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Syllabus
F.Y.B.Sc. IT
Professional Communication Skills
Unit I
The Seven Cs of the Effective Communication
1. Completeness
2. Conciseness
3. Consideration
4. Concreteness
5. Clarity
6. Courtesy
7. Correctness
Unit II
Communication: Its interpretation
1. Basics
2. Nonverbal Communication
3. Barriers to Communication
Unit III
Business Communication at Work Place
1. Letter Components and Layouts
2. Planning a letter
3. Process of Letter writing
4. Email Communication
5. Memo and Memo Reports
6. Employment Communication
7. Notice Agenda and Minutes of Meeting
8. Brochures
Unit IV
Report Writing
1. Effective Writing
2. Types of Business Reports
3. Structure of Reports
4. Gathering Information
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5. Organization of the Material
6. Writing Abstracts and Summaries
7. Writing Definitions
8. Visual Aids
9. User Instruction Manual
Unit V
Required Skills
1. Reading Skills
2. Note-making
3. Prcis Writing
4. Audio Visual Aids
5. Oral Communication
Unit VI
Mechanics of Writing
1. Transitions
2. Spelling Rules
3. Hyphenation
4. Transcribing Numbers
5. Abbreviating Technical and Non Technical Terms
6. Proof Reading

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Content
Chapter 1 Page Nos.
Basics
Verbal Non Verbal Communication
Seven Cs of Communication
Chapter 2
Barriers to Communication
Chapter 3
Business Communication at Work Place-I
Planning a Letter
Letter Components
Layouts
Process of Letter Writing
Chapter 4
Business Communication at Work Place-II
Job Application Letter
Resume
Resignation Letter
Termination Letter
Goodwill Letters
Email
Chapter 5
Business Communication at Work Place-III
Memorandum
Meeting
Brochure
Chapter 6
Writing Reports
Chapter 7
Summaries and Abstracts
Technical Definitions
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Chapter 8
User Instruction Manual
Chapter 9
Reading Skills
Chapter 10
Note Making
Precis Writing
Chapter 11
Audio Video Aids and Effective Presentation
Chapter 12
Oral Communication
Chapter 13
Transition
Spelling Rules
Hyphenation
Chapter 14
Transcribing Numbers
Abbreviating Technical and Non Technical Terms
Chapter 15
Proofreading









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Unit I
BASICS, VERBAL, NON VERBAL
COMMUNICATION AND SEVEN CS OF
COMMUNICATION
Unit Structure
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Introduction
1.3 Basics of Communication
1.4 Channels of Communication
1.5 Importance of Communication
1.6 Non Verbal Communication
1.7 Seven Cs of Communication
1.8 Summary
1.9 Exercise:
1.1 OBJECTIVES
To understand the basics of communication
To understand the concept of verbal and non verbal
communication
1.2 INTRODUCTION
This chapter will introduce you to various theoretical
concepts of communication in general to help you to relate them to
various day to day situations. Communication skills progresses
from the birth of child to the adulthood to the oldhood. The learning
of communication commences with the observation of the world
surrounding you. The nomenclatures of the various situations one
may come across in his/her personal or formal life are the events of
communication. Imagine, you complete your B. Sc. IT with flying
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colours and you find a different world outside the classrooms you
have attended and you are confused to begin with, how will you
face such unusual situations that you have never experienced? The
answer is if you are aware of the content of the communication
skills you have learnt as a part of your academics, your half way is
done. Now let us begin understanding each component of the soft
skills you required to understand.
1.3 BASICS OF COMMUNICATION
1.3.1 Concept of Communication
Every individual needs to be well equipped with the tools to
communicate effectively, whether it is on the personal front, or at
work. In fact, according to the management gurus, being a good
communicator is half the battle won. After all, if one speaks and
listens well, then there is little or no scope for misunderstanding.
Thus, keeping this fact in mind, the primary reasons for
misunderstanding is due to inability to speak well, or listen
effectively.
The word communication is derived from the Latin word
communicate which means to make common, to transmit, or to
impart the ideas, knowledge, feelings, emotions and gestures.
According to the various dictionaries the definition of effective
communication skills are as follows:
Effective communication skills includes lip reading, finger-spelling,
sign language; for interpersonal skills use, interpersonal relations.
Effective communication skills are the ability to use
language (receptive) and express (expressive) information.
Effective communication skills are the set of skills that
enables a person to convey information so that it is received and
understood. Effective communication skills refer to the repertoire of
behaviors that serve to convey information for the individual.
While it is an undisputable fact the communication forms one
of the essential bases of human existence, yet most individuals
overlook the need to refine their communication skills, from time-to-
time. Effective communication skills is a must whether it is
individual or then effective team communication skills.
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1.3.2 Process of Communication
Communication is a two-way process in which there is an
exchange and progression of ideas towards a mutually accepted
direction or goal. For this process, to materialise, it is essential that
the basic elements of communication be identified. These elements
are: Ideation/Message, Sender, Encoding, Receiver, Medium and
Transmission, Barriers, Decoding and Feedback.
1.3.2.1. Ideation/Message
The process of communication begins with ideation, which
refers to the formation of the idea or selection of a message to be
communicated. It consists of the 'What" of communication and is
concerned with the content of the specific message to be
presented. The scope of 'ideation' is generally determined by the
sender's knowledge, experiences, and abilities, as well as the
purpose of communication and the context of the communicative
situation. However, the form of ideation depends on several other
factors.
Messages generally have two kinds of content, logical and
emotional. Logical messages consist of factual information, while
emotional messages consist of feelings and emotions. In formal
communicative situation, 'ideation' may consist of finding and
selecting a subject or general topic, looking for ideas and thoughts,
and deciding the type, scope, and sources of information.
Message Ideation Encoding Medium of Transmission
Sender Feedback Decoding Receiver
Diagram 1: Cycle of Communication Process
Barriers to Communication
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1.3.2.2. Sender
The person who initiates the communication process is
normally referred to as the sender. From his personal data bank he
selects ideas, encodes and finally transmits them to the receiver.
The entire burden of Encoding of communication then rests upon
the sender or encoder. His message choice of images and words,
and the combination of the two is what goads the receiver to listen
carefully. In this process a number of factors come into play,
primary among them being an understanding of the recipient and
his needs. If the message can be formulated in accordance with the
expectations of the receiver, the level of acceptance is going to be
higher.
1.3.2.3. Encoding
Encoding is the next step in communication. It is the process
of changing the information into some form of logical and coded
message. The encoding process is based on the purpose of
communication and the relation between the sender and the
receiver. In a formal situation, encoding involves: Selecting a
language; selecting a medium of communication; and selecting an
appropriate communication form.
Selecting the right language is essential for effective
encoding. Verbal messages need a common language code, which
can be easily decoded by the receiver. If the receiver is not able to
decode or understand the message, communication will fail. For
example, a person who does not understand Tamil cannot decode
a message encoded in Tamil
As selecting the right medium of communication involves
making the right choice out of many available options, it determines
the effectiveness of encoding. There are three basic options for
sending interpersonal messages that is speaking, writing, and non-
verbal signs and symbols. The spoken word involves vocalization
while non-verbal message cues are generally visual (auditory and
tactile). Non-verbal clues play a significant role in oral
communication. These clues include body movements, facial
expressions, touching patterns, speech mannerisms. The selection
of the appropriate form largely depends on the sender-receiver
relationship and the overall goal of the communicative situation.
Oral communication may be face-to-face interpersonal
communication, group communication, speaker-audience
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communication, or telephonic communication. The choice depends
on the need and purpose of the communication.
1.3.2.4. Receiver
The listener receives an encoded message which he
attempts to decode. This process is carried on in relation to the
work environment and the value perceived in terms of the work
situation. If the goal of the Decoding of sender is envisioned as
similar to his own, the listener becomes message more
receptive. The decoding of the message is done in almost entirely
the same terms as were intended by the sender
1.3.2.5. Medium and Transmission
Another important element of communication is the medium
or channel. It could be oral, written or non-verbal. Prior to the
composition of the message, the medium/channel should be
decided. Transmission refers to the flow of message over the
chosen channel. Transmission confirms the medium selected
during the process of encoding and keeps the communication
channel free from interference or noise so that the message
reaches the receiver without any disturbance.
1.3.2.6. Barriers
The barriers refer to the various hurdles the message may
come across in process of transmission. Noise may disturb the
proper encoding, the psychological barriers of the receiver may
hamper the basic purpose of the message or the barriers may
hinder the smooth completion of the cycle of the process of
communication. The barriers could be cross cultural, linguistics,
semantics, socio-psychological, etc.
1.3.2.7. Decoding
Decoding is the process of converting a message into
thoughts by translating the received stimuli into an interpreted
meaning in order to understand the message communicated. It is
important to note that it is the message that is transferred, as
meaning cannot be transferred from one person to another. The
receiver has to assign meaning to a message in order to
understand it.
The process of decoding involves interpretation and analysis
of a message. Decoding in written communication refers to reading
and understanding a written message. On the other hand, in oral
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communication, decoding includes listening and understanding.
Effective decoding is very important for successful communication
as any misinterpretation of a message leads to communication
breakdown and creates confusion and misunderstanding.
1.3.2.8. Feedback
Effective communication takes place only when there is
feedback. Feedback is the last stage in the communication
process. It is the action or reaction of the receiver to the message.
It helps the sender know that the message was received and
understood. The feedback that goes to the sender makes it clear
whether the receiver has accepted the information and filed it in
his/her memory or rejected it. He or she may ask for more
information or clarification. Response is, thus, the key to
communication as the effectiveness of communication depends on
how congruent a receiver's response is with the meaning intended
by the sender.
1.4. CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION
Communication is essential for the internal functioning of any
organisation. By integrating the managerial functions and serving to
influence the behaviour and attitudes of people through persuasion,
it encourages them to perform in order to achieve organisational
objectives. The interaction between the different individuals working
in a company or organisation takes place through different
channels. These channels could be both informal and formal.
Informal channels transmit official news through unofficial
and informal communicative interactions known as the 'grapevine'.
This informal communication network includes tea time gossip,
casual gatherings, lunch time meetings and so on. These channels
may not be very reliable as they may be company rumours or just
gossip. Such channels are more active in organisations that are not
transparent. As employees want to know what is going on in their
organisation, they seek out unofficial sources of information. The
grapevine is not always negative for an organisation and can, in
fact, be helpful as it helps in positive group building by acting as a
safety valve for pent-up emotions. It may help in building up
organisational solidarity and harmony.
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1.4.1 Downward Communication
As the main function of downward communication is
providing direction and control, it refers to communication from the
higher level in managerial hierarchy to the lower ones. A
communication from the general manager of a company to the
branch managers is an example of downward communication.
Other examples of downward communication include annual
confidential reports, performance appraisals, notices, project
feedback, announcements of company policies, official instructions,
and so on. Forms of downward communication may include notes,
notices, memos, telephone conversations, voice mails, emails, or
face-to-face conversations.
Downward communication is essential for the functioning of
any organisation as it involves the transfer of information,
instruction, advice, request, feedback, and ideas to subordinate
staff. It increases staff awareness and facilitates implementation of
new policies, guidelines, decisions, and evaluation and appraisal of
the performance of employees. However, too much downward
communication can lead to reaction from subordinates and can
hamper better employee-employer relationship.
1.4.2 Upward Communication
As the main purpose of upward communication is to provide
feedback on several areas of organisational functioning, it refers to
communication from subordinates to superiors. A business report
from the branch manager of a company to the managing director of
the company is an example of upward communication. Other
examples of upward channel include business proposals,
suggestion box, exit interviews, grievance committees, and so forth.
Since upward communication involves the transfer of
information, request, and feedback from the subordinates to their
seniors, it promotes better working relationships within an
organisation by giving the subordinate staff opportunities to share
their views and ideas with their supervisors. It facilitates employee
involvement in the decision making process. Nevertheless, in any
organization there has to be a balance between downward and
upward communication channels.
1.4.3 Lateral Communication
The main objectives of horizontal communication are
developing teamwork, and promoting group coordination within an
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organisation. It takes place between professional peer groups or
people working on the same level of hierarchy. Horizontal
communication is less formal and structured than both downward
communication and upward communication, and may be carried
out through informal discussions, management gossip, telephone
calls, teleconferencing, videoconferencing, memos, routine
meetings, and so on.
1.4.4 Diagonal Communication
Diagonal communication is the product of modern changes
in information technology and management and is the result of the
growing realisation of fraternity and equality in the corporate sector.
It is basically a response to market needs that demand speed and
efficiency. As the diagonal channel occurs between people who do
not have to follow rigid norms of communication protocol, it flows in
all directions.
1.5 IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION
Management has emerged as one of the dynamic field in the
modern business scenario. The importance of communication in
management in organisation is best summed up in the words of
expert Harold Janis, "The world of management is a world of action.
Services are designed made and sold. People are hired. Services
are rendered. Policies are devised and implemented. Jobs are
learned and performed. Yet there is no practical way in which any
of these events can take place without communication."
1.5.1 Era of Specialisation
Unless the specialists know how to communicate, their vast
knowledge of a limited field remains unused. Mr. Jadhav Raje may
be expert on taxation and the life insurance but if he cannot
communicate his knowledge to others and give them the benefit of
his advice, his knowledge is wasted. Similarly in an organisation the
engineers, accountants, storekeepers and scientists must be able
to communicate with each other and their superiors.
1.5.2 An Age of Tension
Not being able to communicate can result in tremendous
mental tension (not to mention physical strain), especially when the
banks knows that their rivals are more successful only because
they are better communicators.
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1.5.3 Reduces Miscommunication
The manner in which a message is perceived by the receiver
often leads to miscommunication. To avoid this banks must learn to
communicate, keeping in mind the attitudes and mental framework
of the customers as well as employees who receives messages. If
a manager asks a new clerk to get him information about the
"composition of the liquidated party", the young man will be at a
total loss to understand, for composition means the amount paid by
a bankrupt to his creditors. Such situations arise because most
specialised branches of business have their own sub codes or
"jargon" and sometimes individual business houses have their own
special set of terms which outsiders cannot understand.
1.5.4 Healthy Organisational Environment
Many banks and insurance organisation are so large that
they may be termed "empires". They contain several branch offices
within the country and even overseas and have many sub branches
too. Not only should the managements of such organisations be
able to communicate effectively with all the units but should also be
able to do so speedily. Modern banks and insurance organisations
are managed by communication which has in recent times become
the chief management tool for achieving coordination and control.
Effective communication leads to a healthy organisational
environment, better management employee relations, proper
delegation of authority and division of work, helps to deal better
with competition and solve trade union created problems.
1.5.5 Aid to Managerial Process
This means that unless these organisations are effective,
speedy, and use the best means and instruments they will be
wasting valuable time ("time is money" in these organisations) and
will lag behind their rivals. Also while receiving communications
they tries not to receive maximum communication but pertinent
information. Effective communication promotes managerial
efficiency and performance.
1.5.6 Creates Relations
Lack of effective communication in any organisation may
lead to many problems like misunderstandings, groupism and
negative thinking. An effective and systematic communication
system can do much to solve these problems. Good relationship
within the organisation and with outsiders is essential for success in
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business. This objective can only be achieved with the help of
effective communication.
It ensures success. There is need to save on cost and time
in modern business. Only effective communication can achieve
this.
1.6 NON VERBAL COMMUNICATION
1.6.1 Concept of Verbal and Non verbal Communication
We communicate by exchanging symbols to describe our
ideas and experience. Language is a common symbol system
which we use for sharing our experience with others. We can also
use other symbols like pictures, colours, signs and sounds to
communicate. We do communicate a number of things by our facial
expressions, movements, clothing, and so on, whether we speak or
not.
Communication through words is called verbal
communication; communication through other symbols is called
non-verbal communication.
1.6.1.1 Verbal Communication
The communication mode which we rely on most often to
carry meaning from one person to another is the verbal mode.
Everyone who has ever thought about it has come to the insight,
however, that there are enormous difficulties in sole reliance on this
mode of communication. History is replete with examples of
misunderstandings among people who were relying on words to
carry meaning. Perhaps the most significant learning that has come
out of this experience has been that words themselves do not have
meaning. People have meaning, and words are simply tools that we
use for trying to convey meaning that is idiosyncratic to one person
into the idiosyncratic meaning system of the other person. One of
the difficulties with words is that we attach to them different
experiential and emotional connotations. Words are not always
associated with similar experiences or similar feelings on the part of
the listener and speaker. Other difficulties encountered in using the
verbal mode include the use of jargon, the use of clichs, and the
use of specialized vocabularies. It is often said that words have
meaning only in context; it can be better said that words only have
meaning when they are associated with people in context.
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It is not uncommon to observe people attempting to find the
right words to say what they mean. There is a myth that there is a
way to "say it right." If we extrapolate from that phenomenon, it is
easy to hypothesize that there are some people who, instead of
experiencing feelings and sensations, more often experience
language; that is, their experience parameters are defined by their
vocabularies and their ability to be articulate. The psychologist,
Piaget, describing cognitive development in children, says that we
go through three phases: concrete, imagic, and abstract. When the
little baby first experiences the world, he is incapable of a highly
differentiated emotional or sensational experience. He experiences
only distress or delight, and his/her major inputs are concrete; that
is; he touches, tastes, sees, hears, and smells things. As it
becomes necessary for him to interact with the world and significant
others in his environment in order to have his needs met, he
develops a fantasy life, an imagic experience. He can imagine
mother when mother is not concretely present. That fantasy life can
remain throughout his life. As he develops verbal fluency, he begins
to abstract, from physical stimuli which bombard him and from the
images that are triggered by those stimuli, meanings which he
attaches to his experiences. This abstract experience is a
translation of sense data into a meaning system. The difficulty with
adults, of course, is that very often we do not let into awareness the
physical sensations which we experience. We often mistrust our
fantasy lives and tend to be afraid to permit ourselves to dream. We
experience the world, then, in an abstract way rather than in a
concrete and imagic way. The meanings that we permit ourselves
to be aware of are verbal and abstract. What we abstract from the
physical stimuli which we experience is dependent on our
vocabularies and our reasoning abilities. But those three layers of
experience concrete, imagic, and abstract are going on
continuously. People experience concretely, people experience
imagically, and people experience the abstracting process which
they do when they are awake and attributing meaning to what they
see, hear, feel, taste, and touch. Not all of these meanings can be
carried from one person to another through the verbal mode only.
Verbal communication may be oral or written. Oral communication
is more natural and immediate. It needs training and practice to
speak effectively in a formal situation.
Oral communication requires the presence, simultaneous
attention of both the persons, personal presence and must be able
to respond to the body language of the other. Written
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communication can greatly extend the field and powers of oral
communication. Writing overcomes the limits of space and time
which confine speech.
1.6.1.2 Non Verbal Communication
You cannot say anything! Try to sit for one minute without
speaking. Even if you are able to keep from moving you will still
communicate rigidity, anxiety, or something. We are always saying
something. It is important to observe and try to understand what is
being communicated. In many situations people say what they think
intellectually rather than what they feel emotionally. There is some
truth in the old cliche ``actions speak louder than words.'' Body
language, carefully observed and interpreted, can tell a lot about
what others are feeling.
Nonverbal communication is learned and practiced often on
an unconscious level. We attract people by using these nonverbal
signals, and sometimes those we attract (or who are attracted to
us) are unwholesome. As we grow older and become more aware
of ourselves we should be able to recognize and weed out the
unwholesome in favor of those for whom we have an affinity.
Non-verbal methods of communication can be consciously
created and used with both written and oral communication.
Graphics of all kinds can enrich the message presented in a
document or in a speech. Pictures, maps, charts, graphs and
diagrams add quality and clarity to a verbal message.
Besides using these symbols consciously, we may convey
meaning by facial expressions, gesture, tone of voice, clothing, and
other aspects of our personality and body. This is called body
language.
Non-verbal methods can be consciously used to enhance
what we speak; a trained speaker can use gesture, facial
expression and posture to enrich the meaning of words.
A good deal of body language is unintentional and
unconscious. It occurs through visual appearances and sounds
related to us and around us. Personal appearance, colours used in
clothing and in office decor, stationery, voices and other office
sounds make an impression on others; they communicate
information about us.
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Non-verbal communication comprises all the impressions we
receive and the interpretations we make from what we perceive
through our senses.
Non-verbal communication occurs even when there is no
verbal communication. And it always accompanies verbal
communication, whether oral or written; it is more difficult to control
and may sometimes betray the truth which the speaker/writer is
hiding behind the words. Hence the saying, "non-verbal
communication speaks louder than Words,"
Thus, there can be unintended and unconscious non-verbal
communication as well as conscious use of signs and sounds to
communicate. An understanding of non-verbal methods and
aspects of communication will help you to improve your oral and
written presentation by using the methods and by gaining control
over body language.
1.6.2 Use of Non Verbal Communication
Non-verbal methods have almost instant effect
because of quicker grasp by the recipient. It takes less time to see
a colour or picture, and to hear a horn or bell than to hear or read
and understand words and sentences. This quality of speed in
conveyance and response makes non-verbal methods extremely
useful in many situations.
1. For traffic signs and signals, it is the red or green colour or a
pictorial representation that tells the road user of the safety
or danger of proceeding. Motorists and pedestrians respond
at once on hearing a horn or a whistle.
2. Visual non-verbal methods are extremely useful as an aid to
verbal communication; maps, charts and graphs are
absolutely necessary for conveying ideas related, to
geography, locations, data, and most of the sciences. They
can present a large amount of complex data in a compact
form; one page can contain material which would need
several pages to convey in words. This makes the
information available conveniently, at a glance; comparisons
can be made and conclusions drawn by studying a single
sheet of paper which shows the data in a graph or a chart.
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3. Human beings respond more powerfully to pictures, colours
and plain sounds than to language. A cry of agony arouses a
much stronger response than a tale of woe; a film showing
the actual events or a story is more effective than a narrated
or written story. News on the TV is more interesting, effective
and realistic than on the radio because of the visuals.
4. For illiterate people, the best method of conveying important
information is by non-verbal symbols. Bottles and containers
of poisons are marked with a skull and cross-bones as a
warning; illiterate drivers can manage with the non-verbal
traffic signals and signs.
5. Films are used to explain processes to people who may not
follow oral explanations easily. Actual or filmed
demonstration is useful for teaching processes. Non-verbal
communication can overcome the barrier of language.
1.6.3 Attributes of Verbal and Non Verbal Communication
1 Speed
Written communication is slower in preparation, in
conveyance and in reception; it takes more time to draft, type,
dispatch, and to receive and read a letter than it takes to speak,
and to hear, listen to, and understand an oral message. Feedback
is also slower in written communication.
2 Record
Written communication serves as a record and can be used
for future reference. It is a documentary proof, and can be used as
legal evidence. Oral communication may be taped for later
reference, but the authenticity of the voice may be questioned;
moreover, tapes can be edited and the message distorted. Written
records and documents are more reliable and acceptable.
3 Precision and Accuracy
Written communication is more precise and accurate than
oral. Choice of precise words is possible in written communication
because the writer has the time to look for suitable words and
phrases, and to revise and change the draft, if necessary. In oral
communication, it is not always possible to be so precise in the
choice of words; there is no time to seek and consider words while
speaking; however, the recipient can seek clarification on the spot.
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4 Support
Oral communication has the support of vocal tone and
gestures and expressions which enrich the meaning of the words.
This is not available with written communication, however,
examples and illustrations serves the above purpose.
5 Length
A written message is usually shorter than an oral
communication. The situation of oral communication requires some
preliminary and closing remarks, while for written messages there
are standard formats for opening and closing that can keep the
message short. On the other hand written communication is
suitable for long and lengthy communication.
6 Expense
Written communication requires stationery, preparation, and
transmission, all of which cost money. Oral communication can also
cost a great deal since it requires simultaneous presence and
attention of the two parties, and getting together costs money.
Costs will depend on the availability of the required person(s) at the
particular place. Each type requires different channels for
transmission. Availability and cost of each of the channels is a
factor to be considered.
1.6.4 Various Methods of Non Verbal Communication
Non-verbal methods may be visual or auditory. Visual
methods are those which are seen and auditory methods are those
which are heard. Signs, pictures, colour, designs are visual; a
sound, bells, tunes, whistles are auditory.
1 Visuals: Appearance and Other Cues
We say a great deal to each other about who we are and
how we experience each other and the rest of the world through
symbolic means. The symbolic communication mode is essentially
passive, and messages emitted in this way are very easily
misinterpreted.
What are some of the symbols that we use? First, our choice
of clothes can tell a great deal about who we are, what our values
are, what our status is, how conservative or liberal we are. We
associate differences in occupational status with different uniforms.
The banker wears a suit; the farmer wears overalls, and so on.
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The second set of symbols with which we often associate
meaning is hair. The type of hairdo, length and color of hair, and
the presence or absence of facial hair say a great deal about who
we are. However, these signals are often highly ambiguous.
A third symbolic form is jewelry. Married people often wear
wedding rings, some people do not wear a watch, and some people
wear highly expensive jewelry, and so on. These are passive
messages that are given out continuously to other people. A flag in
the lapel, a red ribbon, an earring in one ear or in the nose say
many things to other people.
A fourth form of symbolic communication to other people is
cosmetics, or makeup. We associate meanings with different ways
women apply makeup to their bodies. The prostitute usually has
heavier makeup than other women. The man who uses a great
many cosmetics is giving out a symbolic message about the
meaning that his world has for him.
A fifth symbolic mode is the choice of automobiles. The
business executive who drives a sports car is giving out a different
set of messages to the world than his colleague who drives a luxury
sedan or an ordinary family car.
A sixth symbolic mode is the choice and location of our
houses. Social status is directly related to the type of dwelling one
life in and its location.
Seventh, the geography of our living spaces is a form of
symbolic communication. If you sit behind your desk in your office
interviewing somebody who is on the other side of the desk, you
are giving out a fundamentally different set of messages than if the
two of you sit face to face with no intervening furniture.
So we are giving out a continuous stream of signals about
our meaning to other people through the symbols that we choose to
surround ourselves and invest ourselves with. These symbols are
essentially passive. They are, however, a real part of our
communication. When we are talking, when we are not talking, and
when we are sleeping, we emit passive symbolic signals
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2 Visuals: Cues
A cue is a type of communication used by an adult to let a
child know what is expected of him/her in a given situation. Cues
are a type of receptive communication.
Designing and using a consistent routine is the beginning of
teaching cues. Given time in this type of the routine, the child will
first begin to anticipate his/her part in the routine. Given more
experience with the routine, the child may begin to anticipate the
routine from some part of the routine.
Touch cues are ways an adult can touch a child to
communicate a desired action. For example, an adult may gently
pull a child's arm upward with a grasp at the wrist to cue the child to
lift arm during a dressing routine.
A sensory cue is some sensory input used to help a child
anticipate an event: For example, a smell of lotion before it is
applied to the child's arm or the sound of water splashing before
placing the child in the bathtub.
Object cues are some concrete piece of a routine that is
used to represent that routine. For example, a diaper may be an
object cue for diaper changing.
When deciding what cues to use with a child, it is important
to remember to select cues that the child can easily discriminate
one from the other. Otherwise the cues may be confusing to the
child.
3 Visuals: Colour
Colour is a very important and powerful means of
communication. Colour is so much a part of our daily life; we use it
in clothing, design, and decoration; we introduce colour to enliven a
dull environment. Colours are associated with different moods and
feelings like black with death and sorrow, white with peace and
purity, red with danger and so on.
Colour has psychological effect; motivation and state of mind
of employees is influenced by the colour in the place of work.
Pleasant and cooling colours in the work-place have good influence
on workers. Black and other dark and gloomy colours are known to
reduce productivity of workers; very bright and gaudy colours may
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be disturbing and over-exciting; well-matched and softly blending
colours are pleasant and soothing.
Colour is an important means of formal communication.
Think of traffic signals; nothing could be more important than to
convey correctly and instantly, that it is dangerous to proceed.
Matters of life and death are dependent on colour for
communication
Besides traffic signals, colour is mainly used for classification
and identification. In the chemical industry, colour is used to identify
drums, pipes, cylinders or containers of a particular material or gas,
e.g., red cylinders are used only for cooking gas. The cosmetics
industry uses colour for soaps and shampoos to make them
attractive as well as to classify and differentiate the various types.
In offices, carbon copies of forms, orders, challans and other
documents are made out on papers of different colours in order to
distinguish copies meant for different departments. Teams,
regiments and countries have their combination of colours on their
flag.
Colour gives an added dimension to maps, chart and
graphs, and makes it possible to convey a greater amount of
information within the same visual/graphic representation.
Pictorial representation: A large variety of pictures from simple
drawing to sophisticated coloured pictures and photographs are
used on posters and in advertisements.
4 Visuals: Charts and graphs
In a country like India, with a large number of illiterate and
semi-literate people, a picture with very few words is more suitable
for mass communication. Pictures are universally understood, and
more easily remembered. They make an immediate impact
because they are easier to "take in" than a written message.
Writing being linear (moving in a line), requires practiced eye
movement, while a picture may be tackled by the recipient in any
order that suits the eye.
A poster combines pictures and words. The use of
words is kept to the minimum. A poster can convey simple
instructions or a process by a series of pictures. It can be used for
education and persuasion in matters like the importance of saving,
the danger of drinking, the value of neat and clean appearance, etc.
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Charts and graphs are pictorial representations of statistical
information and can be made in different ways. Special skills and
techniques are needed to prepare them; they cannot be,
understood by the uneducated-, even educated persons need
some explanation and training before they can follow a chart or a
graph. There are great advantages in this method of presenting
statistical data. The overall situation can be seen at a glance, and
the relationships between the figures are seen more easily than in
tables. It needs less space than description.
Charts and graphs must be properly titled and labelled to
show what information is being represented; the date of the
information must be shown. Graphs and charts must always have a
scale and a key to explain the symbols used.
Maps are representations of territory and are used for
conveying the space relationships between places. They are used
for geographical information of all kinds, such as transport routes,
climatic conditions, distribution of population, crops, animal life and
vegetation; sociological factors like religion, literacy, health and
nutrition can also be represented by maps. Maps of small areas are
used to give information about routes and to locate places. Key and
scale are needed in all maps.
A sign is a mark used as a representation of something; for
example, + for "plus", x for "multiply" skull and cross bones for
"danger." A sign is mostly visual, and has a fixed meaning. A signal
is a previously agreed movement which serves to warn, direct, or
command; for example, the coming on of a green light or the
waving of Green flag is a signal to go ahead; the firing of a gun
salute signals the arrival of VIP a signal may be visual or auditory.
