCl
2

3. Salts with SO
4
2-
are soluble, but not if the positive ion is Ba
2+
,

Pb
2+
, Hg
2+
or Ca
2+
.
Examples:
Soluble Not soluble
MgSO
4
BaSO
4
PbSO
4
The stronger the attraction between solute and solvent
molecules, the greater the solubility.
Like dissolves like (the substances have similar
intermolecular attractive forces.)
Polar substances tend to dissolve in polar solvents. Non-polar
substances do not dissolve in polar solvents.

Factors Affecting
Solubility
Chemists use the axiom like dissolves like:
Polar substances tend to dissolve in polar solvents.
Nonpolar substances tend to dissolve in nonpolar solvents.
Factors Affecting
Solubility
The more
similar the
intermolecular
attractions, the
more likely one
substance is to be
soluble in another.
Glucose (which
has hydrogen
bonding) is very
soluble in water,
while
cyclohexane
(which only has
dispersion
forces) is not.
Factors Affecting
Solubility
Vitamin A is soluble in nonpolar compounds (like fats).
Vitamin C is soluble in water.
Factors Affecting
Solubility
Concentration
Concentration of a solution can be expressed either quantitatively
or qualitatively (dilute or concentrated).

Methods of Expressing Concentrations of Solutions
Mass
Percentage
Mass percentage is expressed using the equation:
Mass % of component = X
Mass of component in solution
Total mass of solution
100
Parts per Million (ppm)
ppm =
mass of A in solution
total mass of solution
10
6

Parts per Billion (ppb)
ppb =
mass of A in solution
total mass of solution
10
9

Mole Fraction
This is how many moles of substance are in the solution.

Mole fraction of component =

Moles of component
Total moles of all components
Molarity
Relates the volume of solution to the quantity of solute that it
contains.
Molarity =
Moles solute
Liters solution
Molality(
m)
mol of solute
kg of solvent
m =
Because both moles and mass do not change with temperature,
molality (unlike molarity) is not temperature dependent.
Changing Molarity to
Molality
If we know the density of the
solution, we can calculate the
molality from the molarity,
and vice versa.
Raoults Law

P
soln
= Vapor pressure of the solution

solvent
= Mole fraction of the solvent
P
solvent
= Vapor pressure of the pure solvent
The presence of a nonvolatile solute lowers the vapor pressure
of a solvent.
P
soln
=
solvent
P
solvent

The presence of a
nonvolatile solute
lowers the
concentration of solvent
molecules in the
solution, thus lowering
the vapor pressure.
Demonstration of
Raoults Law
Water is transported to the
solution due to difference in
vapor pressure.
An Aqueous Solution and Pure
Water in a Closed Environment
Demonstration of
Raoults Law
P
soln
=
solvent
P
solvent
Vapor Pressure of a Solution
Containing a Nonvolatile Solute
Ideal solutions
obey Raoults law exactly
solute-solute, solvent-solvent,
and solute-solvent
interactions are identical
do not exist

Real Solutions
are nonideal
may approach ideal behavior
if solute and solvent are
similar
Example: sucrose in water
Vapor Pressure of an
Ideal Solution
Two Volatile Solvents
P
total
= P
A
+ P
B
= X
A
P
A
0
+ X
B
P
B
0
Raoults Law Vapor Pressure
for a Solution of Two Volatile
Liquids
IDEAL
SOLUTION
NONIDEAL SOLUTIONS
Positive
Deviation
Negative
Deviation
Colligative
Properties
Depend only on the number, not on the identity, of the
solute particles in an ideal solution.
Boiling point elevation
Freezing point depression
Osmotic pressure
Boiling Point Elevation
K
b
= Molal boiling point elevation constant
m = Molality of the solute
A nonvolatile solute elevates the boiling point of the solvent.
T = K
b
m
solute

Freezing Point
Depression
K
f
= Molal freezing point depression
constant
m = Molality of the solute
A nonvolatile solute depresses the freezing point of the solvent.
T = K
f
m
solute

Phase Diagram for an
Aqueous Solution
In effect, a dissolved
solute acts to extend
the liquid range of
the solvent
Boiling-Point Elevation
and Freezing-Point
Depression
Colligative Properties of
Electrolyte Solutions
T = imK
= iMRT

i =
moles of particles in solution
moles of solute dissolved
vant Hoff factor, i, relates to the number of ions per formula
unit.
NaCl = 2, K
2
SO
4
= 3

Data for 0.05 m Solutions
Electrolyte i (expected) i (observed)
NaCl 2.0 1.9
MgCl
2
3.0 2.7
FeCl
3
4.0 3.4
Osmosis
Some substances form semipermeable membranes, allowing
some smaller particles to pass through, but blocking other
larger particles.
In biological systems, most semipermeable membranes allow
water to pass through, but solutes are not free to do so.
In osmosis, there is net movement of solvent from the area of
higher solvent concentration (lower solute concentration) to
the are of lower solvent concentration (higher solute
concentration).
Osmosis
The pressure required to stop osmosis, known as
osmotic pressure, , is
where M is the molarity of the solution
If the osmotic pressure is the same on both sides of a membrane
(i.e., the concentrations are the same), the solutions are isotonic
n
V
= ( )RT = MRT
Osmotic
Pressure
Colloids
Colloids are particles that are large on the molecular scale but still
small enough to remain suspended indefinitely in a solvent system.
(aka colloidal dispersions.)
They are intermediate between solutions and heterogeneous
mixtures.
They have the ability to scatter light; known as the Tyndall effect.
Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic
Colloids
The most important colloids are those in which water is the
solvent, or dispersing agent.
Hydrophilic colloids are water loving and are found in the
human body and help keep molecules suspended in water.
(enzymes, antibodies)
Hydrophobic colloids are water fearing and must be stabilized
before they can be mixed into water. (droplets of oil.)
Colloids in Biological
Systems
Some molecules have a
polar, hydrophilic (water-
loving) end and a
nonpolar, hydrophobic
(water-hating) end.
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