1

Wireless Networks
Lecture 4
Error Detecting and Correcting Techniques

Dr. Ghalib A. Shah

2
Outlines
Review of previous lecture #3
Transmission Errors
Parity Check
Cyclic Redundancy Check
Block Error Code
Summary of todays lecture
3
Last Lecture Review
Multiplexing
FDM, TDM
Transmission Mediums
Guided media
Unguided media
Microwave
Radio waves
Infra red
Propagation modes
Ground wave propagation
Sky-wave propagation
LOS propagation
Multi-path propagation
Fading
4
Coping with Transmission Errors
Error detection codes
Detects the presence of an error
Error correction codes, or forward correction codes
(FEC)
Designed to detect and correct errors
Widely used in wireless networks
Automatic repeat request (ARQ) protocols
Used in combination with error detection/correction
Block of data with error is discarded
Transmitter retransmits that block of data

5
Error Detection Process
Transmitter
For a given frame, an error-detecting code (check bits) is
calculated from data bits
Check bits are appended to data bits
Receiver
Separates incoming frame into data bits and check bits
Calculates check bits from received data bits
Compares calculated check bits against received check bits
Detected error occurs if mismatch
6
Error Detection
Error detection not 100% reliable!
protocol may miss some errors, but rarely
larger EDC field yields better detection and correction
Transmitter
Receiver
7
Parity Checks
Even or Odd parity
Only single bit error detection
What about multiple bit errors
Use when probability of bit errors is small and
independent
Errors are usually clustered together



Single bit
The ability of receiver to both detect and correct errors
is known as forward error correction (FEC)
8
Examples of parity bit check
Adding parity bit
1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 Odd
1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 Even
Odd parity errors
1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 error detected

1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 error undetected


9
Two-dimensional parity checks
Generalization of 1-bit
D bits are divided into i rows and j columns.














Receiver can not only detect but correct as well using row,
column indices

D
1,1
D
1,2
D
1,j
D
1,j+1
D
2,1
D
2,2
D
2,j
D
2,j+1
.
.
.
.
.
.



.
.
.
.
.
.
D
i,1
D
i,2
D
i,j
D
i,j+1
D
i+1,1
D
i+1,2
D
i+1,j
D
i+1,j+1
10
Example of 2D Odd parity check
1110010101111010
Let i = 4, j = 4




1 1 1 0 0
0 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 1 0
1 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 0
0 0 0 1 1
0 1 1 1 0
1 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 1
Parity bits Error detection/correction
1 1 1 0 0
0 0 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 0
1 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 1
Error detection/ no correction
11
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
Transmitter
For a k-bit block,
transmitter generates an
(n-k)-bit frame check
sequence (FCS)
Resulting frame of n bits
is exactly divisible by
predetermined number
Receiver
Divides incoming frame
by predetermined number
If no remainder, assumes
no error
Algorithm
Generator: Transmitter
and receiver agree on an
r + 1 bit pattern P.
Transmitter chooses r
additional bits to append
with k data bits.
Which is remainder of d /
P.
Receiver: if remainder of
D / P is 0 , success
otherwise error
12
CRC using Modulo 2 Arithmetic
Exclusive-OR (XOR) operation
Parameters:
T = n-bit frame to be transmitted
D = k-bit block of data; the first k bits of T
F = (n k)-bit FCS; the last (n k) bits of T
P = pattern of nk+1 bits; this is the predetermined divisor
Q = Quotient
R = Remainder
13
CRC using Modulo 2 Arithmetic
For T/P to have no remainder, start with

Divide 2
n-k
D by P gives quotient and remainder


Use remainder as FCS
F D T
k n
+ =

2
P
R
Q
P
D
k n
+ =

2
R D T
k n
+ =

2
14
CRC using Modulo 2 Arithmetic
Does R cause T/P have no remainder?



Substituting,



No remainder, so T is exactly divisible by P
P
R
P
D
P
R D
P
T
k n k n
+ =
+
=

2 2
Q
P
R R
Q
P
R
P
R
Q
P
T
=
+
+ = + + =
15
CRC Example
Let d = 10111, P=1001

1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1
1 0 0 1
0 1 1
D
T = 10111011
1 0 1 0
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 0 0 1
R
Q
P
`P(X) = X
3
+ 1
16
CRC using Polynomials
All values expressed as polynomials
Dummy variable X with binary coefficients
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) X R X D X X T
X P
X R
X Q
X P
X D X
k n
k n
+ =
+ =

17
CRC using Polynomials
Widely used versions of P(X)
CRC12
X
12
+ X
11
+ X
3
+ X
2
+ X + 1
CRC16
X
16
+ X
15
+ X
2
+ 1
CRC CCITT
X
16
+ X
12
+ X
5
+ 1
CRC 32
X
32
+ X
26
+ X
23
+ X
22
+ X
16
+ X
12
+ X
11
+ X
10
+

X
8
+ X
7
+ X
5
+

X
4
+ X
2
+ X + 1
18
Wireless Transmission Errors
Error detection requires retransmission
Detection inadequate for wireless applications
Error rate on wireless link can be high, results in a
large number of retransmissions
Long propagation delay compared to transmission
time
19
Block Error Correction Codes
Transmitter
Forward error correction (FEC) encoder maps each
k-bit block into an n-bit block codeword
Codeword is transmitted; analog for wireless
transmission
Receiver
Incoming signal is demodulated
Block passed through an FEC decoder
20
21
FEC Decoder Outcomes
No errors present
Codeword produced by decoder matches original
codeword
Decoder detects and corrects bit errors
Decoder detects but cannot correct bit errors;
reports uncorrectable error
Decoder detects no bit errors, though errors
are present
22
Block Code Principles
Hamming distance for 2 n-bit binary sequences, the
number of different bits
E.g., v
1
=011011; v
2
=110001;
011011 XOR 110001 = 101010
d(v1, v
2
)=3
Redundancy ratio of redundant bits to data bits
Code rate ratio of data bits to total bits
Coding gain the reduction in the required E
b
/N
0
to
achieve a specified BER of an error-correcting coded
system
23
Block Codes
The Hamming distance d of a Block code is the
minimum distance between two code words
Error Detection:
Upto d-1 errors
Error Correction:
Upto

(

2
1 d
24
Example of Block code
Let k = 2, n = 5




Suppose we receive 0 0 1 0 0 pattern
Minimum distance is with codeword 0 0 0 0 0,
so we deduct 0 0 as data bits.
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 0
Data block
Codeword