Signs communicate instantly; therefore, they are most useful
in communicating simple but important ideas. Traffic signs must
instantly convey information to the drivers about what lies ahead on
the road. Words cannot be so quick as signs; where instant
decision has to be taken on the information conveyed, signs and
signals are the only effective method.
Previous knowledge and a certain amount of conditioning
are required for a person to respond to signs and signals; but once
this is done, the response is a reflex action. A driver does not have
to think that he must apply brakes when his eyes see a red flag or
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light; he just applies brakes. Most of us do not need to think that we
must keep off places and things which show a skull with two cross
bones below it. These are universally known signs for mass
communication.
5 Visuals: Signals
Signals are commonly used for communication among
members of a group. Individuals use visual signs and signals to
communicate if they are not within hearing distance of each other.
Such signs may be made with hands, lights, coloured cloth, smoke,
or anything which can be seen at the required distance.
Signals are movements the child uses to communicate
needs, desires and feelings to adults. Signals are a form of
expressive communication. Signals may start as a behavior that the
child is not intentionally using to communicate. But because an
adult consistently responds to this behavior, the child begins to
understand that producing this behavior causes a particular event
to occur. For example, a child may inadvertently clap hands with an
adult. If hand clapping is enjoyable for the child and the adult
consistently responds by hand clapping with the child, the child may
signal for more hand clapping by clapping the adults hand again.
Signals are usually first seen within an already occurring activity. As
the child becomes more sophisticated, he or she may produce the
signal to initiate the activity.
6 Visuals: Symbols
Symbols are representations of an event, action, object,
person, or place that can be used to communicate about the event,
action, object, person, or place. Symbols can be used for both
receptive and expressive communication. Objects, parts of objects,
pictures, print, actions, gestures, signs, and speech can all be
symbols. Symbols may start as cues and signals. If a child
recognizes a cue out of context, that cue may be acting as a
symbol. If a child uses a signal or an object cue to communicate
about an event, action, object, person or place out of context, the
child may be using that signal or cue as a symbol.
The more a symbol resembles what it represents, the more
concrete that symbol is. The less a symbol resembles what it
represents, the more abstract that symbol is. An example of a
concrete symbol would be a spoon, used during mealtimes, to
represent mealtime. A less concrete (or more abstract) symbol
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would be a small line drawing of a person eating. The spoken
phrase "time to eat" would be the most abstract because those
sounds don't look, smell, or feel like food or the action of eating.
Concrete symbols are more easily associated with what they
represent than are abstract symbols. When determining how
closely a symbol resembles an event, action, object, person, or
place it is important to consider how the child perceives that event,
action, object, person, or place. For example, a symbol based on
visual similarities may not be as concrete for a person with a visual
impairment as it would be for an individual who is fully sighted. A
symbol based on an action may be abstract for an individual with
physical impairment such that he/she had never performed that
action.
7 Auditory Symbols
The use of auditory symbols is very limited. Only very simple
information can be conveyed by sounds. Sound signals are used
mainly for warning; in war time, sirens are used to warn about
enemy air-raids; sirens are used in factories to warn of fire or
accident, and by police vehicles. Whistles are used by the police
and the army to call members to assemble, and to convey different
instructions. Trains and ships use whistles as signal for departure
and for warning. Bells and buzzers are used to indicate the starting
and ending of work periods; bells are also used by special vehicles
like the fire engine and the ambulance, to warn other road users to
give way. A bell with a pleasant sound is associated with worship
since it is used to call the faithful to prayer in many religions.
Tunes are often used as an identification mark. Programs on
the radio and the TV are introduced with a signature tune;
advertisements on these media are recognised by their tunes.
Secret organisations use tunes which members may hum or whistle
to identify and recognise members.
1.6.5 Body Language
Body movements indicate things about another person that
may have great importance for creating communication or give you
reasons to avoid it. We all have certain specific behavioural
tendencies. Thats not to say were pigeonholed into being one
thing or another. We are not locked into these tendencies-but more
times than not, we tend to behave the same way again and again.
Why? By default, we return to what we feel is safe and comfortable.
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Often we ask ourselves, Why did he say that?, Why did he
do that?, or Who does he think he is? These questions might be
rephrased as, Why did you say that?, Why did you do that? and
Who do you think you are? Each of us is different. Fortunately we
are predictably different and our differences make us
simultaneously attractive and frustrating to others.
The secret of persuasion is to understand yourself and
others. Then you can adapt effectively to the needs of the person
and the situation. Information is power, but its only powerful if you
know how to obtain and use it.
David Golman, author of Emotional Intelligence, defined
EQ as an ability to understand ones own feelings and to express
empathy for the feelings of others. His studies showed that EQ is
four times more likely than IQ to indicate your level of success.
According to Golman, the communication skills responsible for EQ
are:
1 Empathy & Graciousness
Since ancient times, humankind has attempted to read
others and explain the reason for their differences. Credible
personality models have been traced back as the writings of
Hippocrates, Aristotle, and Chanakya for a comparison of the
better-known personality profiles. The ability to influence others is
dependent on the degree of willingness you and your partner wish
to exercise in being co-operative and getting along. The greater
your ability to adapt to your partners behaviour and to
communicate in his language, the more receptive he will be to you
and the greater your chance of success will be. The key to
influencing others lies in your ability to present your needs in terms
of meeting their needs, and in wording your proposal in a way that
is most receptive and understandable to them. In short, we want
benefits spelled out for us in our own language. We want these
benefits in a way that we can understand, so that we can put them
to good use.
If you want to influence someone, you have to do the work of
delivering your message in the receivers behavioural language.
You must design your presentations to meet his needs so he can
immediately see the benefits.
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2 Readiness and Enthusiasm
` When people are ready to take action, theyll often sit
forward in their seats or stand with their hands on their hips. They
are anxious to get going. They will stand or sit in an erect position.
They are alert, with wide, bright eyes. Their body motions are alive
and animated. Their words cant keep up with their hands. When
you see these signs, get going-because theyre ready.
3 Frustration
Most of us are familiar with these signs. How many times a
day do you see some of these gestures: hand-wringing, running
fingers through hair, clenching hands or jaw, an exasperated sigh,
or tension in the small muscles of the face? If you see these signs
in others retreat before approaching with any request!
4 Superiority
People who feel superior to you often appear relaxed, with
their hands clasped behind their heads or backs. The chin and
head is often held high. They may lean back in their chairs, or lean
their bodies against a wall, table or desk. When someone behaves
this way its important for you to control your emotions, apply your
communication skills and focus on the issues on hand.
5 Boredom
Bored people tap their fingers or feet. Theyre often pre-
occupied with personal grooming or other insignificant details, such
as sharpening a pencil. They will also point their bodies to the door,
and often check their watches. Often asking a question or stating
your observation of their behaviours will involve them in the
conversation.
6 Nervousness
Nervous people cover their mouths when they speak. Their
voices are often high and may even break. Their speech is hesitant,
and they use ums and ahs incessantly. They may clear their
throats and wring their hands while looking down at their shoes.
You may also see their facial muscles twitching as they shift back
and forth on their feet.
Its important for you to create a safe environment for them
to speak, to maintain rapport and to be patient and encouraging.
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Body language is an important factor in oral communication.
In face-to-face situations, an important message is communicated
by a number of factors, like clothing, appearance, voice, posture,
facial expressions, gestures and other body movements. Much of
body language is involuntary or unconscious but it makes a
powerful impact. Body language can make or mar a presentation.
The study -of body motion as related to speech is called kinesics.
7 Paralanguage
"Non-lexical" vocal communications may be considered a
type of nonverbal communication, in its broadest sense, as it can
suggest many emotional nuances. This category includes a number
of sub-categories:
Inflection (rising, falling, flat...)
Pacing (rapid, slow, measured, changing...)
Intensity (loud, soft, breathy...)
Tone (nasal, operatic, growling, wheedling, whining...)
Pitch (high, medium, low, changes...)
Pauses (meaningful, disorganized, shy, hesitant...)]
The voice has characteristics like tone, volume, and pitch.
Tone is the quality of the voice. Volume is the loudness or softness,
which is modified according to the number, of, persons addressed
and the distance between speaker and listener; speaking too loudly
for the situation may betray lack of self-command. Pitch is the high
or low note of the scale; a high note is usually louder and heard at a
longer distance than a low note; a high-pitched voice is often
unpleasant, and suggests immaturity or emotional disturbance. The
voice becomes high-pitched when a person is struck with fear.
Speed of speaking is another aspect of the voice. Rapid
speech indicates excitement. But if we have control, we deliberately
increase speed of speaking to tell an interesting story, and reduce
speed to create suspense, and to explain a difficult idea. Other
qualities like rhythm, clear pronunciation, and good accent, all have
an effect on the listener.
Stress on a particular syllable or word can change the
meaning and implication of the sentence. Try saying the sentence,
"Were you there last night?" in different ways, putting stress on a
different word each time, and note the difference in the meaning
implied.
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Just one word and a look can convey what might take
several sentences; for example, an explosively uttered What? could
mean, "What are you saying? Do you really mean that? I just can't
believe what you're saying!"
These non-verbal aspects of the spoken word are known as
paralanguage.
Vocalism or inflection constitutes a ninth form of nonverbal
communication. As an example, take the sentence, "I love my
children." That sentence is meaningless unless it is pronounced.
The way that sentence is packaged vocally determines the signal
that it gives to another person. For example, if the emphasis is on
the first word, "I love my children," the implication is somebody else
doesn't. If the emphasis is on the second word, "I love my children,"
a different implication is given; perhaps that some of their behavior
gets on my nerves. If the emphasis is placed on the third word, "I
love my children," the implication is that someone else's children do
not receive the same affection. If the emphasis is placed on the
final word, "I love my children," a fourth implication may be drawn,
that is, that there are other people whom I do not love. So the way
we carry our words vocally often determines the meaning that
another person is likely to infer from our message.
8 Silence
Silence can be a very effective way of communication.
Silence is not a negative absence of speech but a positive
withdrawal or suspension of speech.
In a face-to-face situation, silence may indicate several
things. It may be that the person is not sure what to say, or is so full
of feeling as to be unable to speak. Silence can be used
deliberately to convey certain feelings like anger or displeasure.
Sympathy with someone who has suffered loss is often best
expressed by keeping silent. Facial expression and posture may
indicate the feeling behind the silence.
Silence can be very embarrassing if it is not possible to
interpret it. It can be awkward in a group, when no one knows how
to break it. On the telephone, it can cause much discomfort, as one
cannot see the other and therefore has no clue from facial
expressions as to the reason for the other's silence.
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The terms "dead silence", "stony silence", "embarrassing
silence", show that silence has a quality that communicates itself.
Short silences are very effective in giving emphasis to
words. A pause before or after certain words make the words stand
out from the rest. A skillfully placed pause has the power to make
the listener more alert. In presentations, silence can be used
effectively to emphasis a point; it is often far more effective than
wild gestures or table-thumping.
9 Haptic Communication
Haptic communication is communicating by touch. This is
used in a number of contexts and also has dangers for the unwary
as touching for example where another person can in particular
circumstances, be interpreted as assault. Touch is often intimate
and can be used as an act of domination or friendship, depending
on the context and who is touching who, how and when. Yung
children and old people use more touching than people in the
middle years. Touch provides a direct contact with the other
person. This varies greatly with the purpose and setting.
Touching is perhaps the most powerful nonverbal
communication form. The skin is the body's largest organ, and
through the skin we take in a variety of stimuli. We can
communicate anger, interest, trust, tenderness, warmth, and a
variety of other emotions very potently through touching. People
differ, however, in their willingness to touch and be touched. Some
people give out nonverbal body signals that say that they do not
want to be touched, and there are other people who describe
themselves and are described by others as "touchy feely." There
are many taboos associated with this form of communication.
Persons can learn about their own personalities and self concepts
through exploring their reactions to touching and being touched.
10 Facial expression
Facial expression is an obvious communicative factor. A
cheerful face or a gloomy face influences most people who see it. A
happy or appreciative smile, a displeased frown, a look of surprise,
and several other expressions of the face can convey, with or
without words, the attitude and reaction of the communicants.
Expressions accompany the speaker's words and also indicate the
listener's reactions. An alert speaker can judge the listener's
reaction by the facial expressions which act as a constant
feedback. You can learn to use facial expressions for effect.
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11 Eye contact
Eye contact is another form of nonverbal communication.
We tend to size each other up in terms of trustworthiness through
reactions to each other's eye contact. Try a little experiment with
yourself. Remember the last time you were driving down the road
and passed a hitch-hiker. The odds are very high that you did not
look him in the eye if you passed him up. Con artists and
salespeople understand the power of eye contact and use it to
good advantage. Counselors understand that eye contact is a very
powerful way of communicating understanding and acceptance.
Speakers understand that eye contact is important in keeping an
audience interested in one's subject.
Eye contact is a difficult, disconcerting communicative factor.
The comfort level for eye contact is three seconds; if extended
beyond that, it can amount to invasion of another's space. People
who are aggressive try to fix others with a stare; if you are angry
you might express it with extended eye contact. If you give full eye
contact for too long together with an angry expression, the other
person may describe the experience as "shooting darts at me."
A person who is lying usually blinks and avoids eye contact;
unblinking eye contact could mean that the person is lying and
watching to see your reaction. Persons with lack of self confidence
often avoid eye contact.
For a person making an oral presentation it is important to
create rapport with the audience with eye contact. Presenters make
it a point to take in the whole audience with a sweep of the eye,
making brief eye contact with as many as possible.The eyes,
according to Leonardo da Vinci, are the mirror to the soul.
Confident eye contact shows trustworthiness and truthfulness.
Shifty eyes indicate aloofness and distrust.
12 Gestures
Do we expect other cultures to adopt our customs or are we
willing to adopt theirs? This might translate to how business or even
foreign relations are to be conducted. Do we compromise or force
others peoples to deal only on our terms? We may not have time to
hear a language, but taking time to learn the "signals" is a powerful
communicator.
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As the global village continues to shrink and cultures collide,
it is essential for all of us to become more sensitive, more aware,
and more observant to the myriad motions, gestures, and body
language that surround us each day. And as many of us cross over
cultural borders, it would be fitting for us to respect, learn, and
understand more about the effective, yet powerful "silent language"
of gestures.
The world is a giddy montage of vivid gestures- traffic police,
street vendors, expressway drivers, teachers, children on
playground, athletes with their exuberant hugging, clenched fists
and "high fives." People all over the world use their hands, heads,
and bodies to communicate expressively.
Without gestures, our world would be static and colorless.
The social anthropologists Edward T. Hall claim 60 percent of all
our communication is nonverbal. In that case, how can we possibly
communicate with one another without gestures?
Gestures and body language communicate as effectively as
words- maybe even more effectively. We use gestures daily, almost
instinctively, from beckoning to a waiter, or punctuating a business
presentation with visual signals to airport ground attendants guiding
an airline pilot into the jet way or a parent using a whole dictionary
of gestures to teach (or preach to) a child.
Gestures are woven inextricably in to our social lives, but
also that the "vocabulary" of gestures, can be at once informative
and entertaining... but also dangerous. Gestures can be menacing
(two drivers on a freeway), warm (an open-armed welcome),
instructive (a police man giving road directions, or even sensuous.
Bear in mind that the following gestures are in general use,
but there may always be exceptions. In recent years, Western and
contemporary values and ideas have become more popular and
has either influenced, altered, and even replaced, some of the more
traditional gestures, understanding human behavior is tricky stuff.
No two people behave in precisely the same way. Nor do people
from the same culture all perform exactly the same gestures and
body language uniformly. For almost any gestures there will
probably be a minority within a given nationality who might say
"Well, some might attach that meaning to it, but to me it means..."
and then they will provide a different interpretation.
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In the world of gestures, the best single piece of advice is to
remember the two A's - "Ask" and be "aware." If you see a motion
or gesture that is new or confusing, ask a local person what it
signifies. Then, be aware of the many body signs and customs
around you.
Gestures, the movement of arms and hands, are different
from other body language in that they tend to have a far greater
association with speech and language. Whilst the rest of the body
indicates more general emotional state, gestures can have specific
linguistic content.
Gestures have three phases: preparation, stroke and
retraction. The real message is in the stroke, whilst the preparation
and retraction elements consist of moving the arms to and from the
rest position, to and from the start and end of the stroke. Our
gestures oftentimes tell something about us that we are not able or
willing to communicate verbally. Here is a partial list of ``open'' and
``closed'' gestures``open'' are present when a person is ready
and willing to communicate, ``closed'' are present when there may
be something standing in the way of honest, complete
communication. These gestures can be observed in spouse
relationships, parentchild relationships, supervisorworker
relationships, workerclient relationships, and any other time that
two people are communicating. Maybe you will discover that your
body language has been ``telling'' on you!
Open hands, hand covering mouth, palms up making fists,
unbuttoning jacket, peering over top of glasses, spontaneous eye
contact, glancing at exit, smile frown, leaning forward, leaning
back, relaxed, rigid , hands away from face, looking at floor,
standing straight, moving away, feet apart, legs crossed, shaking
foot ,shoulders squared fidgeting, uncrossed legs, locked ankles ,
Welcoming: handshake, folded arms, touching, cold shoulder,
patting, open palm tapping, rubbing palms together, hand wringing,
affirmative head nods, head lowered, eye contact, lack of eye
contact , calm, use of facial movements, staring or eyes closed
body positioned toward other, rocking, seating arrangement with
no barriers stalling for time (light pipe, clean glasses, etc.)
13 Posture
Posturing is a form of nonverbal communication. How one
postures the body when seated or standing constitutes a set of
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potential signals that may communicate how one is experiencing
his environment. A person who folds his arms and legs is often said
to be defensive. It is sometimes observed that a person under
severe psychological threat will assume the body position of a
fetus. The seductive person opens his body to other people and
postures himself so that his entire body is exposed to the other
person.
Posture is the way we hold ourselves. Though difficult to
interpret, it contributes much to communication. The way we hold
our body, the way we stand or sit indicates something about our
feelings and thoughts, attitudes and health. Sitting stiffly, may show
tension; comfortably leaning back conveys a relaxed mood, eagerly
leaning- forward shows the listener's interest in the speaker.
Posture can indicate disregard or disrespect for others who are
present; polite and well-bred persons are usually careful of how
they stand or sit in the presence of visitors and in formal situations.
Graceful posture is a great asset in any business.
1.7. SEVEN CS OF COMMUNICATION
Seven Cs are the seven most useful qualities of effective
communication. They are called Seven Cs because name of each
of these qualities starts with a C, and they are seven in numbers,
therefore they are called Seven Cs. Although they are just seven
small words starting with a letter C but their importance for effective
business communication is same as the importance of seven seas
for the world.
1.7.1 Completeness
Message Receiver- either listener or reader, desires
complete information to their question. e.g. suppose you are
working with multinational company who is engaging with
engineering goods, like A.C. Now let say one of your major
customer wants some technical information regarding thermostat
(because he wants to convey the same to the end users). In this
case you have to provide him complete information in a short span
of time. If possible, provide him some extra information which he
does not know, in this way you can maintain a good business
relation with him, otherwise he may switch to another company.
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Five Ws: One way to make your message complete is to
answer the five Ws: WHO, WHAT, WHEN, WHERE, WHY? The
five question method is useful when you write requests,
announcements, or other informative messages. For instance, to
order (request) merchandise, make clear WHAT you want, WHEN
u need it, WHERE it is to be sent.
1.7.2 Conciseness
Conciseness means convey the message by using fewest
words. Conciseness is the prerequisite to effective business
communication. Hence, a concise message saves the time and
expenses for both the parties.
For achieving the conciseness you have to consider the following.
- Avoid wordy expression
- Include only relevant material
- Avoid unnecessary repetition.
- Avoid Wordy Expression
E.g. Wordy: - at this time. Instead of at this time you can just use
only a concise word: - NOW, Always try to use To the point
Approach in business scenario perspective.
Include only relevant information:
- Always try to provide only relevant information to the
receiver of the message. Lets say one of your customers
requested
- For clients of the company in reply you should provide
simply list of clients at the panel of your company.
- No need to provide detailed business information about
client at all.
- Observe the following suggestions to Include only relevant
information.
- Stick to the purpose of message Delete irrelevant words
Avoid long introduction, unnecessary explanation etc. Get to
the important point concisely.
- Avoid un-necessary Repetition: Sometimes repetition is
necessary for focusing some special issue. If the same thing
is said without two or three reasons, the messages become
wordy and boring. Thats why try to avoid Un-necessary
repetition.
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- Some ways to eliminate unnecessary words: Use shorter
name after you have mentioned the long once. E.g.
Spectrum communications Private limited use spectrum. Use
pronouns or initials E.g. Instead of world trade organization
use WTO or You can use IT for Information Technology.
(Keeping in views that receiver knows about these terms)
1.7.3 Consideration
Consideration means To consider the receivers
Interest/Intention. It is very important in effective communication
while writing a message you should always keep in mind your
target group consideration is very important C among all the
seven Cs.
Three specific ways to indicate consideration: First, focus on
you instead of I or We, second, show audience benefit or
interest of the receiver and third, emphasize positive, pleasant
facts. Using you help you, but over use lead a negative reaction.
Always write a message in such a way how audience should
be benefited from it.
We attitude: I am delighted to announce that we will extend to
make shopping more.
You attitude: You will be able to shop in the evening with the
extended hours. Readers may react positively when benefit are
shown to them. Always try to address his/her need and want.
Always show/write to reader what has been done so far as
his/her query is concerned. And always avoid that his/her need and
wants. Always avoid that has not been done so far.
1.7.4 Concreteness
It means that message should be specific instead of general.
Misunderstanding of words creates problems for both parties
(sender and receiver). When you talk to your client always use facts
and figures instead of generic or irrelevant information.
To achieve the Concreteness: use specific facts and figures,
choose image building words e.g General He is very intelligent
student of class and stood first in the class.
E.g. Nehras GPA in B.Sc Electrical Engineering 2k3-f session was
3.95/4.0; he stood first in his class. Always write on a very solid
ground. It should definitely create good image as well.
38
1.7.5 Clarity
Accurately is a purpose of clarity. In effective business
communication the message should be very much clear. So that
reader can understand it easily. You should always choose precise
words. Always choose familiar and easy words. Construct effective
sentences and paragraphs.
In business communication always use precise words rather
longer statements. If you have a choice between long words and
shorter one, always use shorter one. You should try your level best
to use familiar/easy to understand words so that your reader will
quickly understand it.
Next familiar words
after subsequent
home domicile
for example e.g.
pay remuneration
invoice statement for payments
1.7.6 Courtesy
Knowing your audience allows you to use statements of
courtesy; be aware of your message receiver. True courtesy
involves being aware not only of the perspective of others, but also
their feelings. Courtesy stems from a sincere you-attitude. It is not
merely politeness with mechanical insertions of please and
Thank you. Although Appling socially accepted manners is a form
of courtesy. Rather, it is politeness that grows out respect and
concern for others. Courteous communication generates a special
tone in their writing and speaking.
The following are suggestions for generating a courteous
tone: Be sincerely tactful, thoughtful and appreciative. Use
expressions that show respect for the others Choose
nondiscriminatory expressions be sincerely Tactful, Thoughtful and
Appreciative Though few people are intentionally abrupt or blunt,
these negative traits are common cause of discourtesy. Avoid
expression like those in the left hand column below; rephrase them
as shown in the right-hand column.
Tactless, Blunt
More Tactful
Stupid letter; I cant understand
I should understand it, as there is no confusing word in this letter,
could you please explain it once again?
39
Its your fault, you did not properly Sometimes my wording is
not precise; let me try again read my latest FAX.
Thoughtfulness and appreciation Writers who send cordial,
courteous messages of deserved congratulations and appreciation
(to a person inside & outside) help to build goodwill. The value of
goodwill or public esteem for the firm may be worth thousands of
dollars.
1.7.7 Correctness
At the core of correctness are the proper grammar,
punctuation and spelling. However, message must be perfect
grammatically and mechanically. The term correctness, as applied
to business messages also mean three characteristics o Use the
right level of language o Check the accuracy of figures, facts and
words and maintain acceptable writing mechanics.
Formal writing is often associated with scholarly writing:
doctoral dissertations, scholarly, legal documents, top-level
government agreements and other material where formality is
demanded. Informal writing is more characteristic of business
writing. Here you use words that are short, well-known and
conversational as in this comparison list:
More Formal Less Formal
Participate Join
Endeavor try
Ascertain find out
Utilize Use
Interrogate question.
Avoid substandard language. Using correct words, incorrect
grammar, faulty pronunciation all suggest as inability to use good
English. Some examples follow:
Substandard More Acceptable
Aint isnt, arent
Cant hardly
Can hardly
Aim to proving aim to prove
Desirous to desirous of
Stoled stolen
40
Check Accuracy of Facts, Figures and words it is impossible
to convey meaning precisely, through words, from the head of the
sender to a receiver. Our goal is to be as precise as possible, which
means checking and double-checking and double-checking to
ensure that the figures, facts and words you use are correct. A
good check of your data is to have another person read and
comment on the validity of the material
- Figures and facts
- Verify your statistical data
- Double-check your totals
- Avoid guessing at laws that have an impact on you, the
sender and your
- Have someone else read your message if the topic involves
data.
- Determine whether a fact has changed over time.
1.8 SUMMARY
In the above chapter we learnt that the communication is
complex phenomenon which involves various stages commencing
from the ideation, message, encoding, transmission, receiver,
decoding, feedback and the sender. Non verbal and verbal
communication is very significant to understand as verbal
communication involves the written and oral whereas the non
verbal communication includes the visuals, auditory, body language
and etc.
1.9 EXERCISE:
Answer the following questions
1. Write a comprehensive account on written and oral
communication.
2. Distinguish between verbal and non-verbal communication?
3. Discuss the significance of face-to-face communication in an
organisation.
4. What do you understand by non-verbal communication?
Explain its salient features?
5. What are the different types of non-verbal communication?
Explain each in brief.
6. Explain the term "Kinesics" and write a note on the four
major types of body language.
41
7. Write a note on signs, symbols and signals and their use in
organisational communication.
8. Explain what is meant by visual communication. Give
examples of each and write a detailed note on it.
9. List the advantages and disadvantages of oral
communication.
10. List the advantages and disadvantages of written form of
communication.
11. Why does oral communication sometimes result in over
communication? How can this problem be overcome?
12. What are the ways to make oral communication effective?
Explain.
13. How can you make written communication effective?
Explain.
14. What are the various methods of communication?
15. What are the essential conditions to make our Face-to-Face
Communication effective?
16. What is the importance of written communication?
17. Explain with examples why the receiver should be more
careful while interpreting a non-verbal message.
18. What is the significance of gestures in our communication?
Discuss.
19. What precaution will you take while communicating by
gesture?
20. How will you understand the need of your boss when he
enters office in the morning? Give one example.
21. Explain with examples how media advertisements exploit the
human weakness of dress and appearance.
22. What role do different colours play in our day-to-day
communication?
23. What importance do the charts, maps and graphs have in
our business communication?
24. What is the importance of dress, appearance and distance?
25. What are the principles on which the Visual Communication
works?
26. What are the characteristics and requirements of a good
poster?
27. Write notes on:
a) Face-to-face communication
b) Facial expressions
c) Gestures
d) Body language
42
e) Silence
f) Signs and signals
g) Graphs, maps and charts
h) Colour
i) Proxemics
j) Special uses of face-to-face communication
k) Lapses of written communication
l) How non-verbal communication works
m) Colour, layout and design
n) Posters

43
2
Unit II
BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION
Unit Structure
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Barriers to Communication
2.2.1 Concept of barriers to communication
2.3 Nature of Barriers
2.3.1. Verbal Communication Barriers
2.3.2. Nonverbal Communication Barriers
2.3.3. Para-verbal communication Barriers
2.3.4. Barriers of Inconsistency
2.3.5. Listening Barriers
2.3.6. Barriers at Communication Process
2.3.7 Transmitting Barriers
2.3.8 Decoding Barriers
2.3.9 General Barriers to Communication
2.3.10 Semantic Barriers
2. 3.11 Linguistic or Language Barriers
2.3.12 Psychological Barriers
2.3.13 Interpersonal Barriers
2.4. Space/Time Distance barriers
2.5 Gender barriers
2.6 How to overcome the barriers to communication?
2.6.1 To Overcome Listening Barriers
2.6.2 To Overcome Perception Related Barriers
2.6.3 To Overcome Verbal Communication Barriers
2.6.4 Facilitating Communication
2.8 How to achieve effective communication?
2.9 Summary
2.10 Exercise
44
2.1 OBJECTIVES
To find out the possible barriers to communication
To chalk out the strategies to overcome the barriers
2.2 BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION
Despite the importance of understanding others, the quality
of communication is generally poor in most organizations.
Research suggests that misunderstandings are the rule, rather than
the exception.
When people are under stress, they are more apt to inject
communication barriers into their conversation. These barriers can
exist on a daily basis as we may work with people who have
different opinions, values, beliefs, and needs than our own. Our
ability to exchange ideas with others, understand others
perspectives, solve problems and successfully utilise the steps and
processes presented in this chapter will depend significantly on
how effectively we are able to communicate with others.
2.2.1 Concept of barriers to communication
Most of those communication barriers despite of their origins
may be, in fact, explained by difference in perception. Our mind
organises and processes all received information accordingly to
specific rules determined by our genetic matrix, our life experience
and resulting personality. It creates a mental map that represents
our perception of reality.
In no case are the perceptions of different persons identical.
The mental images of the same event, different persons may have,
are different as the perception of each of them is unique
accordingly to their personality.
While communicating we are choosing details that are
important for us. This is called selective perception. Using it, we are
trying to send our message as relevant as we can. However we
shouldn't forget that our perception remains always personal. When
receiving message we try to fit given information in our existing
mental pattern. If something doesn't fit we tend to distort
information rather than modify the pattern.
45
To control communication and correct eventual errors we are
providing feedback, which is the most important tool to determine,
by sender, whether or not the message has been received as
intended. The methods and channels for feedback may be different.
We may give feedback by repeating received information or asking
additional questions in order to clarify the meaning, or by giving
signs of the state of our understanding by nodding, smiling,
producing specific sounds, etc.
2.3 NATURE OF BARRIERS
2.3.1. Verbal Communication Barriers
The act of communicating involves verbal, nonverbal, and
paraverbal components. The verbal component refers to the
content of our message the choice and arrangement of our words.
The nonverbal component refers to the message we send through
our body language. The para-verbal component refers to how we
say what we say - the tone, pacing and volume of our voices.
Our use of language has tremendous power in the type of
atmosphere that is created at the problem-solving table. Words that
are critical, blaming, judgmental or accusatory tend to create a
resistant and defensive mindset that is not conducive to productive
problem solving. On the other hand, we can choose words that
normalize the issues and problems and reduce resistance. Phrases
such as "in some districts, people may . . .", "it is not uncommon for
. . ." and "for some folks in similar situations" are examples of this.
Sending effective messages requires that we state our point
of view as briefly and succinctly as possible. Listening to a
rambling, unorganized speaker is tedious and discouraging - why
continue to listen when there is no interchange? Lengthy
dissertations and circuitous explanations are confusing to the
listener and the message loses its concreteness, relevance, and
impact. This is your opportunity to help the listener understand
YOUR perspective and point of view. Choose your words with the
intent of making your message as clear as possible, avoiding
jargon and unnecessary, tangential information.
2.3.2. Nonverbal Communication Barriers
The power of nonverbal communication cannot be
underestimated. In his book, Silent Messages, Professor Albert
46
Mehrabian says the messages we send through our posture,
gestures, facial expression, and spatial distance account for 55% of
what is perceived and understood by others. In fact, through our
body language we are always communicating, whether we want to
or not!
2.3.2.1 Facial Expression
The face is perhaps the most important conveyor of
emotional information. A face can show enthusiasm, energy, and
approval, express confusion or boredom, and scowl with
displeasure. The eyes are particularly expressive in telegraphing
joy, sadness, anger, or confusion.
2.3.2.2 Postures and Gestures
Our body postures can create a feeling of warm openness or
cold rejection. For example, when someone faces us, sitting quietly
with hands loosely folded in the lap, a feeling of anticipation and
interest is created. A posture of arms crossed on the chest portrays
a feeling of inflexibility. The action of gathering up one is materials
and reaching for a purse signals a desire to end the conversation.
2.3.3. Para-verbal communication Barriers
Para-verbal communication refers to the messages that we
transmit through the tone, pitch, and pacing of our voices. It is how
we say something, not what we say. Professor Mehrabian states
that the para-verbal message accounts for approximately 38% of
what is communicated to someone. A sentence can convey entirely
different meanings depending on the emphasis on words and the
tone of voice. For example, the statement, "I didn't say you were
stupid" has six different meanings, depending on which word is
emphasized.
2.3.4. Barriers of Inconsistency
In all of our communications we want to strive to send
consistent verbal, para-verbal and nonverbal messages. When our
messages are inconsistent, the listener may become confused.
Inconsistency can also create a lack of trust and undermine the
chance to build a good working relationship.
When a person sends a message with conflicting verbal,
para-verbal and nonverbal information, the nonverbal information
tends to be believed. Consider the example of someone, through a
clenched jaw, hard eyes, and steely voice, telling you, they are not
47
mad. Which are you likely to believe? What you see or what you
hear?
2.3.5. Listening Barriers
"Listening in dialogue is listening more to meaning than to
words . . .In true listening, we reach behind the words, see through
them, to find the person who is being revealed. Listening is a
search to find the treasure of the true person as revealed verbally
and nonverbally. There is the semantic problem, of course. The
words bear a different connotation for you than they do for me.
Consequently, I can never tell you what you said, but only what I
heard. I will have to rephrase what you have said, and check it out
with you to make sure that what left your mind and heart arrived in
my mind and heart intact and without distortion." - John Powell,
theologian
The key to receiving messages effectively is listening.
Listening is a combination of hearing what another person says and
psychological involvement with the person who is talking. Listening
requires more than hearing words. It requires a desire to
understand another human being, an attitude of respect and
acceptance, and a willingness to open one's mind to try and see
things from another is point of view.
Listening requires a high level of concentration and energy.
It demands that we set aside our own thoughts and agenda, put
ourselves in anothers shoes and try to see the world through that
persons eyes. True listening requires that we suspend judgment,
evaluation, and approval in an attempt to understand another is
frame of reference, emotions, and attitudes. Listening to
understand is, indeed, a difficult task!
Often, people worry that if they listen attentively and patiently
to a person who is saying something they disagree with, they are
inadvertently sending a message of agreement. When we listen
effectively we gain information that is valuable to understanding the
problem as the other person sees it. We gain a greater
understanding of the other persons perception. After all, the truth is
subjective and a matter of perception. When we have a deeper
understanding of anothers perception, whether we agree with it or
not, we hold the key to understanding that persons motivation,
attitude, and behavior. We have a deeper understanding of the
problem and the potential paths for reaching agreement. Learning
48
to be an effective listener is a difficult task for many people.
However, the specific skills of effective listening behavior can be
learned. It is our ultimate goal to integrate these skills into a
sensitive and unified way of listening.
2.3.6. Barriers at Communication Process
Encoding Barriers: The process of selecting and organizing
symbols to represent a message requires skill and knowledge.
Obstacles listed below can interfere with an effective message.
2.3.6.1. Lack of Sensitivity to Receiver
A breakdown in communication may result when a message
is not adapted to its receiver. Recognizing the receivers needs,
status, knowledge of the subject, and language skills assists the
sender in preparing a successful message. If a customer is angry,
for example, an effective response may be just to listen to the
person vent for awhile.
2.3.6.2. Lack of Basic Communication Skills
The receiver is less likely to understand the message if the
sender has trouble choosing the precise words needed and
arranging those words in a grammatically-correct sentence.
2.3.6.3. Insufficient Knowledge of the Subject
If the sender lacks specific information about something, the
receiver will likely receive an unclear or mixed message. Have you
shopped for an item such as a computer, and experienced how
some salespeople can explain complicated terms and ideas in a
simple way? Others cannot.
2.3.6.4. Information Overload
If you receive a message with too much information, you
may tend to put up a barrier because the amount of information is
coming so fast that you may have difficulty comfortably interpreting
that information. If you are selling an item with twenty-five terrific
features, pick two or three important features to emphasize instead
of overwhelming your receiver (ho-hum) with an information
avalanche.
2.3.6.5 Emotional Interference
An emotional individual may not be able to communicate
well. If someone is angry, hostile, resentful, joyful, or fearful, that
person may be too preoccupied with emotions to receive the
49
intended message. If you dont like someone, for example, you
may have trouble hearing them.
2.3.7 Transmitting Barriers
Things that get in the way of message transmission are
sometimes called noise. Communication may be difficult because
of noise and some of these problems:
2.3.7.1 Physical Distractions
A bad cellular phone line or a noisy restaurant can destroy
communication. If an E-mail message or letter is not formatted
properly, or if it contains grammatical and spelling errors, the
receiver may not be able to concentrate on the message because
the physical appearance of the letter or E-mail is sloppy and
unprofessional.
2.3.7.2. Conflicting Messages
Messages that cause a conflict in perception for the receiver
may result in incomplete communication. For example, if a person
constantly uses jargon or slang to communicate with someone from
another country who has never heard such expressions, mixed
messages are sure to result. Another example of conflicting
messages might be if a supervisor requests a report immediately
without giving the report writer enough time to gather the proper
information. Does the report writer emphasize speed in writing the
report, or accuracy in gathering the data?
2.3.7.3. Channel Barriers
If the sender chooses an inappropriate channel of
communication, communication may cease. Detailed instructions
presented over the telephone, for example, may be frustrating for
both communicators. If you are on a computer technical support
help line discussing a problem, it would be helpful for you to be
sitting in front of a computer, as opposed to taking notes from the
support staff and then returning to your computer station.
2.3.7.4. Long Communication Chain
The longer the communication chain the greater the chance
for error. If a message is passed through too many receivers, the
message often becomes distorted. If a person starts a message at
one end of a communication chain of ten people, for example, the
message that eventually returns is usually liberally altered.
50
2.3.8 Decoding Barriers
The communication cycle may break down at the receiving
end for some of these reasons:
2.3.8.1. Lack of Interest
If a message reaches a reader who is not interested in the
message, the reader may read the message hurriedly or listen to
the message carelessly. Miscommunication may result in both
cases.
2.3.8.2. Lack of Knowledge
If a receiver is unable to understand a message filled with
technical information, communication will break down. Unless a
computer user knows something about the Windows environment,
for example, the user may have difficulty organizing files if given
technical instructions.
2.3.8.3. Lack of Communication Skills
Those who have weak reading and listening skills makes
ineffective receivers. On the other hand, those who have a good
professional vocabulary and who concentrate on listening, have
less trouble hearing and interpreting good communication. Many
people tune out who is talking and mentally rehearse what they are
going to say in return.
2.3.8.4. Emotional Distractions
If emotions interfere with the creation and transmission of a
message, they can also disrupt reception. If you receive a report
from your supervisor regarding proposed changes in work
procedures and you do not particularly like your supervisor, you
may have trouble even reading the report objectively. You may
read, not objectively, but to find fault. You may misinterpret words
and read negative impressions between the lines. Consequently,
you are likely to misunderstand part or all of the report.
2.3.8.5. Physical Distractions
If a receiver of a communication works in an area with bright
lights, glare on computer screens, loud noises, excessively hot or
cold work spaces, or physical ailments, that receiver will probably
experience communication breakdowns on a regular basis.
51
2.3.9 General Barriers to Communication
2.3.9.1. Physical Barriers
These are obstacles that prevent a message from reaching
the intended recipient. Some can be controlled by the
management; some cannot be controlled because they are in the
environment.
2.3.9.1.1 Defects in the medium
Defects in the instruments used for transmitting message are
external and usually not within the control of the parties engaged in
communication. The telephone, cell phone signals, the postal
system, the courier services, or electronic media may fail.
A partial failure of the mechanical equipment is more
dangerous than a complete failure, because a partial failure carries
an incomplete or distorted message, which might cause
miscommunication resulting into unwanted actions. The only way to
overcome this barrier is to postpone the communication or use an
alternative medium.
2.3.9.1.2 Noise
Noise is any disturbance which occurs in the transmission
process. In face-to-face communication without a microphone, the
air may be disturbed by noise in the environment such as traffic,
factory work, or people talking. Organisations which can afford
sound-proof rooms can overcome this barrier to some extent. In a
factory, oral communication is very difficult because of the noise of
the machines.
2.3.9.1.3 Defects in the Organisational Communication
System
Within the organisation, the movement of papers and of
information gets held up by the system itself. A great deal of loss of
information occurs as a message moves from senior management
to lower levels. If a message passes down through many levels of
authority, there may be much distortion in the message. The
chances of such distortion are lower in a flat organisation with few
levels of hierarchy.
Loss or distortion of information as it moves downward may
be caused by misinterpretation, misunderstanding, and ignorance
of messages.
52
Research has shown that many employees at the lowest
level receive only 20 per cent of the information that they should
get. Too much dependence on written communication is one of the
reasons for this. Circulars, bulletins, notices and even letters are
not read carefully. Many employees are unable to read and
understand long messages. Even better educated employees at
higher levels do not always give proper attention to all written
communication. Oral communication has to be used to supplement
written communication when the message is important.
Loss of information also occurs as messages move from
subordinates to higher levels of authority. Messages are filtered at
every level. There may be deliberate suppression of information out
of self-interest and jealousy; a supervisor may suppress or change
a good suggestion from a subordinate so as to take the credit
personally; a senior officer may prevent information about
discontent in the department from reaching the manager because it
reflects on his/her human relations skills. The resulting information
gap can be harmful if the upper level of management does not find
out the true state of affairs until it is too late.
The system of routine reports and the system of sending
copies of documents for information is meant to ensure that
information is conveyed to the concerned persons, but some
information may still not reach some persons.
2.3.9.1.4 Hearing Problems
For some people, poor listening results from actual hearing
deficiencies. Once recognized, they can usually be treated. An
undetected hearing loss may cause employees to get annoyed
about the boss ignoring them or cause a supervisor to get angry
when her instructions are bungled. Other people may have auditory
processing difficulties, such as auditory discrimination, sequencing,
or memory, which create the appearance of not listening or paying
attention to what is said but are actually the result of physiological
involvement, not intentional disregard.
2.3.10 Semantic Barriers
The semantic barriers are obstruction caused in the process
of understanding a message during the process of encoding or
decoding it into words and ideas. The linguistic capacity of the
sender and receiver may have some limitations, or the symbols
used may be ambiguous. Symbols may have several meanings of
53
the symbol according to his preconceived notion and
misunderstand the communication. For this purpose a meaningful
distinction should be made between inferences and facts.
Inferences are meaning taken out of the context of the
communication and alt the times cannot be avoided in
communication province inference can give wrong signal, one
should be aware of them and analyse them carefully. In case of any
doubt, more feedback may be sought.
Symbols may be classified as language, picture, or action
2.3.10.1 Interpretation of words
Most of the communication is carried through words,
whether spoken or written. But words are capable of
communication a variety of meaning. It is quite possible that the
receiver of a message does not assign the same meaning to a
word as the transmitter had intended. This may lead to
miscommunication. Murphy and Peck in their book effective
Business Communication mention that in an abridged dictionary,
the little word run has 71 meanings as verb, another 35 as a
noun, and 4 more as an adjective. If this word occurs in a message,
the receiver is at liberty to interpret in any of the 110 senses, but if
communication id to be perfect, he must assign to it the same
meaning as existed in the senders mind when he used it.
2.3.10.2 Bypassed Instructions
Bypassing is said to have occurred if the sender and the
receiver of the message attribute different meanings to the same
word or use different words for the same meaning.
2.3.10.3 Denotations and Connotations
Word has different meaning and it can be catgorised as
connotative and denotative. The literal meaning of the word is
called its denotative meaning. It just informs and names object
without indicating any positive or negative qualities. Words like
table book accounts meeting are denotative. In contrast,
connotative meanings arouse qualitative judgments and personal
reaction. Honest components cheap sincere etc. are connotative
words.
2. 3.11 Linguistic or Language Barriers
In written or verbal communication words used are
important. A word used in the communication may have several
54
meanings. In face to communication, it is easy to seek clarification
of words used, if any doubt is encountered. In case of doubt
feedback is required. Many words which we use informally may be
taken literally in other context, i.e. non friendly situations, or in
written communication. Thus effective communication is idea
centered rather than word centered. The communication may be
decoded correctly by the receiver only if the context is known to him
otherwise, it may be incorrectly interpreted. Without context,
language is just like an eyesore that irritates our senses and
interferences with our perceptions.
Although we know there are so many different ways of
communication between living beings, spoken and written language
is the most common way and the basic tool used for
communication between human beings. As a result of the
geographic dispersion of the origin of people, each one of them has
developed its own linguistic code, which later on became an
obstacle when they started to move beyond their boundaries
seeking integration with other people. The differences between the
various linguistic codes, in terms of spoken language as well as
written representation, configure a barrier for communication and
integration of people from different regions.
Challenging these barriers, it is noticeable an ever more
intense movement towards integration. The huge technological
progress reached by the human being, especially in air transport
and in telecommunications, has accelerated the globalisation
process and it is turning more and more frequent the interaction
between representatives of different people and different cultures.
The barrier of linguistic differences has an important impact
on the efficiency of cultural, scientific, technological and commercial
interchange; that is why it has grown so dramatically the demand
for learning foreign languages. Otherwise, the great potential of
information technology started to be exploited in order to help
people to overcome the barrier of linguistic differences and a
number of automatic translation tools have come out.
However, the Internet revolution over the last decade of the
20th Century has created a new paradigm in the process of global
communication, which gained a new dimension in terms of speed
and reach. And what can be realised is that the need of efficiency in
Internet communication has maximised the problem of linguistic
55
barriers, leading to research efforts from the scientific world seeking
new solutions to overcome those barriers.
2.3.12 . Psychological Barriers
2.3.12 .1 Attitudinal Barriers
Preoccupation business and personal concerns can make it
difficult to keep your mind on the subject at hand. Even when ones
current conversation is important, other unfinished business can
divert your attention: the call to an angry customer, the questions
that boss ask about employees schedule delays, the new supplier
heard about and -want to interview, and the problems one have
with the baby-sitter or the auto mechanic. Some preoccupation is
inescapable, but keeping your focus on the speaker as much as
possible will have benefits for you, the other person, and your
relationship.
2.3.12 .2 Egocentrism
One common reason for poor communication is the belief
usually mistakenthat our own ideas are more important or
valuable than those of others. Besides preventing one from learning
useful new information, this egocentric attitude is likely to alienate
the very people with whom you need to work. Self-centered
communicators are rated lower on social attractiveness than
communicators who are open to others' ideas. While a certain
amount of self-promotion can be helpful in career advancement,
advancing ones own ideas at the expense of others' can cause one
to slip down a rung or two as you climb the career ladder. As an old
saying puts it, "Nobody ever communicated themselves out of a
job."
2.3.12 .3 Fear of Appearing Ignorant
Some businesspeople think asking for clarification is a sign
of ignorance. Rather than seek clarification, they pretend to
understand othersoften with unfortunate consequences
2.3.12 .4 Faulty Assumptions
Some of the biggest obstacles to communication don't
involve physiological or environmental problems. Instead, they
come from inaccurate and unproductive assumptions.
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2.3.12 .4.1 Assuming that Effective Communication Is the
Sender's Responsibility
Management expert Peter Drucker recognized that
communication depends on the receiver as well as the sender
when he wrote: "It is the recipient who communicates. The so-
called communicator, the person who emits the communication,
does not communicate. He utters unless there is someone who
hears ... there is only noise."
As Drucker suggests, even the most thoughtful, well-
expressed idea is wasted if the intended receiver fails to listen. The
clearest instructions won't prevent mistakes if the employee
receiving them is thinking about something else, and the best of
products will never be made if the client or the manager isn't paying
attention to the presentation. Both the speaker and the listener
share the burden of reaching an understanding.
2.3.12 .4.2 Assuming That Listening Is Passive
Some communicators mistakenly assume that listening is
basically a passive activity in which the receiver is a sponge, quietly
absorbing the speaker's thoughts. In fact, good listening can be
hard work. Sometimes you have to speak while listening to ask
questions or paraphrase the sender's ideas, making sure you have
understood them. Even when you remain silent, silence should not
be mistaken for passivity
2.3.12 .4.3 Assuming That Talking Has More Advantages
than Listening
At first glance, it seems that speakers control things while
listeners are the followers. Our society seems to correlate
communication with weakness, passivity, and lack of authority or
power. The people who do the talking are the ones who capture
everyone's attention, so it is easy to understand how talking can be
viewed as the pathway to success.
Despite the value of talking, savvy businesspeople
understand that communication is equally important, especially in a
fast-moving, high-tech age.
2.3.13 Interpersonal Barriers
How we perceive communication is affected by the past
experience with the individual. Perception is also affected by the
organizational relationship two people have. For example,
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communication from a superior may be perceived differently than
that from a subordinate or peer.
There are number of interpersonal and intrapersonal barriers
that help to explain why the message that is received is often
different than what the sender intended:
2.3.13.1. Filtering
The sender manipulates information when s/he wants it to be
seen more favorably by the receiver. For example, when a
manager tells his boss what he feels his boss wants to hear, he is
filtering information.
2.3.13.2. Selective Perception
The receivers in the communication process selectively see
and hear based on their needs, motivations, experience,
background, and other personal characteristics. Receivers also
project their interests and expectations into communications as
they interpret them. We dont see reality; rather, we interpret what
we see and call it reality.
2.3.13.3. Information Overload
Research indicates that most of us have difficulty working
with more than about seven pieces of information. When the
information we have to work with exceeds our processing capacity,
the result is Information Overload. The demands of keeping up with
e-mail, phone calls, faxes, meetings, and professional reading
create an onslaught of data that is nearly impossible to process and
assimilate so we tend to select out, ignore, pass over or forget
information. Or we may put off further processing until the overload
situation is over. Regardless, the result is lost information and less
effective communication.
2.3.13.4. Defensiveness
When people feel that theyre being threatened, they tend to
react in ways that reduce their ability to achieve mutual
understanding. That is, they become defensive - engaging in
behaviors such as verbally attacking others, making sarcastic
remarks, being overly judgmental, and questioning others motives.
So when individuals interpret anothers message as threatening,
they often respond in ways that hinder effective communication.
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2.3.13.5. Emotional barriers
One of the chief barriers to open and free communications is
the emotional barrier. It is comprised mainly of fear, mistrust and
suspicion. The roots of our emotional mistrust of others lie in our
childhood and infancy when we were taught to be careful what we
said to others. "Mind your P's and Q's"; "Don't speak until you're
spoken to"; "Children should be seen and not heard". As a result
many people hold back from communicating their thoughts and
feelings to others.
They feel vulnerable. While some caution may be wise in
certain relationships, excessive fear of what others might think of us
can stunt our development as effective communicators and our
ability to form meaningful relationships.
2.4. Space/Time Distance barriers
It is evident that physical distance requires special
communication tools to make communication happen. The same is
required within distance in time. There are many tools created in
order to deal with physical distance. They are subject of interest of
telecommunication companies, postal and other delivery services.
Distance in time poses more difficulties as we can
communicate only in real time and forward in time. That is evident
that we cannot do it back in time. The fact that we can
communicate forward in time and that we do not want unnecessary
communication encourage us to create different structures, which
process, filter and eliminate sent information. The question whether
they are effective is a separate question. It seems that mostly not!
Postal service, Internet e-mail, telephone service are all
targeted by the people who want to communicate with us in their
interest, not necessary ours. This type of information is called
spam. Ho much time we have to spend trying to separate what is
important for us from what is unwanted? How to distinguish what to
accept and what to reject without knowing the content? The
situation is getting worst continuously. We are still very lucky that
our mobiles do not deliver too much spam but it might be a matter
of time they'll do.
There are a lot of structures typical for business that can
create barriers to communication. More intermediates, more
secretaries, and our communication channel become very long and
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narrow. That looks good if it comes to spam, but in reality it may
create situation when original information has no chance to go
through. History of civilization knows many examples of governors
who have been given relevant information only and exclusively just
before they have been abolished. Business is a sensitive matter
and its stagnation, dissolution or progress depends of
communication so special attention to this matter should be paid.
The problem with structures delivering and processing
information, no matter necessary or not, is that they are usually
happy with what they are dealing with, no matter what it is.
They make intensive effort to justify their existence and have
immense tendency to grow. They often overtake as many
communication channels as they can, creating structures, nobody
can avoid or ignore. In fact they are usually authors of new formal
communication rules and rituals created in their interest. As a
result, communication channels are less and less direct and instant
communication becomes impossible. Let's name and analyse some
problems they create.
2.5 GENDER BARRIERS
There are distinct differences between the speech patterns
in a man and those in a woman. A woman speaks between 22,000
and 25,000 words a day whereas a man speaks between 7,000
and 10,000. In childhood, girls speak earlier than boys and at the
age of three, have a vocabulary twice that of boys.
The reason for this lies in the wiring of a man's and woman's
brains. When a man talks, his speech is located in the left side of
the brain but in no specific area. When a woman talks, the speech
is located in both hemispheres and in two specific locations.
This means that a man talks in a linear, logical and
compartmentalised way, features of left-brain thinking; whereas a
woman talks more freely mixing logic and emotion, features of both
sides of the brain. It also explains why women talk for much longer
than men each day.
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2.6 HOW TO OVERCOME THE BARRIERS TO
COMMUNICATION?
2.6.1 To Overcome Listening Barriers
2.6.1.1 Stop
Focus on the other person, their thoughts and feelings.
Consciously focus on quieting your own internal commentary, and
step away from your own concerns to think about those of the
speaker. Give your full attention to the speaker.
2.6.1.2 Look
Pay attention to non-verbal messages, without letting
yourself be distracted. Notice body language and non-verbal cues
to allow for a richer understanding of the speakers point. However,
avoid getting distracted from the verbal message.
2.6.1.3 Listen
Listen for the essence of the speakers thoughts: details,
major ideas and their meanings. Seek an overall understanding of
what the speaker is trying to communicate, rather than reacting to
the individual words or terms that they use to express themselves.
2.6.1.4 Be empathetic
Imagine how you would feel in their circumstances. Be
empathetic to the feelings of the speaker, while maintaining a calm
centre within yourself. You need not be drawn into all of their
problems or issues, as long as you acknowledge what they are
experiencing.
2.6.1.5 Ask questions
Use questions to clarify your understanding, as well as to
demonstrate interest in what is being said.
2.6.2 To Overcome Perception Related Barriers
2.6.2.1 Analyse your own perceptions
Question your perceptions, and think about how they are
formed. Check in with others around you regularly, and be aware of
assumptions that you are making. Seek additional information and
observations. You may just need to ask people if your perceptions
are accurate.
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2.6.2.2 Observe carefully and attentively
Look for detail, but keep the bigger picture in mind. For
instance, it is important not to ignore or gloss-over the details of a
situation or the subtle aspects of a person. However, it is important
to see any one moment as part of a larger context. People have
lives outside of work, for example, and any small part of a project
ultimately is linked to a system much larger than itself.
2.6.2.3 Interpret consciously
Recognize the meanings you attach to what you perceive,
and know that not everyone will attach the same meanings to the
same things or situations. Ask yourself why you associate those
meanings with what you do.
2.6.2.4 Work on improving your perception
Increase your awareness of barriers to perception, and
which ones you tend towards. Check in with yourself regularly.
Seek honest, constructive feedback from others regarding their
perceptions of you as a means of increasing your self awareness.
2.6.2.5 Focus on others
Develop your ability to focus on other people, and
understand them better by trying to gather knowledge about them,
listening to them actively, and imagining how you would feel in their
situation.
2.6.3 To Overcome Verbal Communication Barriers
2.6.3.1 Focus on what you know
Describe your own feelings rather than evaluating others.
Express yourself in terms of information, observations, and specific
issues, rather than making assumptions about other people or
situations.
2.6.3.2 Focus on the issue, not the person
Try not to take everything personally, and similarly, express
your own needs and opinions in terms of the job at hand. Solve
problems rather than attempt to control others. For example, rather
than criticizing a co-workers personality, express your concerns in
terms of how to get the job done more smoothly in the future.
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2.6.3.3 Be genuine rather than manipulative
Be yourself, honestly and openly. Be honest with yourself,
and focus on working well with the people around you, and acting
with integrity.
2.6.3.4 Empathize rather than remain detached
Although professional relationships entail some boundaries
when it comes to interaction with colleagues, it is important to
demonstrate sensitivity, and to really care about the people you
work with. If you dont care about them, it will be difficult for them to
care about you when it comes to working together.
2.6.3.5 Be flexible towards others
Allow for other points of view, and be open to other ways of
doing things. Diversity brings creativity and innovation.
2.6.3.6 Value yourself and your own experiences
Be firm about your own rights and needs. Undervaluing
yourself encourages others to undervalue you, too. Offer your ideas
and expect to be treated well.
2.6.3.7 Present yourself as an equal rather than a superior
Even when you are in a position of authority, focus on what
you and the other person each have to offer and contribute to the
job or issue.
2.6.3.7 Use confirming responses
Respond to other in ways that acknowledge their
experiences. Thank them for their input. Confirm their right to their
feelings, even if you disagree. Ask questions, express positive
feeling; and provide positive feedback when you can.
2.6.3.8 Be consistent between verbal and non-verbal cues
Non-verbal cues tend to be more convincing than verbal
messages. For example, if you are expressing a serious concern to
someone, do not grin broadly while discussing it or the listener may
not know whether to take you seriously or not.
2.6.4 Facilitating Communication
In addition to removal of specific barriers to communication,
the following general guidelines may also facilitate communication.
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1. Have a positive attitude about communication. Defensiveness
interferes with communication.
2. Work at improving communication skills. It takes knowledge and
work. The communication model and discussion of barriers to
communication provide the necessary knowledge. This
increased awareness of the potential for improving
communication is the first step to better communication.
3. Include communication as a skill to be evaluated along with all
the other skills in each person's job description. Help other
people improve their communication skills by helping them
understand their communication problems.
4. Make communication goal oriented. Relational goals come first
and pave the way for other goals. When the sender and receiver
have a good relationship, they are much more likely to
accomplish their communication goals.
5. Approach communication as a creative process rather than
simply part of the chore of working with people. Experiment with
communication alternatives. What works with one person may
not work well with another person. Vary channels, listening
techniques, and feedback techniques.
6. Accept the reality of miscommunication. The best
communicators fail to have perfect communication. They accept
miscommunication and work to minimize its negative impacts.
2.7 HOW TO ACHIEVE EFFECTIVE
COMMUNICATION?
Effectual communication engages the choice of the best
communications channel, the technical know-how to use the
channel, the presentation of information to the target audience, and
the skill to understand responses received from others. Self
development, interpersonal skills, mutual understanding, mutual
cooperation and trust is also important to set a complete channel of
most effective and winning communication skills.
There are mainly three types of communication skills,
expressive skills, listening skills and skills for managing the overall
process of communication. The basic fundamental of all these
types of communication is emotional skills.
Expressive skills are required to convey message to others
through words, facial expressions and body language. Listening
64
skills are skills that are used to obtain messages or information
from others. These help to clearly understand what a person feels
and thinks about you or understand the other person closely. Skills
for managing the overall process of communication help to
recognize the required information and develop a strong hold on
the existing rules of communication and interaction. .
Effective communication skills may seem like a simple thing
to master. However, if you dont realize that effective
communication skills involve more than just what you say, you
probably confuse people all the time. Try the following steps that
can help you sharpen your communication skills.
Straight to the point
The speaker needs to be as direct as possible, within the
limits of good manners. Beating around the bush confuses people
and makes them lose interest in what youre saying.
2.7.1 Manners Matters
The manners of the speaker depend on his cultural, social
as well as professional background. The effective communication
begins with the manners like greetings, politeness, smile and
rational in listening. For instance, being polite is a much better way
to put a person at ease than being rude. A person, who feels open
and at ease, is much more likely to be receptive to what you have
to say.
2.7.2 First Person
Use the word I. When you use the word I, youre letting
people know that what youre saying is only according to your
personal understanding, not a blanket fact. This can help keep
people from feeling targeted and attacked. Theres a difference
between telling someone Youre ignoring me and I feel like you
are ignoring me.
2.7.3 Positive Attitudes
Being optimistic helps anybody to look into the matters with
expectations and help in making a good beginning. Therefore,
emphasize the positive thinking and attitude. Regardless, if youre
conducting a budget meeting or trying to get a peon to do the
dishes, you need to keep the tone positive. This can help keep
people willing to listen to what you have to say and prevent them
from feeling defensive.
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2.7.4 Understanding
The effective communication is said to be achieved only on
understanding the sent message. A perfect understanding is
possible when receiver receives the message without distortion,
prejudices, in the desired medium and in perfect content. So, you
have to listen to understand. Actively listening or reading to the
message can do wonders for your overall ability to communicate.
The same goes for written and non-verbal communication.
2.7.5 Spice up Message
A communication without the body language and the
figurative speech is lame and ineffective. Make your
communications interesting. If youre communicating verbally, use
different inflections and pauses to make the dialogue interesting.
Use body language to help emphasize your words. If youre
communicating through writing, always use proper punctuation to
help dramatize certain points and create character in the text.
2.7.6 Visual cues
Use visual elements to help explain your communication. If
youre speaking or writing, try using pictures, graphs and other
visual aids. This helps engage peoples senses and leads to
greater depth of understanding.
2.7.7 Clarity
Avoid confusing and ambiguous language. Avoid using
vocabulary that people wont know or general terms that will leave
people confused. Its also best to avoid words that sound alike and
may confuse listeners, such as where and wear.
2.7.7 Patience
Patience is a virtue, especially when it comes to effective
communication. If you rush things and become easily frustrated,
your communication abilities suffer. If you are always ready to slow
the pace as needed or go back over certain points, you will
communicate much more efficiently.
2.8 SUMMARY
Communication is at the heart of many interpersonal
problems faced by business organisation. Understanding the
communication process and then working at improvement provide
66
managers a recipe for becoming more effective communicators.
Knowing the common barriers to communication is the first step to
minimizing their impact. Managers can reflect on how they are
doing and make use of the ideas presented in this paper. When
taking stock of how well you are doing as a communicator, first ask
yourself and others how well you are doing as a communicator.
2.9 EXERCISE
Answer the following questions:
1. What barriers do you think that a business organisation can
experience to communicate internally?
2. How does language act as a barrier to communication?
Explain with examples.
3. What is meant by "Status Blocks"? How do they hinder
communication?
4. Mention some ways in which failure to utilize channels
properly can result in poor communication.
5. Explain the terms Faulty Transmission and Poor Retention
and show how it affects communication?
6. Why do we say that the adult human mind resists change?
What effect does have upon the communication process?
7. Write an account on the socio-psychological barriers that
could occur in business communication.
8. Why do people close their minds to communication? How
can we get rid of such barriers?
9. Discuss briefly the factors which give rise to communication
gap.
10. Define the concept of Barriers to Communication and
discuss the physical barriers.
11. How will you overcome the barriers of Time and Distance?
12. What do you understand by cross cultural barriers? Discuss.
13. How do our attitudes create hurdles in the way of
communication?
14 What are assumptions? Give examples.
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15 What are barriers in the environment? Enumerate them and
disco, ways of overcoming these barriers.
16 Examine the different types of cross-cultural barriers and
methods overcoming them.
17 What are the gender barriers? Do you think we can
overcome such barriers? How?
18 What are the different ways to overcome the listening
barriers? Explain them with suitable examples.
19. Write short notes on:
a. Un-clarified Assumptions as barriers to communication
b. Emotionally loaded words
c. Organisational structures and Status Barriers
d. Distrust of the Communicator
e. Status Symbols
f. The Psychological Barriers
g. Inattention, as a Barrier to Communication
h. Causes of Inattention
i. Different perceptions
j. Allness and the closed mind
k. The Halo and horn Effect
1. Gender Barriers
m. The Effect of Emotions on Communication
n. Wrong choice of medium
o. Barriers to Effective Listening
p. Slanting;
q. Cross-cultural barriers;
r. Polarizations.
s. Poor Hearing and Poor Presentation as Barriers.
t. The Mechanical Barriers and how to overcome them.
u. The Language Barrier and the methods to overcome it.
v. Barriers in the medium
w. Overcoming Environmental barriers
x. Overcoming barriers in the mind.






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3
Unit III
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION AT WORK
PLACE-I
(Planning a Letter, Letter Components,
Layouts and Process of Letter Writing)
Unit Structure
3.1 Objectives:
3.2 Introduction
3.3 Nature and Functions of Letters
3.4 Principles of Letter Writing
3.5 Format of a Letter
3.6 Letter Components and Layouts
3.7 Process of Letter Writing
3.8 Summary
3.9 Exercise
3.1 OBJECTIVES:
To learn to understand the art of letter writing
To learn to plan the effective letter writing
To know the various formats of the letter writing
To acquire the effective letter writing strategies
3.2 INTRODUCTION
Use letters to communicate outside your organization.
Whereas the memorandum is the primary vehicle for
communication within an organization, letters are often used to
communicate to individuals outside it, especially in formal and
semiformal contexts.
Letters are an essential part of all business and technical
communication because they are more formal and reliable than
electronic mail and more precise and permanent than telephone or
face-to-face conversations.
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3.3 NATURE AND FUNCTIONS OF LETTERS
If you consider all the forms of written communication, letters
are the mostly used and commonly practiced in all business as well
as the personal correspondence. We can readily agree that letters
have become the indispensable part of modern day communication
in spite of electronic age. Business correspondence, in fact, is one
of the significant means of keeping oneself connected with the
world in whole and the person in individual and family or business
in group. The progress and durability of any business enterprise or
industry in larger sense depends on the effective communication
system. When you enter a profession, you will have to write dozens
of letters every day as part of your routine work. Many of these will
be written to persons you have never met and perhaps you can
never hope to meet. You will be writing letters to other firms and
companies, customers, suppliers, associate organisations,
government officers, credit agencies, employees, etc. Such letters
are called business letters. A business letter must therefore appeal
to the reader's interest and induce in him the proper mood.
The student of the business communication has to mark out
the number of factors before penning a letter. Over the years these
have crystallized into a set of principles which can enable a person
to write successful letters. Before we attempt to find out the
principles of the letter writing, let us have a look into the functions of
letter writing.
3.3.1 A Piece of Conversation
A letter is a piece of conversation by post or hand delivery. If
you recall and if you have ever stayed away from your parents
while you were in school you wrote letters and if u have stayed with
your parents you received letters from your friends and relatives. At
least you must have received mails and you must have been
excited to read them. Dont you think that these pieces of
conversations have connected you with your heart and profession?
And you feel comfortable to write letters or emails. You must not
confuse with letters and emails as both are the same, but email is
the textronic version of letter with the set of format by the service
provider.
3.3.2 Establishes Professional and the Personal Relations
The relations are the core of every business and the
profession. It is built on the personal as well as the professional
communication and here your letters and the emails are the
instruments to facilitate these relations. Just imagine, if you receive
letter from your boss wishing you on your birthday, how do you
feel? Certainly, you will be excited, happy and motivated to perform
to the satisfaction of your boss. You being near to your boss or your
70
superior make you psychologically as well as emotionally secured
and safe. This in turn not only helps to build the better relations but
also performance. Even when an author writes he has a reader in
his mind. The very reason is, he wants to build a bond of intimacy
between him and his reader so that he can take him into his
thought process. Therefore, consistent letter writing will evoke a
sensation of an actual meeting or participation in to the thoughts or
writer creating a cohesive bond.
3.3.3 Facilitates in Learning Psyche and Behaviour
Every letter you write bears the hallmark of your character
and personality. Letters reflects politeness, simplicity and a sense
of humour. It also marks in understanding the behaviour in total as
every entrepreneur needs to appoint eligible as well as honest
employees for the growth and prosperity of the enterprise. At the
same time an employee must be rewarded on his better
performance appraisal.
3.3.4 Letter is Evidence and Reference
The aim of letters is to achieve a definite purpose, such as
selling a product, making an enquiry, seeking information or advice,
mollifying the injured feelings of a customer, creating goodwill, etc.
The matter that you exchange remains as the evidence of your
information. Hence, it will be an instrument of accountability for
every cause and result. It also acts as reference material for future
judgement and conclusion.
Look at the following letter written by the Maintenance
Engineer of a factory campus to a senior officer whom he knew
personally and with whom he had good relations
Dear Sir,
Some of the officers residing in your line have been complaining
about insufficient supply of water, specially, the water pressure. In
an on-the-spot survey, it has been reported that you have installed
a water tap at the ground level. This creates low water-pressure in
the adjacent houses. The management does not provide hydrants
or additional taps, outside or inside a house. I am directed to inform
you that the unauthorized connection may please be disconnected
within three days of the receipt of this letter. In case of necessity,
this department will be pleased to help you in disconnecting the
water connection. If this is not done within the stipulated time, the
department will be forced to disconnect the line.
Looking at the present water scarcity, we hope, you will help us in
supplying water to your neighbours as well who are greatly
inconvenienced by in sufficient water supply.
Your cooperation is solicited.
Yours faithfully
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3.4 PRINCIPLES OF LETTER WRITING
3.4.1 Courtesy and Consideration
Courtesy is like lubricant oil which removes friction; it makes
relations as well as professions smoother and helps to maintain
friends and professional relations. Courtesy softens the sting of an
unpleasant piece of information, creates goodwill, and produces a
favourable response. It is not advisable to write discourteous letters
as it often proves very costly. One may lose both friends and
business. It always pays to be courteous in business. Goodwill is
the greatest asset for an organization and courtesy in
correspondence is one of the most natural and economical means
of building it.
3.4.1.1 Practical Hints:
Some of the phrases italicized in the following sentences
have been found useful in tiding over a difficult situation and
making correspondence pleasant:
Thanks for your letter of 12 October, 2008.
Thank you very much for your letter of 13 December, 2008.
We are glad to note that you are now in a position to pay our bill.
We appreciate your writing to us so promptly.
We regret to inform you that we cannot meet your order
immediately.
We are sorry that you did not receive the books in time.
You will be pleased to know that we have dispatched the books you
ordered in your letter of 16 July, 2001.
Some of the following phrases irritate the reader because
they imply that you consider him your inferior. Avoid using these
phrases.
You state....
You are wrong in saying....
We find it difficult to believe....
Your claim that....
We must firmly state....
Your complaint that....
We cannot accede to your request....
We are forced to refuse....
We demand....
Sometimes brevity leads to courtesy. But in a bid to be brief
you should not become curt Curtness implies that the letter writer is
impatient and lacks consideration for the reader.
The following letter refusing leave to an employee would be
regarded as curt:
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With reference to your application of 14 August, 2008 I am to
inform you that you cannot be granted the leave applied for.
It would have been better to explain to the employee
reasons for refusing leave and also to suggest some time in future
when it would be possible to grant him leave. The person who
wrote this letter forgot that a letter is not just a piece of factual
information but that it also reflects the attitude of the writer.
Consideration for the readers interests, needs and, desires
is also known as the you-attitude in the business world. Merely
using the pronoun 'you' will, however, not do. It must be realized
that one of the greatest barriers to successful business
communication is self-centeredness on part of the writer. In fact,
the impulse to write a letter or for that matter any piece of
communication, comes to us when we have something to say. And
in doing so we shall be following the old principle of P You commu-
nication.
When a reader receives a business letter, he assesses how
it affects him and his business and what action he needs to take on
it. A direct personal approach which the you-attitude ensures will
transmit the message quickly and evoke the desired response.
Crowd-approach You-approach
We are pleased when we receive
such suggestions from our
customers.
We are pleased to receive
such suggestions from you.
This book will help the readers in
writing good English.
This book will help you in
writing good English.
We feel sorry when we find that
our customers are not satisfied
with our merchandise.
We are sorry that you are not
satisfied with the electric
kettle you bought from us.
3.4.2 Conciseness
Transmission of maximum information by using minimum
words should be your aim in letter-writing. If you clearly and
concisely write what you wish to say, you will be able to arrest the
attention of the reader and focus it on the message. Avoid
unnecessary details and roundabout expressions and come to the
point directly. Remember that people are busy and they receive
dozens of letters daily. It will be irritating for them to go through long
introductions and preliminaries. Do not forget that a letter is a
means of contact between two persons. When you meet a person
73
after greeting him you straight-away come to the point. Adopt the
same approach when you write a letter.
Avoid Verbosity: The following phrases you may come
across as matter expressions and said to be verbose and the same
can be converted in to direct and concise:
Verbose Direct and Concise
As advised in our communication As stated in our letter
At all times Always
As per your instructions As instructed
At the time of writing At present; Now
Attached herewith Attached
Attached please find Attached is
At your earliest convenience As soon as you can;
Beg to acknowledge Soon Acknowledge
Beg to assure Assure
Beg to inform Inform
Beg to remain Remain
Beg to request Request
Beg to state State
By reason of the fact that Because
Enclosed please find Enclosed
Enclosed you will find Enclosed
Enclosed herewith please find For July
For the month of July For July
For the purpose of For
In a satisfactory manner Satisfactorily
In compliance with your request As requested
In the case of If
In early course Soon
In view of the fact that Because or since
In the event of this occurrence
taking place
If this happens
In the event that If
In the nature of Like
In the majority of instances Usually
In point of fact In fact
It is desired that we receive We want
Make necessary adjustment Adjust
On a few occasions Occasionally
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Should prove of interest to you Should interest you
Taken into consideration Considered
This is to thank you Thank you
Wish to thank Thank
Wish to acknowledge Acknowledge
Wish to suggest Suggest
3.4.3 Clarity
Absolute clarity of ideas adds much to the meaning of the
letter. The next stage is the transmission of the idea and the
purpose in a manner which makes it easier simple for the receiver
to comprehend. As far as possible, simple language and easy
sentence constructions, which are not difficult for the receiver to
grasp, should be used.
3.4.4 Correctness
At the time of writing a letter, the sender should ensure that
his knowledge of the receiver is comprehensive. The level of
knowledge, educational background and status of the decoder help
the encoder in formulating his message. In case there is any
discrepancy between the usage and comprehension of terms,
miscommunication can arise. If the sender decides to back up his
communication with facts and figures, there should be accuracy in
stating the same. A situation in which a receiver is forced to check
the presented facts and figures should not arise.
3.4.5 Consistency
The approach to letter writing should, as far as possible, be
consistent. There should not be too many ups and downs that
might lead to confusion in the mind of the receiver. If a certain
stand has been taken, it should be observed without there being
situations in which the sender is left groping for the actual content
or meaning. If the sender desires to bring about a change in his
understanding of the situation, he should ensure that the shift is
gradual and not hard for the receiver to comprehend.
3.4.6 Concreteness
Concrete and specific expressions are to be preferred in
favour of vague and abstract expressions. In continuation of the
point on correctness, the facts and figures presented should be
specific. Abstractions or Reinforces abstract statements can cloud
the mind of the sender. Instead confidence of stating: "There has
been a tremendous escalation in the con sales figure", suppose the
sender made the following statement: "There has been an
escalation in the sales figures by almost 50% as compared to last
year." The receiver is more apt to listen and comprehend the
factual details.
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3.5 FORMAT OF A LETTER
If your organization has a specific style for business letters,
follow that format. Otherwise, follow the guidelines provided here.
Business letters are commonly either full-block formatted,
with every line starting at the left margin and usually a business
letterhead at the top of the page, or modified-block formatted, with
the heading and the closing aligned at the center of the page.
3.5.1 Full Block Business Letter Format
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1. Return Address: If your stationery has a letterhead, skip this.
Otherwise, type your name, address and optionally, phone
number. These days, it's common to also include an email
address.
2. Date: Type the date of your letter two to six lines below the
letterhead. Three are standard. If there is no letterhead, type it
where shown.
3. Reference Line: If the recipient specifically requests information,
such as a job reference or invoice number, type it on one or two
lines, immediately below the Date (2). If you're replying to a
letter, refer to it here. For example,
Re: Job # 625-01
Re: Your letter dated 1/1/200x.
4. Special Mailing Notations: Type in all uppercase characters, if
appropriate. Examples include
SPECIAL DELIVERY
CERTIFIED MAIL
AIRMAIL
5 On-Arrival Notations: Type in all uppercase characters, if
appropriate. You might want to include a notation on private
correspondence, such as a resignation letter. Include the same
on the envelope. Examples are
PERSONAL
CONFIDENTIAL
6. Inside Address: Type the name and address of the person
and/or company to whom you're sending the letter, three to eight
lines below the last component you typed. Four lines are
standard. If you type an Attention Line (7), skip the person's
name here. Do the same on the envelope.
7. Attention Line: Type the name of the person to whom you're
sending the letter. If you type the person's name in the Inside
Address (6), skip this. Do the same on the envelope.
8. Salutation: Type the recipient's name here. Type Mr. or Ms.
[Last Name] to show respect, but don't guess spelling or gender.
Some common salutations are
77
Ladies:
Gentlemen:
Dear Sir:
Dear Sir or Madam:
Dear [Full Name]:
To Whom it May Concern:
9. Subject Line: Type the gist of your letter in all uppercase
characters, either flush left or centered. Be concise on one line.
If you type a Reference Line (3), consider if you really need this
line. While it's not really necessary for most employment-related
letters, examples are below.
SUBJECT: RESIGNATION
LETTER OF REFERENCE
JOB INQUIRY
10. Body: Type two spaces between sentences. Keep it brief and
to the point.
11. Complimentary Close: What you type here depends on the
tone and degree of formality. For example,
Respectfully yours (very formal)
Sincerely (typical, less formal)
Very truly yours (polite, neutral)
Cordially yours (friendly, informal)
12. Signature Block: Leave four blank lines after the
Complimentary Close (11) to sign your name. Sign your name
exactly as you type it below your signature. Title is optional
depending on relevancy and degree of formality. Examples
are
Jay Dhokane, Manager
P. Swami
Director, Technical Support
R. T. Jadhav - Sr. Field Engineer
13. Identification Initials: If someone typed the letter for you, he or
she would typically include three of your initials in all
uppercase characters, then two of his or hers in all lowercase
characters. If you typed your own letter, just skip it since your
name is already in the Signature Block (12). Common styles
are below.
78
JAD/cm
JAD:cm
clm
14. Enclosure Notation: This line tells the reader to look in the
envelope for more. Type the singular for only one enclosure,
plural for more. If you don't enclose anything, skip it. Common
styles are below.
Enclosure
Enclosures: 3
Enclosures (3)
15. cc: Stands for courtesy copies (formerly carbon copies). List
the names of recipients in alphabetical order. If addresses
would be useful to the recipient of the letter, include them. If
you don't copy your letter to anyone, skip it.
Tips:
Replace the text in brackets [ ] with the component
indicated. Don't type the brackets.
Try to keep your letters to one page, but see page 2 of this
sample if you need continuation pages.
How many blank lines you add between lines that require
more than one, depends on how much space is available on
the page.
The same goes for margins. One and one-half inch (108
points) for short letters and one inch (72 points) for longer
letters are standard. If there is a letterhead, its position
determines the top margin on page 1.
If you don't type one of the more formal components, don't
leave space for them. For example, if you don't type the
Reference Line (3), Special Mailing Notations (4) and On-
Arrival Notations (5), type the Inside Address (6) four lines
below the Date (2).
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3.5.2 Modified Block Style Business Letter Components
1. Return Address:
If your stationery has a letterhead, skip this. Otherwise, type
your name, address and optionally, phone number, five
spaces to the right of center or flush with the right margin.
Five spaces to the right of center is common. These days,
it's also common to include an email address.
80
2. Date:
Type the date five spaces to the right of center or flush with
the right margin, two to six lines below the letterhead. Five
spaces to the right of center and three lines below the
letterhead are common. If there is no letterhead, type it
where shown.
3. Reference Line:
If the recipient specifically requests information, such as a job
reference or invoice number, type it on one or two lines,
immediately below and aligned with the Date (2). If you're
replying to a letter, refer to it here. For example,
Re: Job # 625-01
Re: Your letter dated 1/1/200x.
4. Special Mailing Notations: Type in all uppercase
characters, if appropriate. Examples include
SPECIAL DELIVERY
CERTIFIED MAIL
AIRMAIL
5. On-Arrival Notations: Type in all uppercase characters, if
appropriate. You might want to include a notation on private
correspondence, such as a resignation letter. Include the
same on the envelope. Examples are
PERSONAL
CONFIDENTIAL
6. Inside Address: Type the name and address of the person
and/or company to whom you're sending the letter, three to
eight lines below the last component you typed. Four lines
are standard. If you type an Attention Line (7), skip the
person's name here. Do the same on the envelope.
7. Attention Line: Type the name of the person to whom you're
sending the letter. If you type the person's name in the Inside
Address (6), skip this. Do the same on the envelope.
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8. Salutation: Type the recipient's name here. Type Mr. or Ms.
[Last Name] to show respect, but don't guess spelling or
gender. Some common salutations are
Ladies:
Gentlemen:
Dear Sir:
Dear Sir or Madam:
Dear [Full Name]:
To Whom it May Concern:
9. Subject Line: Type the gist of your letter in all uppercase
characters. Be concise on one line. If you type a Reference
Line (3), consider if you really need this line. While it's not
really necessary for most employment-related letters,
examples are below.
SUBJECT: RESIGNATION
LETTER OF REFERENCE
JOB INQUIRY
10. Body: Type two spaces between sentences. Keep it brief
and to the point.
11. Complimentary Close: Type this aligned with the Date (2).
What you type here depends on the tone and degree of
formality. For example,
Respectfully yours (very formal)
Sincerely (typical, less formal)
Very truly yours (polite, neutral)
Cordially yours (friendly, informal)
12. Signature Block: Align this with the Complimentary Close
(11). Leave four blank lines to sign your name. Sign it exactly
the same as you typed it below your signature. Title is
optional depending on relevancy and degree of formality.
Examples are
John Doe, Manager
P. Smith
Director, Technical Support
R. T. Jones - Sr. Field Engineer
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13. Identification Initials: If someone typed the letter for you, he
or she would typically include three of your initials in all
uppercase characters, then two of his or hers in all lowercase
characters. If you typed your own letter, just skip it since your
name is already in the Signature Block (12). Common styles
are below.
JAD/cm
JAD:cm
clm
14. Enclosure Notation: This line tells the reader to look in the
envelope for more. Type the singular for only one enclosure,
plural for more. If you don't enclose anything, skip it.
Common styles are below.
Enclosure
Enclosures: 3
Enclosures (3)
15. cc: Stands for courtesy copies (formerly carbon copies). List
the names of recipients in alphabetical order. If addresses
would be useful to the recipient of the letter, include them. If
you don't copy your letter to anyone, skip it.
Tips:
Replace the text in brackets [ ] with the component indicated.
Don't type the brackets.
Try to keep your letters to one page, but see page 2 of this
sample if you need continuation pages.
How many blank lines you add between lines that require
more than one, depends on how much space is available on
the page.
The same goes for margins. One and one-half inch (108
points) for short letters and one inch (72 points) for longer
letters are standard.
If there is a letterhead, its position determines the top margin
on page 1.
If you don't type one of the more formal components, don't
leave space for them. For example, if you don't type the
Reference Line (3), Special Mailing Notations (4) and On-
Arrival Notations (5), type the Inside Address (6) four lines
below the Date (2).
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3.5.3 Modified Semi-Block Style Business Letter Components
1. Return Address: If your stationery has a letterhead, skip this.
Otherwise, type your name, address and optionally, phone
number, five spaces to the right of center or flush with the right
margin. Five spaces to the right of center is common. These
days, it's also common to include an email address.
2. Date: Type the date five spaces to the right of center or flush
with the right margin, two to six lines below the letterhead.
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Five spaces to the right of center and three lines below the
letterhead are common. If there is no letterhead, type it where
shown.
3. Reference Line: If the recipient specifically requests
information, such as a job reference or invoice number, type it
on one or two lines, immediately below and aligned with the
Date (2). If you're replying to a letter, refer to it here. For
example,
Re: Job # 625-01
Re: Your letter dated 1/1/200x.
4. Special Mailing Notations: Type in all uppercase characters, if
appropriate. Examples include
SPECIAL DELIVERY
CERTIFIED MAIL
AIRMAIL
5. On-Arrival Notations: Type in all uppercase characters, if
appropriate. You might want to include a notation on private
correspondence, such as a resignation letter. Include the
same on the envelope. Examples are
PERSONAL
CONFIDENTIAL
6. Inside Address: Type the name and address of the person
and/or company to whom you're sending the letter, three to
eight lines below the last component you typed. Four lines are
standard. If you type an Attention Line (7), skip the person's
name here. Do the same on the envelope.
7. Attention Line: Type the name of the person to whom you're
sending the letter. If you type the person's name in the Inside
Address (6), skip this. Do the same on the envelope.
8. Salutation: Type the recipient's name here. Type Mr. or Ms.
[Last Name] to show respect, but don't guess spelling or
gender. Some common salutations are
Ladies:
Gentlemen:
Dear Sir:
Dear Sir or Madam:
Dear [Full Name]:
To Whom it May Concern:
85
9. Subject Line: Type the gist of your letter in all uppercase
characters. Be concise on one line. If you type a Reference
Line (3), consider if you really need this line. While it's not
really necessary for most employment-related letters,
examples are below.
SUBJECT: RESIGNATION
LETTER OF REFERENCE
JOB INQUIRY
10. Body: Indent the first sentence in paragraphs five spaces.
Type two spaces between sentences. Keep it brief and to the
point.
11. Complimentary Close: Type this aligned with the Date (2).
What you type here depends on the tone and degree of
formality. For example,
Respectfully yours (very formal)
Sincerely (typical, less formal)
Very truly yours (polite, neutral)
Cordially yours (friendly, informal)
12. Signature Block: Align this block with the Complimentary
Close (11). Leave four blank lines to sign your name. Sign it
exactly the same as you typed it below your signature. Title is
optional depending on relevancy and degree of formality.
Examples are
John Doe, Manager
P. Swami
Director, Technical Support
R. T. Jadhav - Sr. Field Engineer
13. Identification Initials: If someone typed the letter for you, he or
she would typically include three of your initials in all
uppercase characters, then two of his or hers in all lowercase
characters. If you typed your own letter, just skip it since your
name is already in the Signature Block (12). Common styles
are below.
JAD/cm
JAD:cm
clm
86
14. Enclosure Notation: This line tells the reader to look in the
envelope for more. Type the singular for only one enclosure,
plural for more. If you don't enclose anything, skip it.
Common styles are below.
Enclosure
Enclosures: 3
Enclosures (3)
15. cc: Stands for courtesy copies (formerly carbon copies). List
the names of people to whom you distribute copies, in
alphabetical order. If addresses would be useful to the
recipient of the letter, include them. If you don't copy your
letter to anyone, skip it.
Tips:
Replace the text in brackets [ ] with the component indicated.
Don't type the brackets.
Try to keep your letters to one page, but see page 2 of this
sample if you need continuation pages.
How many blank lines you add between lines that require
more than one, depends on how much space is available on
the page.
The same goes for margins. One and one-half inch (108
points) for short letters and one inch (72 points) for longer
letters are standard. If there is a letterhead, its position
determines the top margin on page 1.
If you don't type one of the more formal components, don't
leave space for them. For example, if you don't type the
Reference Line (3), Special Mailing Notations (4) and On-
Arrival Notations (5), type the Inside Address (6) four lines
below the Date (2).
3.6 LETTER COMPONENTS AND LAYOUTS
Business letters have the following elements:
3.6.1 Heading
If you are using letterhead stationery, include only the date two
lines below the bottom of the letterhead. Spell out the name of
month.
If you are not using letterhead stationery, begin with your full
address (city, street, and zip code) 1 to 1 inches from the top of
the page. Spell out address designations, such as Street, Avenue,
and West. The state name may be abbreviated using the two-letter,
87
all-capitals U.S. Postal Service designations. Include the date
aligned at left with the address, spelling out the name of the month.
3.6.2 Recipient's Address
Two to four lines below the date, place the following items:
The recipient's title (such as Mr., Ms., or Dr.) and full name
(address a woman who does not have a professional title as Ms.
unless you know she prefers Miss or Mrs.; if the recipient does not
have a title and you are unsure of his or her gender, omit the title).
The recipient's job title, if appropriate.
The name of the company or institution, if appropriate.
The full address, following the same format as for the address in
the heading.
The recipient's address is always aligned on the left margin.
3.6.3 Salutation
Place the salutation two lines below the recipient's address.
The salutation begins with the word Dear, continues with the
recipient's title and last name, and ends with a colon. If you are
unsure of the recipient's gender and the recipient does not have a
professional title, omit the title and, instead, use both the first and
the last names in the salutation (Dear Leslie Perelman:). If you do
not know the name of the recipient of the letter, refer to the
department you are writing to (Dear Technical Support :). Avoid
salutations such as Dear Sir or Madam:
3.6.4 Body
Start the letter two lines after the salutation. Body
paragraphs should be single spaced with a double space between
paragraphs. (Indenting the first line of each paragraph is acceptable
but is more informal than the unindented style.)
Be concise, direct, and considerate. State the letter's
purpose in the opening paragraph. Include supporting information
in a middle paragraph or two, and conclude your letter with a brief
paragraph that both establishes goodwill and expresses what
needs to be done next.
If a letter requires more than one page, make sure there are
at least two lines of body text on the final page. Never use an entire
page for just the closing. The second page and all subsequent
pages must include a heading with the recipient's name, the date,
and the page number.
3.6.5 Closing Phrase
Write a complimentary closing phrase two lines below the
final body paragraph. Yours truly, Sincerely, or Sincerely yours are
common endings for professional letters. Capitalize the first letter of
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the first word of your complimentary closing, and end the
complimentary closing with a comma.
Four lines below the closing phrase, write your full name. If
you are writing in an official capacity that is not included in the
stationery's letterhead, write your title on the next line. Your
signature goes above your typed name.
3.6.6 End Notations
At the bottom of the last page of a business letter, end
notations may show who typed the letter, whether any materials are
enclosed with the letter, and who is receiving a copy of the letter.
The typist's initials, in lowercase letters, follow the initials of
the author, in capital letters, and a colon or a front-slash (LCP: ecb
or LCP/ecb).
An enclosure notation--Enclosure:, Encl., or Enc.--alerts the
recipient that additional material (such as a rsum or a technical
article) is included with the letter. You can either identify the
enclosure or indicate how many pieces there are.
Enclosure: (1) Article by Satyawan
Encl. (2)
Enc. (2)
In addition to the enclosure notation, always refer to your
enclosures explicitly within the text of the letter.
A copy notation (cc :) lets the recipient of the letter know who
else is receiving a copy. Put each recipient of a copy on a separate
line.
cc: Dr. D Murkikar
Mr. Dhanraj Mane
3.7 PROCESS OF LETTER WRITING
Wherever you are today as a letter writer good, bad, or
indifferent you can take your level of skill to the next level in a
relatively short time.
The benefit of doing so is that you will write more effective
letters: Letters that get your message across without the reader
calling you for clarification. Letters that persuade your readers to
accept your point of view, or take the actions you want them to
take.
Letters that get you the results business and personal
you desire.
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In this part, we cover some rules and tools for effective letter
writing. They may seem like a lot of work right now and maybe
they will be, for now. But soon they will become a reflexive part of
your letter-writing process. You wont have to think about most of
them; you will just use them to make your letters sharper, clearer,
and more convincing than ever.
3.7.1 Prewriting Planning
You would not start building an addition onto your home until
you had an architect make a drawing to show you what it would
look like, would you? And a manager in charge of a division or
product line would not start marketing the products without a
marketing plan, would she? In the same way, doing some
preliminary preparation rather than just turning on the PC and
starting to type, can help you craft better letters.
Of course writing a letter is not as big a job as planning a
marketing campaign or building a family room. But it is important.
As the saying goes, Anything worth doing is worth doing well.
Besides, the planning you do for a small writing job, like a letter,
need not and should not be elaborate or time-consuming. A few
minutes spent thinking and following the steps that follow can help
you write a better letter, and may actually save time rather than
take more time.
Here are some simple steps to take when planning a letter or
other communication of any significance:
Do a SAP (subject, audience, and purpose) analysis as
outlined in the sections that follow.
Gather the information you need and do whatever additional
research is required to complete the letter.
Make a simple 1-2-3 outline of the points you need to cover,
in the order you want to present them.
Now sit down, and start writing!
Subject, Audience and Purpose analysis is a process that
quickly enables you to pin down the content and organization of
your letter.
The process requires you to ask and answer three questions:
What is the subject (topic) of your letter?
Who is your audience? (Who will be receiving your letter?)
What is the purpose of your letter?
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3.7.2 Subject
What is the subject (topic) of the letter? Make it as narrow
and specific as possible.
For instance, marketing product X is too broad for a letter;
youll need a report or other longer document to cover it. But
approving copy for product X in our next catalog is narrow and
specific; theres room in a letter to cover it.
3.7.3 Audience
Who is your reader? Well, you know who your reader is, but
do you know what he or she thinks, likes, and worries about? Or
what he or she wants, hopes, dreams, and desires? Most of us
spend too much time thinking about what we want, and not enough
time thinking about what the reader wants. Written communications
are most effective when they are personal. Your writing should be
built around the needs, interests, desires, and profit of the reader.
The better you understand the other person, the more effectively
you can communicate with him or her.
Crafting a letter that fits the reader is relatively easy when
you are writing a personal letter to a friend or relative you know
well. In the case of a business letter, it makes sense to ask
yourself, Who is my reader? What does he or she know about this
subject?
What is my relationship with the reader subordinate,
superior, colleague, or customer? How can I get the message
across so that the reader will understand and agree? When writing
business letters, here are some things you want to know about your
reader:
Job title: Mechanics are interested in your compressors reliability
and serviceability, while the purchasing agent is more concerned
with cost. A persons job colors his perspective of your product,
service, or idea. Are you writing for plant engineers? Office
managers? CEOs? Shop foremen? Make the tone and content of
your writing compatible with the professional interests of your
readers.
Education: Is your reader a PhD or a high-school dropout? Is he a
chemical engineer? A doctor? A carpenter? A senior citizen? Write
simply enough so that the least technical and educated of your
readers can understand you completely. When in doubt, err on the
side of simplicity. You will never have a recipient of your letter
complain to you that it was too easy to read.
Industry: When chemical producers buy a reverse-osmosis water-
purification system for a chemical plant, they want to know every
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technical detail down to the last pipe, pump, fan, and filter. Marine
buyers, on the other hand, have only two basic questions: What
does it cost? How reliable is it? The weight and size are also
important, since the system must be carried onto and bolted onto
the floor of a boat.
Level of interest: A prospect who has responded to your ad is
more likely to be receptive to a salesmans call than someone who
the salesman calls on cold turkey. Is your reader interested or
disinterested? Friendly or hostile? Receptive or resistant?
Understanding the readers state of mind helps you tailor your
message to meet his needs.
Often, however, when writing business letters and longer
documentsarticles, papers, manuals, reports, and brochures
you are writing for many readers, not an individual.
Even though you may not know the names of your readers,
you still need to develop a picture of who they are their job titles,
education, industry, and interests.
3.7.4 Purpose
What is the purpose of your letter? You might be tempted to
say, to transmit information. Sometimes merely transmitting
information is the letters sole purpose, but often it is more than
that. Is there a request you want the reader to comply with, or a
favor you are hoping they will grant? Keep your goal in mind as you
write, so that you may persuade the reader to agree with your point
of view.
3.7.5 Gather Information
In order to write an effective letter and save time in doing so,
you need to have all your information at hand, such as copies of
previous correspondence on the topic, customer records, service
orders, and so on. If you dont have all the information you need, do
the necessary research. For instance, if you are answering a
technical question for a customer, and you do not know the answer,
ask someone in engineering to explain it to you or if you are writing
a letter to insurance company explaining.
Often when people write, theyre afraid to make mistakes,
and so they edit themselves word by word, inhibiting the natural
flow of ideas and sentences. But professional writers know that
writing is a process consisting of numerous drafts, rewrites,
deletions, and revisions. Rarely does a writer produce a perfect
manuscript on the first try. The task ideally should be divided into
three steps: writing, rewriting, and polishing.
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1. Writing
Most professional writers go through a minimum of three
drafts. The first is this initial go with the flow draft where the words
comes tumbling out. When you sit down to write, let the words flow
freely. Dont worry about style, syntax, punctuation, or typos just
write. You can always go back and fix it later. By letting it all out,
you build momentum and overcome inhibitions that block your
ability to write and think.
2. Rewriting
In the second draft the rewriting step you take a critical
look at what youve written. You edit for organization, logic, content,
and persuasiveness. Using your PC, you add, delete, and
rearrange paragraphs. You rewrite jumbled passages to make them
clear.
3. Polishing
In the third draft, you give your prose a final polishing by
editing for style, syntax, spelling, and punctuation. This is the step
where you worry about things like consistency in numbers, units of
measure, equations, symbols, abbreviations, and capitalization.
3.7.6 Make a Simple outline
For any document longer than a short e-mail, an outline can
make the writing easier and ensure that all key points are covered.
The outline also helps you keep your points in a logical order and
transition smoothly between them. A letter requesting a scholarship
or financial aid, for instance, might be organized along the following
lines:
1. Describe your educational goals and ambitions.
2. Explain why you need financial aid to attain these goals.
3. Say why you deserve to be given the aid.
4. Cite specific evidence (e.g., community service, extracurricular
activities, grade point average, honors and awards).
5. Ask for the specific amount of money you need.
Heres the outline for a memo requesting budget approval from
your supervisor at work:
1. List what you want to buy.
2. Describe the item and its function or purpose.
3. Give the cost.
4. Explain why you need it and how the company will come out
ahead (e.g., how much time or money will it save?).
5. Do a cost/benefit analysis showing projected return on
investment and payback period.
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6. Ask for authorization or approval.
3.7.7 Rules for Better Letter Writing
Better writing can result in proposals that win contracts,
advertisements that sell products, instruction manuals that users
can follow, billboards that catch a drivers attention stories that
make us laugh or cry, and letters, memos, and reports that get your
message across to the reader. Here are 12 tips on style and word
choice that can make writing clear and persuasive.
3.7.7.1 Present your Best Self
Your moods vary. After all, youre only human. But while it is
sometimes difficult to present your best self in conversation, which
is spontaneous and instant, letters are written alone and on your
own schedule. Therefore, you can and should take the time to let
your most pleasant personality shine through in your writing.
Be especially careful when replying to an e-mail message
you have received. The temptation is to treat the message as
conversation, and if you are irritated or just outrageously pressured
and busy, the tendency is to reply in a clipped and curt fashion
again, not showing you at your best.
The solution? Although you may be eager to reply
immediately to e-mail so you can get the message out of your
inbox, a better strategy for when your reply is important is to set it
aside, compose your answer when you are not so time pressured,
and read it carefully before sending.
A Tip: Never write a letter when angry. If you must write the
letter when angry, then put it aside without sending it, and come
back to it later. You will most likely want to throw it out and start
over, not send it at all, or drastically revise it. Remember, once you
hit the Reply button, it is too late to get the message back. Its out
there, and you cant retrieve it. Same thing when you drop a letter
in the mailbox (its actually a felony to reach into the mailbox and try
to retrieve the letter!).
3.7.7.2 Writing in a Clear Conversational Tone
Naturally, a memo on sizing pumps shouldnt have the same
chatty tone as a personal letter. But most business and technical
professionals lean too much in the other direction, and their sharp
thinking is obscured by windy, overly formal prose.
The key to success in business or technical writing? Keep it
simple. Ive said this before, but it bears repeating: Write to express
not to impress. A relaxed, conversational style can add vigor and
clarity to your letters.
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3.7.7.3 Be Concise
Professionals, especially those in industry, are busy people.
Make your writing less time-consuming for them to read by telling
the whole story in the fewest possible words.
How can you make your writing more concise? One way is
to avoid redundancies a needless form of wordiness in which a
modifier repeats an idea already contained within the word being
modified. For example, a recent trade ad described a product as a
new innovation. Could there be such a thing as an old innovation?
The ad also said the product was very unique. Unique means
one of a kind, so it is impossible for anything to be very unique.
Many writers are fond of overblown expressions such as the
fact that, it is well known that, and it is the purpose of this writer
to show that. These take up space but add little to meaning or
clarity.
3.7.7.4 Be Consistent
A foolish consistency, wrote Ralph Waldo Emerson, is the
hobgoblin of little minds. This may be so. But, on the other hand,
inconsistencies in your writing will confuse your readers and
convince them that your information and reasoning are as sloppy
and unorganized as your prose. Good writers strive for consistency
in their use of numbers, hyphens, and units of measure,
punctuation, equations, grammar, symbols, capitalization, technical
terms, and abbreviations. Keep in mind that if you are inconsistent
in any of these matters of usage, you are automatically wrong at
least part of the time.
For example, many writers are inconsistent in the use of
hyphens. The rule is: two words that form an adjective are
hyphenated. Thus, write: first-order reaction, fluidized-bed
combustion, high-sulfur coal, space-time continuum.
3.7.7.5 Use Jargon Sparingly
Many disciplines and specialties have a special language all
their own. Technical terms are helpful shorthand when youre
communicating within the profession, but they may confuse readers
who do not have your special background. Take the word, yield,
for example. To a chemical engineer, yield is a measure of how
much product a reaction produces. But to car drivers, yield means
slowing down (and stopping, if necessary) at an intersection.
Other words that have special meaning to chemical
engineers but have a different definition in everyday use include:
vacuum, pressure, batch, bypass, recycle, concentration, mole,
purge, saturation, catalyst. A good working definition of jargon is,
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Language more complex than the ideas it serves to communicate.
Use legitimate technical terms when they communicate your ideas
precisely, but avoid using jargon just because the words sound
impressive. In other words, do not write that material is
gravimetrically conveyed when it is simply dumped. If you are a
dentist, do not tell patients you have a procedure to help stabilize
mobile dentition when what it really does is keeps loose teeth in
place.
3.7.8 Tips for better Letter Writing
3.7.8.1. Avoid Big Words
Some writers prefer to use big, important-sounding words
instead of short, simple words. This is a mistake; fancy language
just frustrates the reader. Write in plain, ordinary English and your
readers will love you for it.
3.7.8.2. Prefer the General to the Specific
Your readers want information facts, figures, conclusions,
and recommendations. Do not be content to say something is good,
bad, fast, or slow when you can say how good, how bad, how fast,
or how slow. Be specific whenever possible.
3.7.8.3. Break up your writing into short sections
Long, unbroken blocks of text are stumbling blocks that
intimidate and bore readers. Breaking up your writing into short
sections and short paragraphs makes the text easier to read.
If your paragraphs are too long, go through them. Wherever
a new thought starts, type a return and start a new paragraph. In
the same way, short sentences are easier to grasp than long ones.
A good guide for keeping sentence length under control is to write
sentences that can be spoken aloud without losing your breath (do
not take a deep breath before doing this test).
3.7.8.4. Use Visuals
Drawings, graphs, and other visuals can reinforce your text.
In fact, pictures often communicate better than words; we
remember 10 percent of what we read, but 30 percent of what we
see.
In the days when letters were written on typewriters, the idea
of using visuals was out of the question. Today, software makes it
relatively easy to add a chart, table, or graph to your letter. Why not
do so, if it helps get your point across in a clearer and more
persuasive fashion?
3.7.8.5. Use the Active Voice
Voice refers to the person speaking words or doing an
action. An active verb stresses the person doing the thing. A
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passive verb stresses the thing being done. In the active voice,
action is expressed directly: John performed the experiment. In
the passive voice, the action is indirect: The experiment was
performed by John. When possible, use the active voice. Your
writing will be more direct and vigorous; your sentences more
concise.
3.8 SUMMARY
Effective letter writing is an art. It is an essential part of the
business, personal and technical communication. Letters help in
establishing professional relations, facilitating in learning psyche
and behaviour, creates relations and helps in maintain the
accountability. The courtesy, consideration, conciseness, clarity,
correctness, consistency and concreteness forms the principals of
effective letter writing. The commonly used letter writing formats are
full block format, semi block format Modified block format. The
common letter components include heading, senders address,
receivers address, salutation, reference, subject, attention line,
body of the letter, closing paragraph, closing remarks, signatory line
and bottom line. The process of letter writing involves the subject,
purpose, organisation, audience and effective presentation.
3.9 EXERCISE:
1. Describe the characteristic features of a business letter. In what
respect does it differ from other types of letters?
2. Write a note on the various purposes for which a business letter
is written.
3. What are the principles of business correspondence? Explain
the significance of each by giving suitable examples.
4. Prepare a write-up on the guidelines for business letter writing
to be included in the office manual of a professional
organization.
5. What are the four important functions of a business
correspondence? Discuss each one in brief.
6. Explain the significance of subject and e language in effective
letter writing.
7. Make a list of at least ten words or phrases which you should
not use in your letter writing.
8. What is the importance of early reply?
9. What are the ways that you can make your business letter
attractive and effective?
10. A business letter should be written in a manner in which the
reader would like to read. Discuss.
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11. Discuss the importance of effective letter writing.
12. Illustrate the idea contained in the remark the "you attitude
means that you see through the reader's eyes, talk his
language, present his message in the light (for his interests.)
13. A business letter should be written not in a manner in which a
writer should like to write, but in a manner in which a reader
would like to read" Discuss.
14. How does the persuasive function of a business letter differ from
the goodwill function of a business letter?
15. Why is it necessary to write follow-up-letters? How do they help
the businessman? In what way are they different from
"reminders'?
16. Why do businessmen use prewritten messages? What is the
main advantage and disadvantage of using a form paragraph or
letter?'
17. Write short notes:
a. The Cs of business letter writing.
b. The 'You' Attitude.
c. The stationery quality.
d. The Letter Head.
e. The Window Envelope
f. The need for business communication.
g. Follow-up letters
h. Form Paragraph.
18. Is it necessary to have a plan in a business letter? Why?
19. What is meant by 'balanced lay-out' and 'unbalanced layout' of a
business letter?
20. What purpose does an 'unbalanced layout' serve? Give
examples of balanced and unbalanced layouts in business
letters.
21. Write short notes on:
a. Semi Block Form
b. Full Block Form
c. Semi Block Form
d. Effective organisation of the letter


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4
Unit III
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION AT WORK
PLACE-II
Unit Structure
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Introduction
4.3 Job Application Letters
4.4 Resume
4.6 Resignation Letters
4.7 Job Resignation Letter
4.8 Termination Letter
4.9 Goodwill Letters
4.10 Condolence Letter
4.11 Letters of Congratulation
4.12 Employment Letters
4.13 Promotion Letter
4.14 E-mails
4.15 Summary
4.16 Exercise
4.1 OBJECTIVES:
To learn the formats, strategies and possible content of
business communication at work place
To learn the various ways of writing job application and
resumes
To learn the letters of resignation, promotion, termination
and goodwill
To learn the effective email writing for business
communication
4.2 INTRODUCTION
The study material in this chapter is designed to give you the
in depth understanding of various formats of job application, the
various ways to design the resume for seeking right job. In the
same way, you also learnt the letters of resignation, promotion,
termination, goodwill and etc. required at work place. The idea
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behind introducing you these forms of letters is to make you ware of
various ways of the business communication.
4.3 JOB APPLICATION LETTERS
A job application letter (also called a "cover letter") is written to
apply for a specific position. It is a persuasive message that sells
the applicant's talents to a prospective employer. It persuades the
reader to believe in his/her suitability for a particular position. It
serves several specific purposes:
introduces the applicant to the hiring organisation;
introduces the applicant's resume;
highlights the applicants positive personal traits and
achievements;
shows how the applicants special talents will benefit the
organisation;
emphasises how the applicant is right for the job by
matching the requirements of the job with his/her
qualifications; and
asks for an opportunity to be interviewed by the organisation.
4.3.1 Opening
The opening of an application letter is the most important
part of a "job application package" because sets the tone and focus
of the application.
4.3.1.2 Solicited Application Letters
In order to open a letter of application for a job that has been
advertised, any of the following strategies may be tried to catch the
attention of the reader:
4.3.1.3 Mentioning Source of Information
The letter may open by mentioning the source of the
information about the job clearly newspaper advertisement,
website vacancy notice, company circular.
Your advertisement for an Accounts Manger in the May 5 issue of
The Times of India (Daily edition) caught my attention because with
a Degree in Accounts Management and four years experience in
the accounting field, I could serve JBM well.
4.3.1.4 Matching Credentials to Employer Needs
An important strategy to open a solicited letter of application
could be to focus on the applicant's qualifications that meet the
needs of the prospective employer.
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My 15 years' experience in export of automobile
components, with thorough knowledge of the international market
and export documentation, has given me well-rounded skills in
export Marketing to meet the challenges of Head, Export marketing,
the position that your company advertised in the March 6 issue of
The Hindu.
4.3.1.5 Using References
Making use of references is a popular strategy to open
solicited application letters. It strengthens the application because
most of the employers prefer to hire known people rather than
strangers.
Mr. Shreyas Talpade, a career counsellor at your business
school, told me that ICFAI is looking for research associates. As an
MBA from IIM Bangalore with two years academic experience, I am
particularly interested in being a part of your institute's Centre for
Management Research.
4.3.1.6 Unsolicited Application Letters
When a job is not advertised and the applicant is writing to
explore possible openings, more persuasive strategies should be
used to open a letter of application. One of the "owing strategies
may catch the attention of the reader:
4.3.1.7 Using Stimulating Questions that highlight your
Strengths
Using stimulating questions that high-Fight the applicant's
qualifications and strengths is an effective strategy to open
unsolicited application letters. It attracts the attention of the reader
by raising his/her curiosity to continue.
4.3.1.8 Using Facts that Show Understanding of the
Employer's Business
Using facts that reflect an speciation, understanding, or
knowledge of the employer's business could be an effective
opening for unsolicited application letters.
4.3.1.9Using Startling Statements
An unsolicited letter of application may open by using a
startling saw-merit. Surprising or unexpected statements or
statistics that surprise can be used. Sometimes, this would be very
effective in capturing the attention of the reader.
4.3.2 Body Copy
In order to make a job application letter persuasive and
convincing, the following steps should be included in body copy:
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4.3.2.1 Describe Achievements and Capabilities
A summary of the applicant's qualifications, professional
training, and experiences should be presented. If the applicant has
sufficient experience in the field of employment, he/she should
emphasise his/her experiences. However, if he/she is a fresher with
little or no experience, he/she should emphasise his/her
qualifications, special training, professional development
programmes, or any fresher/orientation courses that he/she might
have done.
4.3.2.1 Highlight Your Strengths
The applicants should describe his/her strong points and
special assets. He/ Me should also mention his/her intuitive and
learned skills, special traits, and positive qualities that are normally
not included in the resume.
4.3.3 Closing
After supporting his/her candidature, the applicant has to
conclude the letter by motivating the reader to act. He/She should
tell the reader how he/she can get in touch with him/her and
request a formal interview. In order to persuade the reader to act,
the following steps may be followed:
4.3.3.1 Refer to the Resume
Refer the employer to the attached resume for getting
additional information regarding education, training, experiences,
skills, and achievements.
Enclosed is my resume, which provides additional information
regarding my
4.3.3.2 Restate Interest in the Company
While closing a so letter of application, the applicant may
restate his/her interest in the company or reinforce his/her ability for
the position.
I am excited by an opportunity such as the one you advertised,
and I believe I would be asset to Reach Management Consultants
Private Limited.
I have been looking for an opening like this one, which provides a
fast moving, dynamic environment, and accelerated and
challenging growth opportunities.
4.3.3.3 Express Eagerness to Meet the Employer or
directly ask for an Interview
I look forward to having the opportunity to talk with you at your
convenience, about the Execution Engineer position.
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4.3.3.4 Include Contact Information You, Such as Phone
Numbers, e-mail, Date, and Time
You can reach me at (91 22) 27715535 between 8:00 a.m. and
6:00 pm, or contact me via e mail: [email protected].
4.3.4.5 Final Writing Tips
A letter of job application is an important employment-
seeking document and it should be made as persuasive as
possible. The following aspects should be taken care of:
Give the Letter a Professional Look
Use a Positive Tone
Show Confidence
Show Genuine Interest
Use Specific Details.
Be Factual and Objective
Follow Consistent Style
Examples of an unsolicited letter of application written by the job-
seeker on his or her own initiative are as follows:
Full Block Form
Unsolicited Single Letter
VIDHYADHAR PATIL
A-25/31, Sector-20, Nerul, Navi Mumbai 400706
E-mail: [email protected]
September 10 2012
The Personnel Manager
Patil and Sons Consultant Pvt. Ltd.
100 Gadgil Road, Pune - 5.
Dear Sir:
Prof. C.R. Savikar of K J Somaiya College of Commerce has
informed me that you are looking for a young and energetic
graduate of Commerce to work as a Senior Accountant in your
company. My qualifications and experience meet your requirements
admirably
I am a B.Com.of the University of Mumbai, having graduated from
K J Somaiya College of Commerce in 2007, with Advanced
Accounting and Auditing as my special subject. I was placed in First
Class and was recipient of the Dinshaw Vaccha Prize for securing
the highest number of marks in the special subject. I have also
taken diplomas in Costing and Company Secretaryship. I have
been working as an Asstt. Accountant in the Tekson Engineering
Works, Thane, since 2007. Although I enjoy the work I am now
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doing, I am in search of an opportunity for advancement in the near
future.
Mr. Dinesh Patil, Chief Accountant, Tekson Engineering Works, has
agreed to be a referee and will be pleased to furnish you with
additional information about me. Prof. Dilip Palsapur, Head of the
Department of Accountancy, K J Somaiya College of Commerce
will be pleased to tell you about my interest in the subject of
Accountancy and my practical knowledge of it.
I should like to know when I would be called for a personal meeting
with you, which will give me an opportunity to demonstrate my
knowledge and ability in the field.
Yours truly
Sd/-
VIDHYADHAR PATIL
1. Solicited letter
Akshay Khamkar
49/C Paradise View
S.V. Road Vile Parle (W)
Mumbai - 400 057
20th October, 2011
The Advertiser
Box No. C.K. 580 A
"The Indian Express"
Mumbai-400001
Dear Sir,
I am responding to your advertisement, which appeared in "The
Indian Express" of October 18, 2008. I am confident that I am the
most suitable candidate for the post of the Marketing Manager, as I
possess all the qualities, qualifications and experience required by
you.
I am at present working as an Assistant Marketing Manager with
the Household Devices Private Limited, Mumbai. My employers
have no objection if I try for a higher post. I am sending this
application with their knowledge.
The enclosed bio-data sheet and xerox copies of certificates will
convince you that I deserve to be called for an interview.
Yours faithfully,
Akshay Khamkar
Encl: (1) Bio data sheet
(2) Five Xerox copies.
104
2. Letter of application
E-2 Apartment Heights
Shivaji Nagar, Pune.
Maharashtra, INDIA
February 22, 2012
Dr. Milchandani Jr. Rode
Principal, Somaiya Elementary School
1205 Beulah Road,
Mumbai-400077
Dear Dr. Rode:
I enjoyed our conversation on February 18th at the Family and
Child Development seminar on teaching young children and
appreciated your personal input about helping children attend
school for the first time. This letter is to follow-up about the Fourth
Grade Teacher position as discussed at the seminar. I will be
completing my Bachelor of Science Degree in Family and Child
Development with a concentration in Early Childhood Education at
Veer Jijamata Techs in May of 2009, and will be available for
employment at that time.
The teacher preparation program at Veer Jijamata Techs
includes a full academic year of student teaching. Last semester I
taught second grade and this semester, fourth grade. These
valuable experiences have afforded me the opportunity to: develop
lesson plans on a wide range of topics and varying levels of
academic ability,
work with emotionally and physically challenged students in
a total inclusion program, observe and participate in effective
classroom management approaches, assist with parent-teacher
conferences, and complete In-Service sessions on diversity, math
and reading skills, and community relations. Through my early
childhood education courses I have had the opportunity to work in a
private day care facility, Rainbow Riders Childcare Center, and in
Veer Jijamata Techs Child Development Laboratory. Both these
facilities are UGC accredited and adhere to the highest standards.
At both locations, my responsibilities included leading small and
large group activities, helping with lunches and snacks, and
implementing appropriate activities. Both experiences also
provided me with extensive exposure to the implementation of
developmentally appropriate activities and materials.
I look forward to putting my knowledge and experience into
practice in the public school system. Next week I will be in Mumbai,
and I plan to call you then to answer any questions that you may
105
have. I can be reached before then at 02227715535. Thank you
for your consideration.
Sincerely,
(Handwritten signature)
Dolly Harkishan
Enclosures
3. Letter of application
April 14, 2012
Mr. Wellingkar Janardhan
Employment Manager
Acme Pharmaceutical Corporation
13764 MIDC, Nerul,
Navi Mumbai-400706
Dear Mr. Jackson:
From your company's web site I learned about your need for
a sales representative for the Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Andhra
Pradesh areas. I am very interested in this position with Acme
Pharmaceuticals, and believe that my education and employment
background are appropriate for the position.
While working toward my masters degree, I was employed
as a sales representative with a small dairy foods firm. I increased
my sales volume and profit margin appreciably while at Farmers
Foods, and I would like to repeat that success in the
pharmaceutical industry. I have a strong academic background in
biology and marketing, and think that I could apply my combination
of knowledge and experience to the health industry. I will complete
my master's degree in marketing in mid-May and will be available to
begin employment in early June.
Enclosed is a copy of my resume, which more fully details
my qualifications for the position.
I look forward to talking with you regarding sales
opportunities with Acme Pharmaceuticals. Within the next week I
will contact you to confirm that you received my email and resume
and to answer any questions you may have.
Thank you for your consideration.
Sincerely,
Lyly Jadhav
542 Hunt Club Lane, #1
Backbay Reclamation,
Mumbai.
Resume attached as MS Word document (assuming company web
site instructed applicants to do this)
106
4. Letter of application
March 14, 2009
Ms. Charlee Prathamesh
Director of Personnel
Large National Bank Corporation
Mumbai, Maharashtra, INDIA
Dear Ms. Prathamesh,
As I indicated in our telephone conversation yesterday, I
would like to apply for the marketing research position you
advertised in the March 12th edition of the Roanoke Times and
World News. With my undergraduate research background, my
training in psychology and sociology, and my work experience, I
believe I could make a valuable contribution to Large National Bank
Corporation in this position.
In the month of May I will complete my Bachelor of Science
in Psychology with a minor in Sociology from Vieer Jijamata
Polytechnic Institute and Mumbai University. As part of the
requirements for this degree, I am involved in a senior marketing
research project that has given me experience interviewing and
surveying research subjects and assisting with the analysis of the
data collected. I also have completed a course in statistics and
research methods.
In addition to academic work, my experience also includes
working part-time as a bookkeeper in a small independent
bookstore with an annual budget of approximately Rs.150,000.
Because of the small size of this business, I have been exposed to
and participated in most aspects of managing a business, including
advertising and marketing. As the bookkeeper, I produced monthly
sales reports that allow the owner/buyer to project seasonal
inventory needs. I also assisted with the development of ideas for
special promotional events and calculated book sales proceeds
after each event in order to evaluate its success.
I believe that the combination of my business experience
and social science research training is well-suited to the marketing
research position you described. I have enclosed a copy of my
resume with additional information about my qualifications. Thank
you for your consideration. I look forward to receiving your reply.
Sincerely,
Josh Lalwany
250 Prices Fork Road
Bandra(W), Mumbai, Maharashtra
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5. Letter of application
1000 Terrace View Apts.
Blacksburg, VA 24060
(540) 555-4523
[email protected]
March 25, 2012
Ms. Charlee Prathamesh
Director of Personnel
Large National Bank Corporation
Mumbai, Maharashtra, INDIA
Dear Ms. Prathamesh,
I read in the March 24th Times of India classified section of
your need for a Civil Engineer or Building Construction graduate for
one of your Washington, DC, area sites. I will be returning to the
Washington area after graduation in May and believe that I have
the necessary credentials for the project.
I have worked at various levels in the construction industry
every summer since the 8th grade. As you can see from my
resume, I worked several summers as a general laborer, gradually
moved up to a carpenter, and last summer I worked as assistant
construction manager on a 100 million dollar job.
In addition to this practical experience, I will complete
requirements for my Building Construction degree in May. As you
may know, Virginia Tech is one of the few universities in the
country that offers such a specialized degree for the construction
industry. I am confident that my formal qualification and my work
experience in Building Construction make me an excellent
candidate for your job.
The Anderson Construction Company projects are familiar to
me, and my aspiration is to work for a company that has your
excellent reputation. I would welcome the opportunity to interview
with you. I will be in the Washington area during the week of April
12th and would be available to speak with you at that time. In the
next week to ten days I will contact you to answer any questions
you may have.
Thank you for your consideration.
Sincerely,
(hand written signature)
Josh Lalwany
250 Prices Fork Road
Bandra (W), Mumbai, Maharashtra
Enclosure
108
4.4 RESUME
4.4.1 Introduction
The success of employment search largely depends on a
candidate's ability to design a persuasive resume and an effective
job application A resume is a selective record of an individual's
background. It is basically a professional employment-seeking
document that presents a summary of an individual's education,
professional experience, skills, abilities, achievements, and
references. It introduces the individual to a potential employer.
Writing an effective resumes that represents one's current skills,
abilities, and background is a challenge faced by all candidates.
4.4.2 Resume Design
The design of a resume largely depends on a person's
background, employment needs, career goals, and professional
conventions in the area of specialization. For best results, a resume
must be designed to reflect the candidate's personality,
employment goals and his or her career aspirations. A resume
should be original.
However, whatever the resumes design, the resume must answer
the following questions:
(a) How can the employer contact the candidate?
(b) What are his/her career objectives?
(c) Which institution has been attended?
(d) What courses (academic or professional) has been completed?
(e) What is his/her work experience?
(f) What are his/her career achievements?
(g) What are his/her special skills or capabilities?
(h) What are the/her awards or honors that he/she has received?
(i) What are his/her activities/special interests/hobbies?
(j) Who are his/her references?
The standard elements of a resume include the heading;
position sought, career objective, education, work experience,
specific skills, achievements, activities, interests, and references.
4.4.2.1 Heading
The heading of a resume includes contact information, which
contains the applicant's name, full postal address with pin code,
telephone number with area code, fax number, and e-mail address.
4.4.2.2 Position Sought
If applying for a solicited job position, the position sought
should be mentioned so that the employer is able to distinguish the
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application from those who might have applied for other positions
available in the company/organisation. However, it is not necessary
to include this part in the r6sum6 if the application is for an
unsolicited job position.
4.4.2.3 Career Objective
Career objective is a special part in a r6sum6. It occurs just
above the main experience and education parts. If responding to an
advertised job position, the resume should include the applicants
career objective, which should be tailored to the position he/she is
seeking. Thus, it should be & specific one-sentence focused
statement expressing his career goals in relation to the targeted
position. It should convey his/her motivation and interest in the job
he/she is seeking. It would just express your general career goals
and tell the potential employer the sort of work you are hoping to
do. Study the following examples:
1. Seeking a suitable position in finance and capital management.
2. Challenging position in capital and investment firms.
3. Position in academic administration.
4.4.2.4 Professional Summary
Some resumes may include a professional summary in place
of career objective. It is a one-sentence statement listing the
applicant's most important qualifications, his/her skills, and his/her
key work experience. This part should be included in the resume if
the wishes to highlight the relevance of his/her qualifications,
special skills, and key work experience position he/she is applying
for.
Four years of experience as a accounts manager.
4.4.2.5 Education
In this part of the resume, specific details regarding the
applicant's education and professional training must be included.
The name and location of the school/ college/university/institution
attended, dates of attendance, major areas of study,
degrees/certificates received should be mentioned applicant's
grade point average/class/division if it is on the higher side may
also be mentioned. The training programmes, special courses,
seminars and workshops that the applicant might have co attended,
or conducted should also be included. Reverse chronological order
is used to list educational information that is, starting from the most
recent educational information.
4.4.2.6 Work Experience
This part of the resume should provide a brief and specific
overview of the work and professional experience. As prior work
experience is a vital part of any hiring decision applicant must draft
this part of the resume very carefully. If he/she has impressive work
110
ex relevant to the position he/she is seeking, it makes more sense
to mention it before providing the educational information.
4.4.2.7 Special Skills, Abilities, and Aptitudes
In this part of the resume, the applicant's special abilities and
aptitudes that are of significance and of direct relevance to the job
applied for are examples of learned skills include computer
programming, computer programming, and data processing.
Foreign languages, accounts handling, consulting, drafting,
commercial writing, and so on must be included. It is necessary to
be selective and specific, highlighting only those skills and talents
that are relevant to the targeted job.
4.4.2.8 Activities and Interests
Extra-curricular, co-curricular, professional activities, and
hobbies and interest must be mentioned. These activities must
show that the applicant is a dynamic and energetic person who can
accept challenges. Companies prefer such people.
4.4.2.9 Achievements/Accomplishments/Honours
The applicant's achievements, accomplishments, and
distinguish him from the rest. They convince the employer that
he/she is an achiever and there-worth hiring. This part should
include scholarships, fellowships, awards, distinctions,
commendation certificates, or anything that shows achievement or
recognition.
4.4.2.9 References
Some employers need references from persons who know
the applicant's work or professional and competence through formal
and professional interaction with him/her. When applying for a
solicitation position where the employer wants references, the
names of three persons who can give letters of recommendations
or references should be mentioned.
4.5 RESUME STYLES
Choosing an appropriate resume style largely depends on the
applicant's qualifications, career goals, and personal preferences.
4.5.1 Model Resume I
VIDHYADHAR PATIL
A-25/31, Sector-20, Nerul, Navi Mumbai 400706
E-mail: [email protected]
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POSITION SOUGHT Chief Accountant
OBJECTIVE To contribute to the growth of a leading
financial consultant & management
company by working in a challenging
position where I will have opportunities
to utilise my exposure to finance
management methodologies and experi-
ence as chief accountant in auditing of
various types of accounts.
EXPERIENCE Chief Accountant, Shirke & Bros
Financial Consultants Pvt. Ltd., Pune,
Maharashtra, December 2001 to
present
Handled various projects within or
ahead of the schedule through strict
planning, monitoring, and control while
maintaining the best accounting
standards
Maintain customer relations through
effective presentation of accounting
expertise
Assistant Finance Manager (Civil), Shivaji Finance
and Capital Investment Pvt. Ltd, Bhosle Street,
Pune-1
December 1998 to November 2001
Assist in the accounting management of
various accounting
Coordinate with Head Office, clients,
various departments and others.
Maintain close liaison with clients
EDUCATION K J Somaiya College of Accounting and
Finance
B.Com in Accounting and Financial
Management, July 1998
Institute of Information Technology,
Mumbai Certificate in Computer
Programming, December, 1998
K J Somaiya Institute of Management
and Research, MBA
July, 2001.
SPECIAL SKILLS
Proficient in MS-DOS, Microsoft
Windows, Excel, and Word 98 and 2000
Good problem-solving skills
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Excellent communication and
interpersonal skills
Competent in speaking French
ACTIVITIES
Member, Institution of Managers,
Mumbai
Member, National Cadet Corps, 1994-
1996
Secretary, Society for Promotion of
Peace and Harmony, New Delhi
INTERESTS
Badminton, Football, Cycling
Classical Music, Movies, Fiction
4.5.2 Model Resume II
225 West 70 Sam New Mumbai,
NM10M3 Phone: 022-2771555
Email: agomez@tnm-ab
Amruta Gorhe
Objective: Entry-level staff accounting position with a public
accounting ilia
Experience:
Summer 2002: Accounting Intern: Coopers & Lybrand, NM
Assisted in preparing corporate tax returns
Attended meetings with clients
Conducted research in corporate tax library and wrote
research reports
Nov. 1998 Payroll Specialist: City of New Mumbai
Aug. 2000
Worked in a full-time civil service position in tin
Department of Administration
Used payroll and other accounting software an both
DEC 1034 minicomputer and Pentium IR
Represented 28-person work unit on the departments
managementlabor committee
Left job to pursue college degree full-time
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Education:
Jan. 1996 to Present
Pursuing a 5-year bachelor of business administration
degree (major in accounting) from NYU
Graduation date: June 2003
Attended part-time from 1996 until 2001 wb& holding
down a full-time job
Have financed 100% of all college expenses
Plan to sit for the CPA exam in May 2009 through
savings, work, and student loans
Personal Data
Helped start the Minority Business Student
Association at NM, and served as program director for
two years; secured the publishers dalit Enterprise
magazine as a banquet speaker
Have traveled extensively throughout South India
Am a member of the Accounting Society
Am willing to relocate
Reference
Available upon request
4.5.3 Model Resume III
RAYMOND J. ARNOLD
OBJECTIVE
Labor relations position in a large multinational firm
that requires well-developed labor relations,
management, and communication skills
SKILLS
LABOR RELATIONS
Majored in labor relations; minored in psychology
Belong to Local 463 of International Office Workers
Union
Was crew chief for the second-shift work team at
Wainwright Bank
MANAGEMENT
Learned time-management skills by working 30 hours
per week while attending school full-time
Was promoted twice in three years at Wainwright
Bank
Practiced discretion while dealing with the financial
affairs of others; treated all transactions confidentially
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COMMUNICATION
Developed a Web page for Alpha Kappa Psi business
fraternity
Ran for senior class vice president, making frequent
campaign speeches and impromptu remarks
Took elective classes in report writing and business
research
Am competent in Microsoft Office XP and Internet
research
EDUCATION
B.S. Degree from Boston University to be awarded June
2003 Major: Labor Relations; Minor: Psychology
EXPERIENCE
Bank teller, Wainwright Bank, Boston, Massachusetts:
2000Present Salesperson, JC Penney, Norfolk, Nebraska:
Summer 1998
REFERENCES
Available from the Career Information Center
Boston University, Boston, MA 02215; phone: 617-555-2000
4.5.4 Final Tips
Like a job application, a resume is an important employment-
seeking document. Thus, it should be as persuasive as possible.
As a resume is created, reviewed, or revised, the following simple
points should be borne in mind:
Give the Resume a Professional Look
Be Factual, Complete and Objective
Use Appropriate Writing Style
Use Specific Details
Organise the Resume properly.
Take Care of Grammar, Usage, Vocabulary, Spelling and
Punctuation
4.6 RESIGNATION LETTERS
4.6.1 Introduction to Resignation Letter
Resignation letters are generally one of the last
communications from the employee to the organization or
company.
It is important to keep it positive or neutral, as it would be in
the records of the company.
The letter must be brief and to the point. The letter must
include the effective date of resignation, the post from which you
115
wish to resign and also the last date of working in the organization.
The Sample Resignation letter would be one such example.
The letter may also include a thanking line for the
opportunities provided by the company. It is important to leave on
a positive note, without burning the bridges, as it were. This would
not only help in garnering a reference in the future but also help in
networking in the future, if need be.
It is good to give a valid reason for tendering the resignation
as it would help the employer or the organization understand your
reasons for leaving.
If your resignation is because of a genuine complain, it could
be formatted on the lines of the Sample Resignation letter with
complaint.
4.6.2 Tips to Write Resignation letter
One of the highest regarded things that enable an employee
to leave employment without burning any bridges and leaving a
final and positively lasting impression to the company is a
resignation letter. The letter should be submitted in a timely manner
because it spells out the time of notice and the date the employee
finally leaves the company. It should be formal and professionally
formatted too. It should be concise without much detail. However,
some letters do call for more information, in which case, one ought
to decide how much information should be given in the letter.
To write a good resignation letter, one ought to have served
long productive years in the company. Further, complete all
outstanding projects that one has been working on and show
commitment in doing so.
It is always prudent to mention the experience and
enjoyment one received while working for that company, more so if
the tenure has been long. Be careful not to air any long-held
grudges and grievances.
Finally, show in the letter that under the right circumstances
and at the opportune chance of a position falling vacant, one can
return to the organization. Leaving a company in good terms earns
the employee good references plus good networking possibilities in
future. Always keep a copy of the letter.
116
1. Format
Senders Name,
Designation,
Address
E.g. Robert Brown,
Manager,
Hall Institutions,
Ohio
Date
26 June 2001 (or) June 26 2001
Receivers Name (with salutation Mr/Ms/Mrs/Dr)
Designation,
Address
E.g. Mrs. Red Hall,
CEO,
Hall Institutions,
Ohio
Dear (Salutation and Last Name)
Dear Mrs. Hall,
The first paragraph should have a brief introduction of the
sender of the letter. Be concise and to the point.
The second paragraph should be the actual reason of writing
the letter. Mention the reasons of the resignation and be honest
about the new offer. Mention the experience and the positive points
about the organization already working. Ask for a personal meeting
to formally resign.
Finally end the letter with thanks.
Sincerely,
Senders Name
117
4.7 JOB RESIGNATION LETTER
15 July 2007
Dear Mrs. MacKaine:
RE: JOB RESIGNATION LETTER
This letter is to inform the company that I have been
presented with a business proposal to enable me work in my
preferred area of business, which is accounting. I therefore wish to
tender my resignation from my position here at Sypones Printers
and Stationers Company. This letter gives a 2 weeks notice as my
last day of employment will be 31
st
July 2007.
I am going into business with my partner. I would like to
thank you for the support and guidance that I received while here at
Sypones Printers and Stationers Company.
My contacts are [email protected] and my telephone
contact is + 030 26589. Please keep in touch and if you need me to
assist in pending paperwork, do not hesitate to call on me.
Yours sincerely,
4.7.1 Copy of resignation Letter
5 July 2007
Dear Sir:
RE: RESIGNATION
Kindly accept my letter as a formal notice of my leaving the position
I hold at BeeSees Holiday Resort. I will be leaving on August 6,
2007.
I have accepted a new position at Holiday Inn Resorts and Clubs.
The opportunities and experiences that I received working in this
company are many and I thank you for that. I also appreciate the
teamwork practiced by the colleagues in your department.
Please do not hesitate to contact me if you need me during the
transition period and to make the person taking over me more
comfortable. My email address is [email protected] and my
telephone contact is +91 3265974.
Yours sincerely,
4.7.2 Standard Resignation Letter
Writers address1st July 2006
Dear Sir/Madam:
RE: LETTER OF RESIGNATION
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I hereby tender my resignation to leave the Excel Computers
Company Limited. My last working date will be 30th July 2006. I
therefore give a notice period of one month as stipulated in my
contract.
I will be taking up a new position at Fast Move Electronics
Company in Chicago. I really appreciate the support and guidance I
received during my tenure. The 5 years I have working in the
company have seen me grow in experience and confidence in my
career.
I have completed all pending projects. My contacts are
[email protected] and my cell phone number is +01 258
2356. Please do not hesitate to contact me.
Yours sincerely,
4.8 TERMINATION LETTER
4.8.1 Introduction
Although its an unpleasant duty, the issue of Termination of
Employment letters is an inescapable aspect of effective
Management. However, in all fairness, a Termination Letter should
be used only as a last resort after periodic counseling for
improvement of performance has had no effect.
Termination letters must be polite and not hurt the
sentiments of the employee. If possible, a broad idea of the reason
for termination should be given. A Termination letter should be
given at the far end of the working day so that the employee does
not linger or brood in the office to demotivate the other employees.
4.8.2 Termination Letter Format
From:
Manager HRD & Admin
(Name of Company)
To:
Mr. /Ms ..
119
. (Designation)
.. (Dept)
Dear Mr. /Ms
Sub: Termination of Services.
Ref: Our Letter No../Performance/..dated ..
Please refer to our letter cited above wherein you were counseled
by your HOD to improve your performance. It is pointed out that no
improvement in your sales figures has taken place during the
subsequent quarter.
Hence, we regret to inform you that your services are no longer
required with effect from .. (Date). Please obtain Clearance
Certificate from Accounts dept.
We wish you the very best of success in your future endeavours.
Yours sincerely,
.
Copy to:-
Accounts Dept
Place: Dated
4.8.3 Notice of Termination Letter
From:
Manager HRD & Admin
Hyderabad
Mahendra Satyam Ltd
Letter No.1 /Admin/Termination/1/2010
28
th
January, 2010
To:
Ms Bharati Reddy
Administrative Executive
Dear Ms Bharati,
120
Sub: Notice of Termination of Services.
Ref: Our Letter No 1/Warning/ dated 20-11-2009.
Please refer to our letter cited above wherein you were counseled
by your HOD to abstain from frequent unauthorized absence from
duty.
It is stated that no improvement in your attendance has taken place
and you continue to be absent without prior approval/intimation
subsequently.
Hence, you are warned that your services will be terminated without
further notice if you absent yourself from duty without prior
approval.
Please acknowledge receipt of this warning letter.
Yours sincerely,

From:
Manager HRD & Admin
Mahendra Satyam Ltd
Hyderabad
28
th
January, 2010
To:
Ms Bharati Reddy
Administrative Executive
Dear Ms Bharati,
Sub: Termination of Services.
Ref: Our Letter No 1/Warning/ dated 20-11-2009.
121
Please refer to our letter cited above wherein you were counseled
by your HOD to abstain from frequent unauthorized absence from
duty.
It is stated that no improvement in your attendance has taken place
and you continued to be absent without prior approval/intimation
subsequently.
Hence, we regret to inform you that your services are no longer
required with effect from 30
th
January, 2010 (AN).
We wish you the very best of success in your future endeavours.
Yours sincerely,
.
Copy to:-
Accounts Dept
4.9 GOODWILL LETTERS
4.9.1 An apology Letters
Obviously, none of us is perfect, so the need to apologize
does occur when we commit mistakes. Needless to say, that a
written apology is more effective than a verbal one.
An Apology letter is written to try and make amends for the
mistakes we make. So, sincerity takes precedence over
everything.
It is a good idea to state exactly why you are apologizing,
just so that the person knows you are ready to acknowledge your
mistake.
It is best to keep the letter sincere, simple and brief. It is
good to avoid rhetoric and stick to short I am sorry letters.
The letter must start with an unequivocal apology and also
express your wish to rectify the situation, where it is possible to do
so. For instance, if you are writing a Business Apology letter, you
could offer something as a gesture of goodwill to make amends for
122
the mistakes committed. After all, the aim of an apology letter is to
build bridges and such acts can reiterate the sincerity of your
written apology.
It is also a good thing to reassure the reader that the same
mistake would not be repeated. Be it an apology letter for
stealing or a Behaviour apology letter, an assurance of not
committing the same mistake again always helps.
4.9.2 Behaviour Apology Letter
From:
Front End Manager
General Hotel Sea View
Goa
To
Manager
Hotel Sea View
Goa
28th December, 2006.
Dear Sir,
I would like to sincerely apologize for my behavior on (27th
December, 06). I can only attribute it to the high levels of stress I
am facing because of my (ill-health). I know that this is not an
excuse for my behavior at work. But, I request you to kindly
overlook my mistake and forgive me.
I would like to reassure you that I shall not repeat such
inappropriate behavior in the future.
I sincerely and eagerly look forward to your magnanimity.
Thanking You,
Sincerely,
Keshav Rao
4.9.3 Personal Apology Letter
To:Bina Singh
459, Pali Hill
Mumbai
15th February, 2007.
Dear Bina,
I would like to sincerely apologize for not making it to your birthday
party on (12th February). I had to rush out of town to attend an
123
important business meeting. Had it not been so important, I would
never have missed your party.
I hope you understand my predicament and forgive me. I do look
forward to other occasions for us to celebrate together.
With best wishes,
Warmly,
Raj
4.10 CONDOLENCE LETTER
Life is full of exciting events, some happy and some sad.
Human beings need to respond to such moments appropriately with
felicitations or condolence, as the case may be.
A Condolence Letter is written by an individual to a relative,
friend, colleague or sister concern expressing his/her sympathy and
giving solace on the occurrence of a sad event such as death,
accident, serious illness, business loss or loss of employment.
Condolence letters must be written in a formal tone and express
ones heartfelt grief and solace. They must wish for better times to
come in the life of the recipient.
4.10.1 Condolence Letter Format
From:
. (Name)
(Place)
.. (Address)
..
Phone: .
. (Date)
My . (First Name),
I was very sad to know of the sudden demise of your beloved
mother on . (Date) due to .. (Nature of
disease/event).
Please accept my sincere condolence in your moment of grief. May
God rest her soul in peace and give you the strength and fortitude
to bear the deep loss. I would like to add that she treated me like
her son and I will miss her unstinted love and affection.
124
With regards and feelings of solace.
Yours sincerely,
.
(First Name)
4.10.2 Sample
From:
Mr Wilbur Smith
London-WC 2
# 212, Kensington Place
Piccadilly
Phone: 444892038146
30
th
January, 2010
My dear Charles,
It is with profound grief that I came to know of the untimely demise
of your beloved mother on 28
th
January, 2010 due to Cardiac
arrest.
Please accept my heartfelt condolence on this sad occasion. May
God rest her soul in peace and also give you the fortitude to bear
the irreparable loss. Your mother had a special place for me in her
heart and treated me like her son. I will miss her.
With regards and good wishes for better times to come.
Yours in grief,
Wilbur
4.10.3 Words of Sympathy
From:
Mr Samuel McCain
Los Angeles
Police Captain
Los Angeles Police Dept
Phone: 15120948136
30
th
January, 2010
Dear Mrs Johnson,
125
On behalf of the LAPD I wish to convey my profound sympathy on
the death of your son, Sgt Douglas Johnson on 28
th
January, 2010
in a shoot-out with druggies on Highway-17.
I knew him personally as an upright and honest Police Officer with
the highest integrity for law enforcement. Please accept our
heartfelt condolences in your hour of grief.
With kind regards.
Yours sincerely,
Samuel McCain
4.10.4 Formal Condolence
To:
Mrs Susannah Johnson
# 2432, San Jose
California-4352
From:
Mr Samuel Gates
Washington DC, Secretary of State
Office of Defense, Pentagon
Phone: 15120948136
30
th
January, 2010
Dear Mrs. Johnson,
It is my onerous duty to intimate the sad news of the death of your
son, Captain Mark Johnson of the US Marine Corps on 28
th
January, 2010 at Bagdam in Afghanistan in a gun battle with the
Taleban insurgents.
On behalf of the President of the United States, I would like to
convey my deepest words of sympathy to you and hope and pray
that God Almighty will give you the strength to bear this great
personal loss.
With kind regards,
Yours sincerely,
Samuel Gates
126
4.10.5 On death
To:
Mrs Evangeline Johnson
# 12 Sunset Boulevards
Fremont
California-4352
From:
Mr Stefan Zachary
Wolverhampton
# 212, Hampton Court
Sussex
Phone: 444156268179
30
th
January, 2010
My dear Mike,
It is with a heavy heart that I came to know of the sad demise of
your beloved father on 28
th
January, 2010 due to Cardiac arrest.
Please accept my profound condolence in your hour of grief on this
sad occasion. May God rest his soul in peace and give you the
strength to bear the loss of your dearest person in life. Whenever, I
visited you, he always had a good word for me and my family. I will
miss him very much.
With regards and wishing for better times.
Yours sincerely,
Stefan
4.11 Letters of Congratulation
4.11.1 Introduction
Human beings are social animals who are gregarious. They
like to communicate with each other on various occasions of
happiness and rejoicing. It is customary to write Letters of
Congratulations to ones relatives, close friends, colleagues and
business associates on events such as birth, marriage,
anniversary, graduation from school/college, securing a
job/promotion, success of business venture/project etc to show
feelings of friendship and mutual rejoicing.
127
The occasions, format, tone and tenor of such letters will
differ from person to person depending on the degree of intimacy
and association with each other.
Congratulation letters must be warm, sincere and convey genuine
feelings of happiness
4.11.2 Sample Congratulation Format
From:
Mr. /Ms .
(Postal Address)
.
Phone/Cell No.
Date: ..
Place:
My dear . (Name-Formal or First Name as applicable)
It gives me immense happiness/pleasure (as applicable) to convey
my felicitations/best wishes (as applicable) on the glad/auspicious
occasion of (Name the event- birthday, marriage,
promotion, success in exam/project etc as applicable) on
(Day/Date). May God Bless and grant you many happy
returns of the day/ or many more such favours (as applicable).
With warm regards.
Yours sincerely or
Yours affectionately (as applicable)
To:
Mr. /Ms
(Postal Address)
. (City)
Phone/Cell No. .
4.11.3 Sample Letter
From:
Mr. Adarsh Gupta
104, Major Residency
Rd No.10, Banjara Hills
Hyderabad-500034
Phone: 23357788
20th January, 2012
128
My Dear Pradeep,
It gives me immense pleasure to convey my best wishes on
the auspicious occasion of the marriage of your elder son, Sunil
with Sangeeta on Monday, the 25
th
January 2010. May God Bless
and grant a happy and long wedded life to the newly married
couple.
I am unable to attend the marriage ceremony as I will be on
a business trip to London during that period which cannot be post-
poned.
Yours affectionately,
Adarsh
4.11.4 Sample
To:
Mr. Pradeep Lahkotia
12/3, Garden Towers
Masab Tank
Hyderabad-500028
From:
Mr. M.S Bhatia
No.12, Sheronwali Gate
Azad Nagar, Jalandhar
Phone: 11224488
25
th
January, 2010
My Dear Narayan,
It gives me immense pleasure to convey my felicitations on the
happy occasion of your securing a new job with ICICI Bank
Secunderabad as Credit Analyst with good career prospects and
promotion avenues. May God Bless you and shower many more
favours to you.
You must now lay down a solid foundation in ICICI Bank for a
Managerial position.
With warm regards,
Yours sincerely,
129
To:
Mr. M. Narayan Rao
#43, Marredpally East
Secunderabad-500003
Phone: 27782049
4.12 Employment Letters
To Whomsoever It May Concern
(On Company Letter Head)
Letter No. 12/HRD/Mktg/Ref/2/2010
Dated ..
This is to certify that Mr. /Ms .. S/O or D/O
. Residing at H.No ..
Mehdipatnam, Hyderabad-500028 was employed in our Company
in the position of Manager Marketing from . To
(Dates) on a salary of Rs .. pm
(Basic) plus allowances as applicable in the Company.
During his above period of service with us, his services were highly
satisfactory and his discipline and conduct were exemplary. He has
left our Company on his own for better prospects.
We wish him the very best of success in his future endeavours.
Hyderabad ..
Date:
4.13 PROMOTION LETTER
4.13.1 INTRODUCTION
Effective Promotion letters from Employer to Employees
foster incentive for work and generate motivation in the Staff. They
must contain praise of the positive services of the employee and
link it up with the promotion. They should send a clear message to
the Staff that promotion has to be earned and not to be taken for
granted. Although, a promotion letter is addressed to a particular
individual, such letters are shared by the recipient with his
colleagues and thereby, the message is circulated to all the Staff.
130
Promotion letters are intended for Record and go into the
personal files (dossiers) of the Staff. Hence, they must be carefully
worded in order to satisfy legal requirements and not set a
precedent to all employees to demand promotion.
Promotion letters should be Congratulatory in tone and show
appreciation of the good work of the concerned employee.
4.13.2 Format
From:
Managing Director
. (Name of Company)
Letter No. .. MD/Promotion/Mktg/1/2010
To:
Mr. /Ms . (Full Name)
(Designation)
Dear Mr. /Ms .
The Management has had occasion to review your
performance as Marketing Manager during the past 2 years. Your
Head of the Dept has forwarded a recommendation for your raise
based on your good work.
It gives me great pleasure to announce your promotion as
Senior Manager Marketing with effect from .. (Date) in the
pay scale of Rs plus allowances as applicable to the
grade.
I hope that your promotion will serve as an incentive to better
performance and to achieve further laurels in the Company. Well
done, keep it up!
With regards and best wishes.
Yours sincerely,
..
Distribution
To individual
Personal file
131
Accounts Section
Place: Dated ..
4.13.2 Sample II
Managing Director
. (Name of Company)
Letter No. .. MD/Promotion/Mktg/1/2010
To:
Mr. /Ms . (Full Name)
(Designation)
Dear Mr. /Ms .
Your Head of the Dept has forwarded a recommendation for
your raise based on your good work during the past 2 years. We
have reviewed your performance and concur with the appraisal of
your HOD. It is the policy of the Company to reward high quality
performance of the Staff in order to motivate and retain high
performers as part of Organization Development.
It gives me great pleasure to announce your promotion as
Senior Manager Marketing with effect from .. (Date) in the
pay scale of Rs plus allowances as applicable to the
grade.
I hope that your promotion will serve as an incentive to
achieve further laurels in the Company and that you will not rest
with your past achievements. Well done, keep it up!
With regards and best wishes.
Yours sincerely,
..
Distribution
To individual
Personal file
Accounts Section
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4.14 E-MAILS
4.14.1 What is email?
It's hard to remember what our lives were like without e-mail.
Ranking up there with the Web as one of the most useful features
of the Internet, e-mail has become one of today's standard means
of communication. Billions of messages are sent each year. If
you're like most people these days, you probably have more than
one e-mail address. After all, the more addresses you have, the
more sophisticated you look..
.
E-mail is part of the standard TCP/IP set of protocols.
Sending messages is typically done by SMTP (Simple Mail
Transfer Protocol) and receiving messages is handled by POP3
(Post Office Protocol 3), or IMAP (Internet Message Access
Protocol). IMAP is the newer protocol, allowing you to view and sort
messages on the mail server, without downloading them to your
hard drive.
Email, also sometimes written as e-mail, is simply the
shortened form of electronic mail, a protocol for receiving, sending,
and storing electronic messages. Email has gained popularity with
the spread of the Internet. In many cases, email has become the
preferred method of communication.
Though there is some degree of uncertainty as to when
email was invented, the father of the modern version is generally
regarded to be American Ray Tomlinson. Before Tomlinson,
messages could be sent between users, but only when they were
connected to the same computer. Even once computers were
networked, messages could not be targeted to a particular
individual. Tomlinson devised a way to address email to certain
users, and thus was credited for one of the most important
communication inventions in the 20th century.
Tomlinson's idea was to identify the name of the user and
the computer at which he or she was located. As a result, the basic
formula for addressing an email was username@usercomputer.
This standard has not changed much over the years, other than the
user computer now commonly being replaced by the name of an
email provider. In some cases, this is the same as the user's
Internet service provider.
The influence of email cannot be overstated. The United
States Postal Service, for example, notes that it handles 212 billion
pieces of mail per year. Many sources have nearly that many
emails being sent back and forth every single day. In other words,
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email handles more than 300 times the amount of mail of the
largest postal system in the world.
Users receive and send email using simple message
transfer protocol (STMP). Other protocols, including Post Office
Protocol (POP) and Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP),
allow users to retrieve and store messages. Although there are
other protocols for message retrieval and storage, SMTP is the
standard protocol for sending and receiving messages via Internet
Protocol (IP).
In the beginning, email usage required having a program
dedicated to the application, or at least having an email service
provider with a system set up to handle it. The software for the
application is called email client software. There are many different
email applications available, some of which cost money to use
while others are free.
In addition to accessing electronic mail through email client
software, Webmail has also become very popular. Most email
service providers offer this as an additional benefit, where the user
can access their mailbox over the Internet. Some email services
are specifically designed using the World Wide Web as its primary
interface. These sites have become very popular, as they usually
offer individuals a chance to open an email account at no charge.
4.14.2 Internal Email
Internal emails, just like other emails, should not be too
informal. Remember, these are written forms of communication that
can be printed out and viewed by people other than those for whom
they were originally intended! Always use your spell checker, and
avoid slang.
4.14.3 Email Writing Tips
4.14.3 .1. Write a meaningful subject line.
Recipients scan the subject line in order to decide whether
to open, forward, file, or trash a message. Remember -- your
message is not the only one in your recipient's mailbox. Before you
hit "send," take a moment to write a subject line that accurately
describes the content.
Subject: [Blank]
If you don't put a subject line on your e-mail, you are
sending the message that your name in the "From" line is all your
recipient should need in order to make it a top priority. That could
come across as arrogant, or at the very least, thoughtless. Take
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advantage of the opportunity to get your recipient thinking about
your message even before opening it.
Subject: "Important! Read Immediately!!"
What is important to you may not be important to your
reader. Rather than brashly announcing that the secret contents of
your message are important, write an informative headline that
actually communicates at least the core of what you feel is so
important: "Emergency: All Cars in the Lower Lot Will Be Towed in
1 Hour."
Subject: "Quick question."
If the question is quick, why not just ask it in the subject line? This
subject line is hardly useful.
Subject: "Follow-up about Friday"
Fractionally better -- provided that the recipient remembers why a
follow-up was necessary.
Subject: "That file you requested."
If you're confident your recipient will recognize your e-mail
address, and really is expecting a file from you, then this would be
fine. But keep in mind that many e-mail providers get scads of
virus-laden spam with vague titles like this. The more specific you
are, the more likely your recipient's spam-blocker will let your
message through.
Subject: "10 confirmed for Friday... will we need a larger
room?"
Upon reading this revised, informative subject line, the
recipient immediately starts thinking about the size of the room, not
about whether it will be worth it to open the e-mail.
4.14.3 .2. Keep the message focused and readable.
Often recipients only read partway through a long message,
hit "reply" as soon as they have something to contribute, and forget
to keep reading. This is part of human nature.
If your e-mail contains multiple messages that are only
loosely related, in order to avoid the risk that your reader will reply
only to the first item that grabs his or her fancy, you could number
your points to ensure they are all read (adding an introductory line
that states how many parts there are to the message). If the points
are substantial enough, split them up into separate messages so
your recipient can delete, respond, file, or forward each item
individually.
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Keep your message readable.
Use standard capitalization and spelling, especially when
your message asks your recipient to do work for you.
o If you are a teenager, writing a quick gushing "thx 4 ur
help 2day ur gr8" may make a busy professional smile
at your gratitude.
o But there comes a time when the sweetness of the
gesture isn't enough. u want ur prof r ur boss 2 think u
cant spl? LOL ;-)
Skip lines between paragraphs.
Avoid fancy typefaces. Don't depend upon bold font or
large size to add nuances. Many people's e-mail readers
only display plain text. In a pinch, use asterisks to show
*emphasis*.
Use standard capitalization. All-caps comes across as
shouting, and no caps invokes the image of a lazy teenager.
Regardless of your intention, people will respond
accordingly.
4.14.3 .3. Avoid attachments.
To: All 1000 Employees
From: Eager Edgar
Subject: A helpful book everyone should read
--------
Hello, everyone. I've attached a PDF that I think you'll all find
very useful. This is the third time I sent it the file -- the version I sent
yesterday had a typo on page 207, so I've sent the whole thing
again. Since some of you noted that the large file size makes it a bit
awkward, I've also attached each chapter as a separate document.
Let me know what you think!
Attachments:
Big Honking File.pdf (356MB)
BHF Cover.pdf (25MB)
BHF Chapter 1.pdf (35MB)
BHF Chapter 2.pdf (27MB)
[... ]
To: Bessie Professional
From: Morris Ponsybil
Subject: E-mail tips -- a subject for an office workshop?
Bessie, I came across a book that has lots of tips on streamlining
professional communications. Has anyone volunteered to present
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at the office workshop next month? Let me know if you'd like me to
run a little seminar (2o minutes?) on using e-mail effectively.
Below, I'll paste the table of contents from the book. Let me know if
you want me send you the whole thing as a PDF.
Table of Contents
1. Write a meaningful subject line.
2. Keep the message focused and readable.
3. Avoid attachments.
4. [...]
E-mail works best when you just copy and paste the most relevant
text into the body of the e-mail. Try to reduce the number of steps
your recipient will need to take in order to act on your message.
If your recipient actually needs to view the full file in order to edit or
archive it, then of course sending an attachment is appropriate.
In general, attachments
take time to download (and check for viruses)
take up needless space on your recipient's computer, and
don't always translate correctly for people who read their e-
mail on portable devices.
4.14.3 .4. Identify yourself clearly.
When contacting someone cold, always include your name,
occupation, and any other important identification information in the
first few sentences.
If you are following up on a face-to-face contact, you might
appear too timid if you assume your recipient doesn't remember
you; but you can drop casual hints to jog their memory: "I enjoyed
talking with you about PDAs in the elevator the other day."
Every fall, I get e-mails from "[email protected]" or
"[email protected]" who ask a question about "class"
and don't sign their real names.
While formal phrases such as "Dear Professor
Sneedlewood" and "Sincerely Yours," are unnecessary in e-mail,
when contacting someone outside your own organization, you
should write a signature line that includes your full name and at
least a link to a blog or online profile page (something that does not
require your recipient to log in first).
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4.14.3 .5. Be kind. Don't blame.
Think before you click "Send."
If you find yourself writing in anger, save a draft, go get a
cup of coffee, and imagine that tomorrow morning someone has
taped your e-mail outside your door. Would your associates and
friends be shocked by your language or attitude?
Or would they be impressed by how you kept your cool, how
you ignored the bait when your correspondent stooped to personal
attacks and how you carefully explained your position (or admitted
your error, or asked for a reconsideration, etc.).
Don't pour gasoline on a fire without carefully weighing the
consequences. Will you have to work with this person for the rest of
the semester? Do you want a copy of your bitter screed to surface
years from now, when you want a letter of recommendation or
you're up for promotion?
Go ahead... write it, revise it, live it up with traditional
Lebanese curses, print it out, throw darts on it, and scribble on it
with crayon. Do whatever you need in order to get it out of your
system. Just don't hit "Send" while you're still angry.
From: Clair Haddad
To: Ann O. Ying
Subject: Re: Ongoing Problems with Project
I'm not sure how to respond, since at the meeting last week
you told Sue that you didn't need any extra training, so I cancelled
Wednesday's workshop. I can CC Sue in on this thread if you like,
since she's the one who will have to approve the budget if we
reschedule it.
Meanwhile, I can loan you my copies of the manual, or we
can look into shifting the work to someone else. Let me know what
you'd like me to do next.
---Original Message --
From: Ann O. Ying
I tried all morning to get in touch with you. Couldn't you find a
few minutes in between meetings to check your messages? I'm
having a rough time on this project, and I'm sorry if this is last-
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minute, but I've never done this before and I think the least you
could do is take some time to explain it again.
If your recipient has just lambasted you with an angry
message, rather than reply with a point-by-point rebuttal, you can
always respond with a brief note like this, which
1. Casually invokes the name of someone the angry
correspondent is likely to respect (in order to diffuse any
personal antagonism that may otherwise have developed)
and
2. Refocuses the conversation on solutions (in this
conversation, Ann has already dug herself into a hole, and
Clair has nothing to gain by joining her there)
4.14.3 .6. Proofread.
If you are asking someone else to do work for you, take the
time to make your message look professional.
While your spell checker won't catch every mistake, at the
very least it will catch a few typos. If you are sending a message
that will be read by someone higher up on the chain of command (a
superior or professor, for instance), or if you're about to mass-mail
dozens or thousands of people, take an extra minute or two before
you hit "send". Show a draft to a close associate, in order to see
whether it actually makes sense.
4.14.3 .7. Don't assume privacy.
Unless you are Donald Trump, praise in public, and
criticize in private. Don't send anything over e-mail that you
wouldn't want posted -- with your name attached -- in the break
room.
E-mail is not secure. Just as random pedestrians could
easily reach into your mailbox and intercept the envelopes that you
send and receive through the post office, a curious hacker, a
malicious criminal, or the FBI can easily intercept your e-mail. In
some companies, the e-mail administrator has the ability to read
any and all e-mail messages (and may fire you if you write anything
inappropriate).
4.14.3 .8. Distinguish between formal and informal situations.
When you are writing to a friend or a close colleague, it is
OK to use "smiles":-), abbreviations (IIRC for "if I recall correctly",
LOL for "laughing out loud," etc.) and nonstandard punctuation and
139
spelling (like that found in instant messaging or chat rooms). These
linguistic shortcuts are generally signs of friendly intimacy, like
sharing cold pizza with a family friend. If you tried to share that
same cold pizza with a first date, or a visiting dignitary, you would
give off the impression that you did not really care about the
meeting. By the same token, don't use informal language when
your reader expects a more formal approach. Always know the
situation, and write accordingly.
4.14.3.9 Respond Promptly.
If you want to appear professional and courteous, make
yourself available to your online correspondents. Even if your reply
is, "Sorry, I'm too busy to help you now," at least your
correspondent won't be waiting in vain for your reply.
4.14.3 .10. Show Respect and Restraint
Many a flame war has been started by someone who hit
"reply all" instead of "reply."
While most people know that e-mail is not private, it is good
form to ask the sender before forwarding a personal message. If
someone e-mails you a request, it is perfectly acceptable to forward
the request to a person who can help -- but forwarding a message
in order to ridicule the sender is tacky.
Use BCC instead of CC when sending sensitive information
to large groups. (For example, a professor sends a bulk message
to students who are in danger of failing, or an employer telling
unsuccessful applicants that a position is no longer open.) The
name of everyone in the CC list goes out with the message, but the
names of people on the BCC list ("blind carbon copy") are hidden.
Put your own name in the "To" box if your mail editor doesn't like
the blank space.
Be tolerant of other people's etiquette blunders. If you think
you've been insulted, quote the line back to your sender and add a
neutral comment such as, "I'm not sure how to interpret this... could
you elaborate?"
4.14.4 .1 Sample
Subject: Title of E-mail in Initial Capitals
Engineers and scientists use e-mails to make requests, to
answer questions, and to give announcements. E-mails are read
quickly. For that reason, get to the point in the first paragraph--the
first sentence, if possible. In other words, state what you want up
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front. Be careful about e-mails that make complaints, which are
usually better handled in person.
In e-mails, keep the sentence lengths and paragraph lengths
relatively short. Sentences should average fewer than twenty
words, and paragraphs should average fewer than seven lines. In
the format suggested here, you should single space your e-mails,
skip a line between paragraphs, and use a typeface that is easily
read on a computer. If possible, keep the total e-mail length to a
length that can be viewed entirely on the screen.
Because the reader sees only the title of your e-mail in the
Inbox or in the folder where it has been filed, give some thought to
that title. Choose a title that orients the reader to the subject of the
e-mail and, if possible, distinguishes your e-mail from other e-mails
about that subject. For example, choose "Proposal Draft for Our ME
440W Design Project" as opposed to "Design Project" or "ME
440W."
With e-mails, send copies to anyone whose name you
mention in the e-mail or who would be directly affected by the e-
mail. Also, be sure to mention explicitly any attachments. Finally,
remember that final paragraphs of e-mails generally tell readers
what you want them to do or what you will do for them.
Sincerely,
Your Name
Your Contact Information
4.14.4 .2 Sample
To: [email protected]
cc:
Bcc:
Subject: Invite to the monthly meeting
Dear Mr. Brown,
I hope you are doing alright with the new assignment. I must
compliment you on the quality of work you presented during the last
monthly meeting.
This mail is an invitation to the monthly meeting of June. I hope to
see all the details requested by the board ready for presentation in
the meet which is scheduled at the end of the week in the last week
141
of June. I regard that you have ample time to assimilate the details
and make them ready. In case there are any changes or details that
I need to know beforehand, I recommend that we meet in my office
to discuss the same. Please talk to my secretary for an
appointment.
Feel free to call me on my extension if there is an emergency.
Regards,
William Jones,
Director,
SyntelPro Solutions
4.14.4 .3 Sample
To: [email protected]
Cc:
Bcc:
Subject: Resume for the post of Software Engineer (Job ID: 4521)
Attached: Resume
Dear Sir/Madam,
I am Sonia Williams and I am writing this email in answer to your
advertisement published in the Times asking for Software
Engineers with an experience of more than 3 years. The Job ID is
4521 and it was published on the 16
th
of March.
I submit my candidature in reply to the above advertisement. I am a
software engineer working with Canbay for the past 4 years. I have
all the technical qualifications required for the job. I can also speak
French which is a prime requisite as mentioned in the
advertisement. My resume and other relevant information are
attached with the email.
I will be looking forward from any intimation from your end.
Thanks and regards,
Sonia Williams
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4.15 SUMMARY
A perfect manger is one who is good in designing the business
communication for better results. The communication at work place
is a part of our daily official routine. Moreover, we cant ignore the
very basics required to be aware of the theory of communication at
work place as it determines our capability and dignity in general.
The effective writing of job application and designing of the resume
makes difference to the potentiality of the candidate. Also, we need
to know how to write the resignation letter or issue termination letter
as it helps in maintaining the personal and business relations in
long term. The goodwill letters are part of the internal and the
external public relations. We understand that a word of sympathy
for person in distress may boost his courage to fight the situation,
therefore, any ignorance here may cost an opportunity of creating a
good relations. A day without email makes us dry these days. An
effective email makes your day. A good thinking before typing an
email is essential.
4.16 EXERCISE
Draft a reply to the following advertisements:
1. Wanted an assistant manager for a Mahape, Navi Mumbai
based Software Company. Candidate must be good at
computer skills and must posssess management skills.
Preference will be given to candidates with a fluent command
over English and some relevant work experience. Write along
with bio-data to Box. No.3245. The Indian Express, Mumbai
400 023.
2. You have just passed your B. Sc. examination. Draft a letter of
application along with bio-data to Mr. R. D. Kadam, Manager,
New Maharashtra Software Pvt. Ltd showing your willingness
for their training positions for managerial positions.,
3 Wanted immediately an experienced accountant, capable of
taking charge of all the accounts of a reputed departmental
store. Apply along with your detail bio-data to Box ST236, The
Times of India, Times Building, Mumbai 400001 with
particulars of qualification, experience salary expected etc.
4 Wanted young male/ female go-getters to achieve cent-
percent sales target of electronic items for a very popular
house. Salary plus commission, special award for good
performance, excellent future prospects. Apply within 7 days
along with bio-data to P.O. Box 1175, Mumbai; 400 001
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5. Wanted Salespersons to promote high quality products of new
hardware firm all over Mumbai. Fluency in Marathi, Hindi and
English languages is required. Good starting salary as well
incentives and excellent prospects as well. Apply within 15
days along with bio-data to The Personal Manger, Maratha
Software Pvt. Ltd. Head Office, Parel, Mumbai.
6. Write an application for the post of a junior manager
representative for yourself in Jaydeep and Marathe Ford Pvt.
Ltd. Mumbai. As you are a fresh graduate, you may use the
single-letter format for writing the letter and biodata.
7. A leading concern requires the services of a salesman who
can push cotton and synthetic fabrics in export markets.
Salary on merit. Apply along with bio-data giving details Box
No. 82345. The Times of India. Mumbai - 1.
8. Wanted an assistant manager for a Phoenix Software Pvt.
Goregaon, Mumbai. - Candidates must be good at drafting
and should preferably have some software background or
qualifications along with Bsc. IT. Preference will be given to
the candidates having previous experience. Apply along with
bio-data.
9. You have just passed the B.Sc. examination with computer
programming as major subject. Draft an application along
with bio-data for the post of an accounts officer in any
organisation of your choice.
10. Wanted a fast, accurate and hard-working data entry
operator. Apply along with bio-data stating qualifications and
salary expected to PO Box No.96241, The Maratha Herald,
Fort, Mumbai-1
11. Wanted immediately a B. Sc. Graduate capable of handling
independent correspondence. Preference will be given to
those knowing office routine and skills of correspondence
through internet. Apply giving full particulars and salary
expected and bio-data to The Manager, Marathe Builders,
Shivaji Nagar Pune-1
12. T.R Patil reads in a newspaper that there is a vacancy for the
post of A Software Programmer in the Tata Consultancy Ltd.
The post being now vacant. Draft an application along with
bio-data to this situation.
13. Write short notes on:
a) The You Attitude in the application letter.
b) The tone in a letter of application.
144
c) The merits of the bio-data or record sheet form.
d) The tone and contents of Appointment Letters and
Rejection Letters.
e) Follow-up Application letters.
14. Explain the terms "single letter application" and "resume'-
covering' letter application".
15. Wanted an experienced sales assistant manager with
knowledge of computer hardware. Apply along with bio-data
immediately in own handwriting to Box K: 550 - K. The Times
of India, Mumbai - 400 001."
16. Draft an application along with bio-data for the post of a junior
programmer in a local college. Mention that you know
programming and specify the programs that you are well
versed in.
17. Reputed Engineering firm requires Assistant Accounts and
finance manager. Applicants must be B. Sc. graduates of a
recognised University, 2 Years experience in a similar
capacity and must be capable of handling software programs
as well as hardware problems independently.
18. Wanted smart young girls and boys to work as Trainee
Managers in a software firm. - Candidates must have passed
B. Sc. and must have a good command over English, Marathi
and Hindi. Apply along with bio-data to The Manger,
Maharashtra Software Pvt. Ltd, Kalbadevi, Mumbai-04
19 A leading business house requires an Assistant Manager
good command over spoken and written English essential.
Knowledge of Marathi is desirable. The post carries a good
salary and perks. Apply along with bio-data to PO Box M-
501. The Times of India, Mumbai-1
20 Wanted a Company Secretary for a commercial concern in
Mumbai. Candidates good at drafting with legal knowledge
and previous experience in general administration will be
preferred. Apply along with bio-data to The Manager, Mumbai
400 001
21. Wanted an experienced sales-assistant with the knowledge
of stenography and office routine. Apply immediately in own
hand writing with a Bio-data sheet to Box No. E of 550-F, The
Times of India, Mumbai 400 001.
22. Requires Personal Secretary, graduate girl, Computer literate
with fluent in English from Western Suburbs of Mumbai for
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Managing Director, Garments Export Ltd. Company at
Kandivali (West), Mumbai-75. Apply within 7days
.
23. Wanted Male graduate, Assistant to Director, Computer
literate with good knowledge of English, for co-coordinating
development of Garment samples for Ghatkopar (E) office,
person staying up to Thane/Navi Mumbai. Send bio-data with
photo/certificate/ testimonial/ration hard copy by post to the
Manager, 6/31, Mittal Estate, Andheri-Kurla Road, Kurla (E),
Mumbai 400 054.
24. Wanted an experienced Management Graduate to work as
the Assistant Public Relations Manager in a reputed
Company in New Delhi. Candidates with the required
qualifications, legal background and knowledge of at least
two foreign languages and communication skills will be
preferred. Apply with a Bio-data sheet to Box. No. M 786 P,
The Times of India, Mumbai 400 001."
26. Imagine you have received an invitation for job interview.
Draft a reply of the email.
27. Your friend has met with an accident recently. You could not
find a time to meet him personally. Draft a goodwill letter
convincing your compulsion and conveying your regards for
him to recover soon and assuring him all the support he may
need in future.
28. Your colleague in your department is getting married soon.
He has invited you for his wedding ceremony to be held in
Latur. But, you already have an urgent and important meeting
on the same day which you cannot skip for any reason. Write
an appropriate goodwill letter to him conveying the real
situation and wishes for his future married life.

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5
Unit III
EMPLOYMENT COMMUNICATION-III
MEMORANDUM
Unit Structure
5.1 Objectives
5.2 Introduction
5.3 Structure
5.4 Sample Memo Format / Template
5.5 Tips to write model business memo
5.6 Meeting
5.7 Brochure
5.8 Summary
5.9 Exercise
5.1 OBJECTIVES:
To understand the concept of memorandum and the forms of
memorandum
To learn the significance of meeting as a part of the
employment communication
To learn to draft the appropriate notice for meeting and
writing the minutes of meeting
To learn to draft the brochures required to sale the product.
5.2 INTRODUCTION
A memorandum or memo is a document or other
communication that helps the memory by recording events or
observations on a topic, such as may be used in a business office.
The plural form is either memoranda or memorandums.
A memorandum may have any format, or it may have a
format specific to an office or institution. In law specifically, a
memorandum is a record of the terms of a transaction or contract,
such as a policy memo, memorandum of understanding,
memorandum of agreement, or memorandum of association.
147
Alternative formats include memos, briefing notes, reports, letters
or binders. They could be one page long or many. If the user is a
cabinet minister or a senior executive, the format might be rigidly
defined and limited to one or two pages. If the user is a colleague,
the format is usually much more flexible. At its most basic level, a
memorandum can be a handwritten note to one's supervisor.
A specific type of memorandum is the policy briefing note
(alternatively referred to in various jurisdictions and governing
traditions as policy issues paper, policy memoranda, or cabinet
submission amongst other terms), a document for transmitting
policy analysis into the political decision making sphere. Typically, a
briefing note may be denoted as either for information or for
decision.
The primary purpose of a briefing note for decision is to
support decision making to help (or sometimes influence) a
decision-maker to make a better decision in a particular problem
situation than he might otherwise have made without the analysis.
5.3 STRUCTURE
As the communication mechanism of the policy analysis process,
the briefing note should provide a coherent synopsis of a policy
problem; identify different policy options for addressing the
problem, articulate opposing perspectives and advocate a
recommended option. The typical structure for a briefing note
includes: a description of the proposed policy; relevant background
information; a discussion of key considerations (including
implementation concerns, financial considerations, stakeholder
impacts, and possible unanticipated consequences), a summary of
arguments for and against the policy and a recommended decision.
Policy documents, that start with a proposal and assemble an
argument that position are more accurately referred to as a
government white paper. A government green paper which raises a
policy option and is meant to open a dialogue on the proposal is
more similar in tone to a briefing note than is a white paper.
5.4 SAMPLE MEMO FORMAT / TEMPLATE
TO:
FROM:
DATE:
SUBJECT:
First Sentence:
Reason for the memo
Second Sentence - Main Body:
Any Instructions or information
148
Closing Sentence
What is required of the reader e.g. Confirmation, answers or
feedback
5.4.2 Sample Memo
TO: Kelly Anderson, Marketing Executive
FROM: Jonathon Fitzgerald, Market Research Assistant
DATE: June 14, 2007
SUBJECT: Fall Clothes Line Promotion
Through market research and analysis, it has been
discovered that the proposed advertising media for the new fall
lines need to be reprioritized and changed. Findings from focus
groups and surveys have made it apparent that we need to update
our advertising efforts to align them with the styles and trends of
young adults today. No longer are young adults interested in
sitcoms as they watch reality televisions shows. Also, it is has
become increasingly important to use the internet as a tool to
communicate with our target audience to show our dominance in
the clothing industry.
Internet Advertising
XYZ Company needs to focus advertising on internet sites
that appeal to young people. According to surveys, 72% of our
target market uses the internet for five hours or more per week. The
following list shows in order of popularity the most frequented sites:
* Google
* Facebook
* Myspace
* EBay
* iTunes
Shifting our efforts from our other media sources such as
radio and magazine to these popular internet sites will more
effectively promote our product sales. Young adults are spending
more and more time on the internet downloading music,
communicating and researching for homework and less and less
time reading paper magazines and listening to the radio. As the
trend for cultural icons to go digital, so must our marketing plans.
Television Advertising
It used to be common to advertise for our products on shows
like Friends and Seinfeld for our target audience, but even the face
of television is changing. Young adults are tuning into reality
television shows for their entertainment. Results from the focus
group show that our target audience is most interested in shows
like American Idol, The Apprentice, and America's Next Top Model.
The only non-reality television show to be ranked in the top ten
most commonly watched shows by males and females 18-25 is
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Desperate Housewives. At Blue Incorporated, we need to focus our
advertising budget on reality television shows and reduce the
amount of advertising spent on other programs.
By refocusing our advertising efforts of our new line of
clothing we will be able to maximize the exposure of our product to
our target market and therefore increase our sales. Tapping into the
trends of young adults will help us gain market share and sales
through effective advertising.
Attachments: Focus Group Results, January- May 2007;
Survey Findings, January - April 2007.
5.5 TIPS TO WRITE MODEL BUSINESS MEMOS
Almost all companies have a conventional heading that signals an
internal memo. "Memorandum" (or "Memo") usually appears in
bold letters either left- or center-justified at the top of the page.
Other important information that appears at the top of page one
includes:
Date:
Subject: (or Re:)
To:
From:
It should be noted that most word processors like Microsoft
Word provide some nice templates for memo layout should you be
looking for one.
If this is a memo designed to communicate the findings of
some project or investigation assigned to the author, then the
structure of the memo typically progresses as follows:
Introduction (or Background)
Two or three sentences that orient your reader about why
your are writing to him or her. Your boss may not remember why
he or she assigned you this project. In this section, refresh your
boss's memory. This should not be an editorial (for example, don't
include philosophy about how important this issue is to your
company--your readers already know that). Rather, the Introduction
should inform the reader about specific background info regarding
the project you are writing about (for example, who, what, when,
where, why). In most analytical memos, your tone should be
unemotional and objective.
Avoid putting your conclusions or key points in this section--
those things go in the next section.
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5.5.1 Key Points
This section may also be labeled "Recommendations",
"Highlights", "Summary", "Conclusions", or something else with a
similar summative tone.
This is where you place your key points for that busy
executive that only has three minutes on the subway.
Key points are usually best communicated by listing them as
single sentences or phrases (like we have done here). Avoid big
blocks of narrative text--most busy readers have difficulties
navigating large, wordy paragraphs.
5.5.1.1 Limit your key points to three or less.
In an analytical memo your three key points might consist of:
* Major strengths or weaknesses that you'd like to highlight.
* Opportunities for improvement.
* At least one recommendation for action.
Your key points must all fit on the first page.
Analysis
5.5.1.2 Data, Method, Assumptions
Before you engage in any analysis you need to tell your
reader some things:
* Data. What data will you be using? How and where did you
obtain it?
* Method. What methods will you be using to analyze your data?
* Assumptions. Are there some key assumptions that you will be
making during your analysis?
By informing your reader about these issues, they'll better
know what to expect as they read on...
5.5.1.3 Specific Analysis.
This section may also be labeled "Findings", "Details",
"Results", or something else that signifies that this is where you
provide the details of your analysis. This is for the reader that
needs more specific information than the summary info presented
in the key points listed above. A useful rule about the analysis
section: It should be easy for the reader to clearly link the portions
of your Analysis section with each point listed in the Key Points
section above.
5.5.1.4 Positioning the Analysis Section.
If there is room, begin your analysis section on the bottom of page
one. If your analysis is fairly lengthy, consider using subheadings
that divide your analysis into logical pieces. Notice that we have
done this here by using bold-face phrases to signal the general
content of each paragraph.
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5.5.1.5 Use of Boldface for Headings and Subheadings.
Just like we are doing here, use boldface and different size
fonts to highlight section headings and subheadings. Today's word
processing software makes it easy for the writer to use different font
sizes and headings to guide the reader's eye through the report.
Paragraph Size: Avoid big blocks of narrative text. Large
paragraphs are impossible to read quickly. Better to break up your
thoughts into smaller size chunks. Augment them with boldfaced
subheadings--just like we are doing here.
5.5.1.6 Use of Data
Most analytical reports require the incorporation of data in
order to be convincing. Data provide a sense of objectivity and
encourage "managing by fact". Data are usually expressed in
either tables or graphs. They can be placed inside the analysis
section (increasingly popular as word processors facilitate cut-and-
paste) or at the end of the report as attachments. In either case, all
tables and graphs should have a title and numerical reference, and
your analysis should make specific reference to each table or graph
you have included in your report. Attaching the raw data used in
your analysis is usually a good idea.
5.5.1.7 Limitations
What are the limitations of your analysis and findings? For
example, the data that you use may be incomplete or suspect--you
may need to note that to your reader. Indeed, a "Limitations" or
similar section may be a chance to impose your superior grasp of
the context that frames your project. Your reader will appreciate
this.
What Not to Include. Never incorporate data that is not
specifically referenced in your analysis. Do not end the memo with
your conclusions! They should be stated in list form on Page One.
5.5.1.8 Persuasive
Memorandum
To: Andy Andler, Benita Buchanan, Charles Chavez
CC: Darcy Danko
From: Heady the Head Honcho
Date: June 1, 2006
Re: Need for New Memo Format
Ive noticed that we dont seem to be able to communicate
important changes, requirements and progress reports throughout
the company as effectively as we should. I propose developing one
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consistent memo format, recognizable by all staff as the official
means of communicating company directives.
While I know this seems like a simple solution, I believe it will
cut down on needless e-mail, improve universal communication
and allow the staff to save necessary information for later referral.
Please talk among yourselves to determine the proper points
of memo writing and return the input to me by 12 noon. I will then
send out a notice to the entire staff regarding the new memo
format.
Thank you for your prompt attention to this.
5.5.1.9 Directive
Memo
To: All Staff
From: Heady the Head Honcho
Date: June 1, 2006
Re: New Memo Format Effective June 1
In order to make interoffice communications easier, please adhere
to the following guidelines for writing effective memos:
Clearly state the purpose of the memo in the subject line and
in the first paragraph.
Keep language professional, simple and polite.
Use short sentences.
Use bullets if a lot of information is conveyed.
Proofread before sending.
Address the memo to the person(s) who will take action on
the subject, and CC those who need to know about the
action.
Attach additional information: dont place it in the body of the
memo if possible.
Please put this format into practice immediately. We
appreciate your assistance in developing clear communications. If
you have any questions, please dont hesitate to call me. Thank
you.
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5.5.1.10 Technical
Memo
To: Heady the Head Honcho, Andy Adler
From: Darcy Darko
Date: June 15, 2006
Re: Update on the T-12 Phase Three testing
As we enter Phase Four of the T-12 testing, I wanted to
provide a progress overview of the Phase Three testing.
The body of the memo might include two-four paragraphs
outlining the purpose of the memo. If this is a longer memo, each
paragraph will have a subhead to help guide the reader through the
document.
Finally, the writer includes a summary paragraph, which
features bullets highlighting the main points of each previous
paragraph, and concludes the memo with a stated action required
by the reader or writer.
A quick note about the use of "memo" vs. "memorandum:" it
doesn't really matter. It falls in line with the style selected by the
writer.
5.6 MEETING
Formal or informal deliberative assembly of individuals called
to debate certain issues and problems, and to take decisions.
Formal meetings are held at definite times, at a definite place, and
usually for a definite duration to follow an agreed upon agenda. In a
corporate setting, they are divided into two main groups
Organizational meeting: normally a regular meeting involving
stockholders (shareholders) and management, such as a board
meeting and annual general meeting (AGM).
Operational meeting: regular or ad hoc meeting involving
management and employees, such as a committee meeting,
planning meeting, and sales meeting. A meeting is typically headed
by a chairperson, and its deliberations are recorded in a written
form called minutes. Under corporate legislation, two main types of
meetings are general meetings and special or extraordinary
meetings. Such meetings must have a minimum number of
members (called quorum) present to make the legally operative.
Decisions (called resolutions) are made on the basis of number of
votes the assenting and dissenting parties can muster. Under the
doctrine of collective responsibility, decisions taken at these
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meetings bind all members whether present or not. However, a
dissenting minority may apply to a court to have an already adopted
resolution set aside if it is deemed illegal, iniquitous, or ultra vires
5.6.1 Effective Conductance of Meeting
5.6.1.1. Don't Meet
Avoid a meeting if the same information could be covered in
a memo, e-mail or brief report. One of the keys to having more
effective meetings is differentiating between the need for one-way
information dissemination and two-way information sharing. To
disseminate information you can use a variety of other
communication media, such as sending an e-mail or posting the
information on your company's intranet. If you want to be certain
you have delivered the right message, you can schedule a meeting
to simply answer questions about the information you have sent. By
remembering to ask yourself, "Is a meeting the best way to handle
this?" you'll cut down on wasted meeting time and restore your
group's belief that the meetings they attend are necessary.
5.6.1.2. Set Objectives for the Meeting
Set objectives before the meeting! Before planning the
agenda for the meeting, write down a phrase or several phrases to
complete the sentence: By the end of the meeting, I want the group
to Depending on the focus of your meeting, your ending to the
sentence might include phrases such as: be able to list the top
three features of our newest product, have generated three ideas
for increasing our sales, understand the way we do business with
customers, leave with an action plan, decide on a new widget
supplier, or solve the design problem.
One benefit of setting objectives for the meeting is to help
you plan the meeting. The more concrete your meeting objectives,
the more focused your agenda will be. A second important benefit
of having specific objectives for each meeting is that you have a
concrete measure against which you can evaluate that meeting.
Were you successful in meeting the objectives? Why or why not? Is
another meeting required? Setting meeting objectives allows you to
continuously improve your effective meeting process.
5.6.1.3. Provide an Agenda Beforehand
Provide all participants with an agenda before the meeting
starts. Your agenda needs to include a brief description of the
meeting objectives, a list of the topics to be covered and a list
stating who will address each topic and for how long. When you
send the agenda, you should include the time, date and location of
the meeting and any background information participants will need
to know to hold an informed discussion on the meeting topic.
What's the most important thing you should do with your agenda?
Follow it closely!
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5.6.1.4. Assign Meeting Preparation
Give all participants something to prepare for the meeting,
and that meeting will take on a new significance to each group
member. For problem-solving meetings, have the group read the
background information necessary to get down to business in the
meeting. Ask each group member to think of one possible solution
to the problem to get everyone thinking about the meeting topic.
For example, to start a sales meeting on a positive note, have all
participants recall their biggest success since the last meeting and
ask one person to share his success with the group. For less formal
meetings or brainstorming sessions, ask a trivia question related to
the meeting topic and give the correct answer in the first few
minutes of the meeting. These tips are sure-fire ways to warm up
the group and direct participants' attention to the meeting
objectives.
5.6.1.5. Assign Action Items
Don't finish any discussion in the meeting without deciding
how to act on it. Listen for key comments that flag potential action
items and don't let them pass by without addressing them during
your meeting. Statements such as We should really, that's a topic
for a different meeting, or I wonder if we could are examples of
comments that should trigger action items to get a task done, hold
another meeting or further examine a particular idea. Assigning
tasks and projects as they arise during the meeting means that
your follow-through will be complete. Addressing off-topic
statements during the meeting in this way also allows you to keep
the meeting on track. By immediately addressing these statements
with the suggestion of making an action item to examine the issue
outside of the current meeting, you show meeting participants that
you value their input as well as their time.
5.6.1.6. Examine Your Meeting Process
Assign the last few minutes of every meeting as time to
review the following questions: What worked well in this meeting?
What can we do to improve our next meeting? Every participant
should briefly provide a point-form answer to these questions.
Answers to the second question should be phrased in the form of a
suggested action. For example, if a participant's answer is stated as
Jim was too long-winded, ask the participant to re-phrase the
comment as an action. The statement we should be more to-the-
point when stating our opinions is a more constructive suggestion.
Remember don't leave the meeting without assessing what took
place and making a plan to improve the next meeting!
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5.6.2 Notice
Introduction to Notice writing
A notice is written by an individual, a group, an organization
or a body to draw the attention of the readers to a certain issue that
needs immediate attention or active participation.
Points to remember
* Notice to be within a box.
* All the relevant details to be given.
* A captivating heading needed.
* The name and the designation of the writer to be given at the
end.
* Adhere to the word limit
Sample Notice writing
Put up a notice on the school bulletin board, asking the
Group Captains and the Vice-captains to meet at the auditorium to
discuss about the Athletic Meet of the year with the Principal and
the Vice-Principal. You are George Page, the College Prefect.(50
words)
5.6.3 Sample
5.6.3.1 GREYFIELD PUBLIC COLLEGE
NOTICE
12th November, 2009
ATTENTION! GROUP CAPTAINS AND VICE-CAPTAINS
The Group captains and vice-captains have to assemble in
the auditorium at 3 p. m. today for a discussion on the Annual
Athletic Meet of the year with the Principal and the Vice-Principal.
For further enquiries contact the undersigned.
Jigar Mehata
College Prefect
5.6.3.2 Standard Sample
SAMPLE MEETING NOTICE
The _________________ [Name of Governing Body] of the
_________________
[Name of Public Entity] (hereafter referred to as "governing body")
will be holding a(n)
__________ [regular, special, or emergency] meeting on _______
[Date] at ________
[Time]. The meeting will be held in the _________ room
at_________________________ [Location of the Meeting]. In the
event that any or all any or all of the members of the governing
body participate in the meeting by telephone or video, a
speakerphone or monitor will be available at the location noted
above.
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At the time this notice is being prepared, the governing body
expects the agenda of its meeting to include the following topics:
[Include all topics the governing body expects to discuss. Also
include the topics to be discussed during, and the legal authority for
holding, any anticipated executive sessions.]
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Where noted, the discussion of some of the above topics
may be held in executive session rather than during the portion of
the meeting which is open to the public. If this is a regular meeting,
additional topics may be discussed. If this is a special or
emergency meeting, the governing body's discussion will be limited
to the topics and executive sessions listed above.
Date of Notice: ___________
Name of Person Preparing Notice: _____________________
5.6.3.4 Example
University of Pune
Ganeshkhind, Pune 411007 Graphic Address: UNIPUNA
Phone No.s : 020 - 25691341, 25601206 25601218
Ref. : Exam. Co.ord. /1683 Date 07.12.2009
The Principals,
All affiliated colleges of Engineering,
Sir/Madam,
I am to inform you that F.E. On Line examination for the subject
Fundamentals of programming languages will be held between 6th
January 2010 and 10th January 2010.The detail schedule will be
uploaded shortly on University website www.unipune.ernet.in.
You are requested to communicate the same to the concerned
Students, Teachers and all the other concerned.
Thanking You,
Yours Faithfully,
Dy.Registrar
Exam-Co-ordination
Notice and Agenda
5.7 BROCHURE
According to Wikipedia, a brochure (also referred to as a pamphlet)
is a type of leaflet. Brochures are most commonly found at places
that tourists frequently visit, such as museums, major shops, and
tourist information centres. Brochure racks or stands may suggest
visits to amusement parks and other points of interest. Another type
of brochure is interpersonal brochures, which are brochures based
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on other people. Then there are pamphlets that you can find in
health clinics and hospitals that give help and advice to do with
your health. The two most common brochure styles are single
sheet, and booklet (folded leaflets) forms.
The most common types of single-sheet brochures are the
bi-fold (a single sheet printed on both sides and folded into halves)
and the tri-fold (the same, but folded into thirds). A bi-fold brochure
results in four panels (two panels on each side), while a tri-fold
results in six panels (three panels on each side).
Other folder arrangements are possible: the accordion or "Z-
fold" method, the "C-fold" method, etc. Larger sheets, such as
those with detailed maps or expansive photo spreads, are folded
into four, five, or six panels.
Booklet brochures are made of multiple sheets most often
saddle stitched (stapled on the creased edge) or "perfect bound"
like a paperback book, and result in eight panels or more.
Brochures are often printed using four color process on thick
gloss paper to give an initial impression of quality. Businesses may
turn out small quantities of brochures on a computer printer or on a
digital printer, but offset printing turns out higher quantities for less
cost.
Compared with a flyer or a handbill, a brochure usually uses
higher-quality paper, more color, and is folded.
5.7.1 How to Design and Layout a Brochure
Designing a basic brochure - how hard can that be? For
good graphic designers, the answer is a lot tougher than you think.
Even for the most basic type of brochure, before you ever put
pencil to paper or click your mouse, there is essential information
the client and you need to discuss.
The first thing you need to know is the purpose of the
brochure or what the client wants that brochure to accomplish. That
ties directly into who the target audience is and what the message
of the brochure will be. There are three main types of brochures
and in each case; the cover is used to accomplish a specific goal.
The three types of brochures are those that are used to advertise or
market, those that educate or inform, and those that entertain.
For a brochure whose primary purpose is to advertise or market
products and services, the cover will most likely have two parts: a
catchy phrase that grabs the potential customers attention, and
then lists the benefits of the product (what will this product do for
me?). In the instance of a brochure that is primarily educational or
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informative, the product generally appears on the cover with the
information of what it does or can do listed inside. The entertaining
brochure is used the least. You might see it in a family-style
restaurant, for example, and it contains puzzles, drawings, etc. for
kids to keep them occupied. But, for this piece, Ill focus on the first
two types of brochures.
The next thing you and the client need to decide is the
number of panels in the brochure, which is influenced by a number
of factors. Some questions to consider:
How much information will be in this brochure?
How is this brochure going to be used?
Is there a bleed?
Is the brochure going to be of a unique design that might include
die-cuts or unusual folding?
Will the brochure be a direct mail piece? If so, what are the postal
regulations for the size and mailing costs?
Also under mailing, will there be a returned piece such as a
Business Reply Card (BRC)?
What is the allotted budget for the brochure?
Designers need to get the parameters and specifications
from the client before they proceed, as these may greatly affect the
cost. Printers can also be a tremendous resource in explaining how
a brochures parameters and specifications will affect everything
from the size of paper a brochure is printed on, to trimming, folding,
and special cuts.
Once those decisions are made, the graphic designer and
client need to discuss what is often referred to as the hierarchy of
information or whats the order of information; starting with the
most important and moving onto the least. At this stage, youll need
to know on which panel or panels information is being placed. In
some brochures, information (particularly photographs and maps)
can go across two panels to striking effect. At the same time, when
thinking about how the brochure will be laid out, consider whether
each individual panel will hold distinct information or are the panels
related?
Youre still not quite ready to move into the actual design
process as you need to refer back to that target audience the
brochure is aimed at. Here you need to know the answer to the
following question: what is the message the client is sending with
this brochure? Advertising, educating, informing, and entertaining
are how that message is presented; the actual message is what
you want to say about the particular product, service, or company.
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When all that information is gathered, you can finally get down to
the business of designing. Youll take into account the basic
elements of good design - alignment, repetition for a sense of unity,
contrast and a focal point that provides interest, balance, scale and
perspective, color, and so on. Youll also want to keep in mind the
font, size, color, and orientation of the text.
As with any design there are also things youll want to avoid.
These include:
Avoid over-used typefaces, two of which are Arial and Helvetica.
For content type, keep the point size under 12.
Dont use more than three type faces in a brochure.
Generally dont use more than one alignment.
As you can see, designing even a standard six-panel
brochure is often a much more complicated process than you
initially might think. The more organized you are, the easier the
graphic design process will be, and probably a lot more fun. With
any design project, its a good idea to have all the necessary
information, pictures, parameters, and specifications before you let
your creative juices flow.
5.7.2 Brochure Writing Sample
One page sample from high-
level corporate product
brochure
Executive Summary
Dependable Systems for Total
Data Protection
VAX systems and servers
provide the dependability,
reliability, and peace-of-mind you
need in a system that supports
your business-critical
applications. You can count on a
VAX system to protect your data
anywhere -- on the desktop, in
the department, or in the
computer room. The inherent reliability of VAX hardware combined
with the data protection features of the VMX operating system
create a computing environment you can depend on now.
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Broad Range of Systems with Exceptional Growth
With a VAX system you can choose the best system for your
organization today with the knowledge that it will still be the best
system for your organization tomorrow. While building upon the
strengths of the broad, compatible range of VAX systems, Digital
will actively develop new technology that will keep you and your
VAX systems on the cutting edge for years to come.
Performance Leadership in Open Networks
Digital offers exceptional networking products for local and
wide area networking with systems from Digital and other vendors.
Our network management products ensure that your networks
operate at peak performance, distributing business-critical data
throughout your enterprise.
Open Computing Through Standards
Through standards and Network Application Support (NAS)
services, Digital enables more computers and people to work
together, so your organization is productive and competitive. We
now tie together applications running across the widest range of
desktops, operating systems, and large-system resources from a
variety of vendors And we will provide maximum applications
portability for VAX/VMS systems through the support of POSIX and
X/Open's XPG3.
Over 10,000 Applications and the Best Tools to Write Your
Own
VAX systems today run well over 10,000 applications. These
applications offer solutions for offices, data centers, factories,
laboratories, and engineering departments. For writing your own
applications, Digital provides a CASE environment so rich in
development tools that programming time is often cut in half.
Exceptional Reliability, Quality, and Service
The quality that Digital designs and builds into every VAX
system and server translates into maximum system uptime and
availability. The hardware design is inherently reliable, and the
software design ensures that your data is safe. A Digital service
partnership covers every aspect of planning, installation,
implementation, and maintenance worldwide.
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5.7.3
Samp
le II
Brochure Writing Sample
Interior page from high-level corporate product brochure
A VAX system is a wise investment for today, and for the
future. VAX systems comprise the broadest family of 100-percent
compatible computers available, so you can choose the best
workstation, departmental system, or mainframe for your
organization. It's a cost-effective approach to computing because
you never have to purchase more computing power than you need,
yet you still keep your options open.
With VAX systems, you can always adapt to changes in your
marketplace. If your business grows, you can easily make your
system grow without having to sacrifice investments in hardware,
software, and training.
Digital is aggressive when it comes to improving the
performance and price/performance of VAX systems without
compromising our history of compatibility. You can be assured that
these benefits will be passed along to you, so that you and your
VAX system can continually grow -- keeping your competitive edge
sharp.
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One Family, Unlimited Options
The versatility of VAX systems makes them perfect for a
wide variety of tasks. Want timesharing? Client/server computing?
High availability, fault-tolerance, transaction processing, real time,
or vector processing? A VAX system is always the right answer.
The entire VAX family is versatile enough to suit everyone's
needs -- from the small business interested in a MicroVAX system
for the price of a PC, to the multinational corporation with wide area
networks of VAX cluster systems containing VAX mainframes and
supercomputers.
Investment Protection and Enhancement
Growth opportunities are built into each level of the VAX
family, making the value of your computing investment continue to
grow over time. A VAX system gives you the ability to react to
unpredictable changes in the marketplace. If your priorities change,
you can take advantage of new applications or shift computing
resources. If your organization experiences unforeseen growth, you
can be confident that your VAX systems will grow with you --
protecting and actually enhancing your investments in hardware,
software, and personnel.
5.8 SUMMARY
A memorandum or memo is a document or other
communication that helps the memory by recording events or
observations on a topic, such as may be used in a business office.
The plural form is either memoranda or memorandums. A
memorandum may have any format, or it may have a format
specific to an office or institution. In law specifically, a
memorandum is a record of the terms of a transaction or contract,
such as a policy memo, memorandum of understanding,
memorandum of agreement, or memorandum of association.
Formal or informal deliberative assembly of individuals called to
debate certain issues and problems, and to take decisions. Formal
meetings are held at definite times, at a definite place, and usually
for a definite duration to follow an agreed upon agenda. In a
corporate setting, they are divided into two main groups:
Organizational meeting, Operational meeting: regular or ad hoc
meeting involving management and employees, such as a
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committee meeting, planning meeting, and sales meeting. A
meeting is typically headed by a chairperson, and its deliberations
are recorded in a written form called minutes. A brochure (also
referred to as a pamphlet) is a type of leaflet. Brochures are most
commonly found at places that tourists frequently visit, such as
museums, major shops, and tourist information centers. Brochure
racks or stands may suggest visits to amusement parks and other
points of interest.
5.9 EXERCISE
1. What do you understand by the memorandum? What is its
significance in the business communication?
2. What are the common formats of the memorandums?
Explain it giving details of the essential components.
3. Draft a memo to be issued to your employee asking them to
maintain the discipline in the working hours.
4. Imagine that one of your subordinates is involved in
misconduct while on duty. Draft a memo to be issued to him.
5. Your locality is infested with lots of rodents and the pests.
Draft a memorandum presented to the health officer of your
area.
6. Discuss various tips required to maintain while drafting the
brochure.
7. Draft a sample brochure to sale a new personal computer.
8. What is the significance of meeting in routine business
affairs?
9. Explain the various tips to be followed while conducting a
meeting?
10. Discuss the role of chairman in conducting a meeting.
11. Draft a notice to the following events:
a. Annual general body meeting of your company.
b. A special meeting to discuss a progress report of your
company
c. Annual Share Holders Meeting
d. Pre Budget Meeting
12. Draft model minutes for the following meetings:
a. Annual general body meeting of your company.
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b. A special meeting to discuss a progress report of your
company
c. Annual Share Holders Meeting
d. Pre Budget Meeting









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6
Unit IV
WRITING REPORTS
Unit Structure
6.1 Objectives
6.2 Introduction
6.3 Different types of reports
6.4 Stages in report writing
6.5 Structuring your report
6.6 Style of writing
6.7 Sample
6.8 Summary
6.9 Exercise
6.1 OBJECTIVES
To know what report writing is
To understand and equip the art of report writing
To learn the various steps involved in report writing
6.2 INTRODUCTION
A report is a statement of the results of an investigation or of
any matter on which definite information is required. (Oxford
English Dictionary)
Formal report writing in professional, technical and business
contexts has evolved certain conventions regarding format, style,
referencing and other characteristics. These will vary in detail
between organisations, so the information given below should be
treated as general guidelines which hold good in the absence of
any more specific `house styles'
Reports are a highly structured form of writing often following
conventions that have been laid down to produce a common
format. Structure and convention in written reports stress the
process by which the information was gathered as much as the
information itself.
As the business environment grows in its complexity, the
importance of skillful communication becomes essential in the
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pursuit of institutional goals. In addition to the need to develop
adequate statistical skills, you will find it necessary to effectively
communicate to others the results of your statistical studies. It is of
little use to formulate solutions to business problems without
transmitting this information to others involved in the problem-
solving process. The importance of effectively communicating the
results of your statistical study cannot be overemphasized.
Unfortunately, it seems that many business managers suffer
from inadequate communication skills. The December 1990 issue
of the Training and Development Journal reports that "Executives
polled in a recent survey decry the lack of writing skills among job
candidates." A report in 1993 issue of Management Review notes
the "liability imposed on businesses by poor writing sills." The
report states that employers are beginning to place greater
emphasis on communication in hiring practices. Many employers
have adopted policies requiring job candidates to submit a brief
written report as part of the screening process. An August 1992
issue of Marketing News reveals that "Employers seek motivated
communicators for entry-level marketing positions." Obviously, the
pressing lack of adequate writing and communications skills in
American businesses is well documented.
Therefore, the purpose of this appendix is to illustrate some
of the major principles of business communication and the
preparation of business reports. We examine the general purpose
and essential features of a report and stress the benefits of
effective report writing. Emphasis is placed on the customary form
a business report should take and the format, content, and purpose
of its component parts. We will study illustrations of practical
reports and the problems will provide the opportunity for students to
develop and sharpen their communication skills.
6.2.1 The Need to Communicate
Most business decisions involve the cooperation and
interaction of several individuals. Sometimes dozens of colleagues
and co-workers strive in unison to realize mutual goals. Lines of
communication must therefore be maintained to facilitate these joint
efforts. Without communicating ideas and thoughts it would be
impossible to identify common objectives and purposes necessary
for successful operations. Without communication and the team
effort it permits, the successful completion of any important project
can be jeopardized. Some aspects of the project would be
unnecessarily replicated while other tasks would be left unattended.
Further, in the absence of adequate communication, colleagues
would find themselves working at Coors purposes and perhaps
pursuing opposing goals. What one team member may have
worked to assemble one day, a second team member may
dismantle the next. Without communication the chances for a
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successful outcome of any business endeavor are significantly
reduced.
6.2.2 The Characteristics of the Reader
Business reports are quite often intended for a wide variety
of different audiences. It is critical that you carefully identify the
intended audience for your report; otherwise, it is likely that your
report will be misdirected and less effective. You should consider
exactly what the readers of your report already know and what they
need to know to make informed decisions.
You should also consider the attitude the audience will adopt
toward your report. If you fear that the readers may be somewhat
hostile toward your report, you may want to offer more supporting
evidence and documentation that you would if their reception was
thought to be more favorable. The educational background and
work experience of the audience is also a key factor in the
formulation of your report. A report written for top executives will
differ considerably from the prepared for line supervisors in terms of
style, word usage, and complexity. Even age, gender, and other
demographic characteristics might serve to shape the report.
One thing is certain. Whether you earn your livelihood as an
accountant, a marketing manager, a production supervisor, or a
sales representative, you will work in a vacuum. You will find it
necessary to constantly communicate with others in order to
successfully complete your job. Generally speaking, the larger the
institution in which you work, the greater will be the need to prepare
written reports. As the organization grows in complexity, so does
the required degree of formal communication.
6.3 DIFFERENT TYPES OF REPORTS:
During your time at university you may be asked to write
different types of reports, depending upon the subject area which
you have chosen. These could include laboratory reports, technical
reports, and reports of a work placement or industrial visit, reports
of a field trip or field work.
Reports vary in their purpose, but all of them will require a
formal structure and careful planning, presenting the material in a
logical manner using clear and concise language.
The types of reports are as follows:
Laboratory reports
Health and safety reports
Research reports
Case study reports
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Field study reports
Cost-benefit analysis reports
Proposals
Comparative advantage reports
Progress reports
Feasibility studies
Technical reports
Instruction manuals
Financial reports
And on it goes
6.4 STAGES IN REPORT WRITING
The format will depend upon the type and purpose of the
report, its intended readers, and the conventions of presentation
and layout prescribed by the organisation in which you are
operating. In general, there are two broad types of format which are
differentiated by whether the summary and/or recommendations
are placed after the main body of the report, or are placed earlier,
before the main body. The eventual format chosen might be a
combination or a condensed version of these two formats.
The following stages are involved in writing a report:
clarifying your terms of reference
planning your work
collecting your information
organising and structuring your information
writing the first draft
checking and re-drafting.
6.4.1. Terms of reference
The terms of reference of a report are a guiding statement
used to define the scope of your investigation.
You must be clear from the start what you are being asked
to do. You will probably have been given an assignment from your
tutor but you may need to discuss this further to find out the precise
subject and purpose of the report. Why have you been asked to
write it?
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Knowing your purpose will help you to communicate your
information more clearly and will help you to be more selective
when collecting your information.
6.4.2 Planning your report
Careful planning will help you to write a clear, concise and
effective report, giving adequate time to each of the developmental
stages prior to submission.
Consider the report as a whole
Break down the task of writing the report into various parts.
How much time do you have to write the report?
How can this be divided up into the various planning stages?
Set yourself deadlines for the various stages.
Draw up an outline structure for your report and set the work
within a sensible time scale for completion by the given deadline.
Some of the most time-consuming parts of the process are
collecting and selecting your information, and checking and revising
your report.
6.4.3 Collecting information
There are a number of questions you need to ask yourself at this
stage:-
What is the information you need?
Where do you find it?
How much do you need?
How shall you collect it?
In what order will you arrange it?
You may have much of the information you need already
such as results from a laboratory experiment or descriptions of your
methods of data collection. However, there may be other material
which is needed such as background information on other research
studies, or literature surveys. You may need to carry out some
interviews or make a visit to the university library to collect all the
information you need.
Make a list of what information you need.
Make an action plan stating how you are going to gather this.
6.4.5 Organising information
One helpful way of organising your information into topics is
to brainstorm your ideas into a spider diagram.
Write the main theme in the centre of a piece of paper.
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Write down all the ideas and keywords related to your topic
starting from the centre and branching out along lines of
connecting ideas.
Each idea can be circled or linked by lines as appropriate.
When you have finished, highlight any related ideas and
then sort topics.
Some ideas will form main headings, and others will be sub-
sections under these headings.
You should then be able to see a pattern remerging and be
able to arrange your main headings in a logical order
6.5 Structuring your report
We discussed earlier that there are different types of report
such as laboratory reports or reports on an industrial placement.
Always check with the person commissioning the report (your tutor,
your placement supervisor) to find out precisely what your report
should include and how it should be presented.
The following common elements can be found in many different
reports:
Title page
Acknowledgements
Contents
Abstract or summary
Introduction
Methodology
Results or findings
Discussion
Conclusion and recommendations
References
Appendices
6.5.1 Title page
This should include the title of the report (which should give
a precise indication of the subject matter), the authors name,
module, course and the date.
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6.5.2 Acknowledgements
You should acknowledge any help you have received in
collecting the information for the report. This may be from librarians,
technicians or computer centre staff, for example.
6.5.3 Contents
You should list all the main sections of the report in
sequence with the page numbers they begin on. If there are charts,
diagrams or tables included in your report, these should be listed
separately under a title such as List of Illustrations together with
the page numbers on which they appear.
6.5.4 Abstract or summary
This should be a short paragraph summarising the main
contents of the report. It should include a short statement of the
main task, the methods used, conclusions reached and any
recommendations to be made. The abstract or summary should be
concise, informative and independent of the report.
Write this section after you have written the report.
6.5.5 Introduction
This should give the context and scope of the report and
should include your terms of reference. State your objectives
clearly, define the limits of the report, outline the method of enquiry,
give a brief general background to the subject of the report and
indicate the proposed development.
Introductions to formal reports deal with the following
aspects of the text:
(a) Topic or subject matter: how the report relates to a field,
discipline or area of knowledge (reference to external framework).
This is normally expressed in terms of why the topic is of sufficient
importance or significance to deserve detailed coverage in a report.
(b) Purpose: what is the communicative intention in compiling the
report (to describe, explain, examine, review, discuss etc.).
(c) Scope: which aspects of (a) does the report seek to highlight in
fulfilling this purpose; often takes the form of an overview of the
organization and structure of the report, i.e. the focus of the major
sections; may mention aspects of the topic which have been
intentionally omitted.
The above form of introduction differs from that of
introductions to shorter scientific reports, in which a brief statement
of the aim of the experiment or the hypothesis to be tested is all
that is normally found.
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The above three-part structure also distinguishes formal
report introductions from essay introductions; the latter normally
place more emphasis on the topic/field relationship through taking
up a position (the thesis of the essay) in relation to the aspect of the
topic highlighted in the title (often in the form of an arresting
statement or thought provoking quotation).
Report introductions mayespecially in the case of longer or
more formal reportsrefer in addition to the sources of the
information incorporated within the document; this is done in terms
of categories of sources (ie general statements about how and
where you gathered your information: from books, articles,
statistics, other reports, interviews and so forth).
A final point to note: in this form of introduction the focus
should be on the particular report which is being introduced, rather
than on the wider field or area to which it relates.
The length of the introduction will vary in proportion to that of
the report.
6.5.6 Methodology
In this section you should state how you carried out your
enquiry. What form did your enquiry take? Did you carry out
interviews or questionnaires, how did you collect your data? What
measurements did you make? How did you choose the subjects for
your interviews? Present this information logically and concisely.
6.5.7 Results or findings
Present your findings in as simple a way as possible.
The more complicated the information looks, the more
difficult it will be to interpret. There are a number of ways in which
results can be presented.
Here are a few:
Tables
Graphs
Pie charts
Bar charts
Diagrams
6.5.8 Illustration checklist
Are all your diagrams / illustrations clearly labelled?
Do they all have titles?
Is the link between the text and the diagram clear?
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Are the headings precise?
Are the axes of graphs clearly labelled?
Can tables be easily interpreted?
Have you abided by any copyright laws when
including illustrations/tables from published
documents?
6.5.9 Discussion
This is the section where you can analyse and interpret your
results drawing from the information which you have collected,
explaining its significance. Identify important issues and suggest
explanations for your findings. Outline any problems encountered
and try and present a balanced view.
6.5.9 Conclusions and recommendations
This is the section of the report which draws together the
main issues. It should be expressed clearly and should not present
any new information. You may wish to list your recommendations in
separate section or include them with the conclusions.
6.5.10 Abstracts
The form and function of the abstract of a report include the
following:
definition, providing the essence of the report in a few words
informative form, or
descriptive form
impersonal tone
connected writing
length 150-250 words (for longer reports, 1/2-1 page single-
spaced)
American academic Kenneth K. Landes, irritated by what he
perceived to be the inadequacies of many abstracts in professional
journals, wrote in `A scrutiny of the abstract' (1966):
The abstract is of utmost importance, for it is read by 10 to
500 times more people than hear or read the entire article. It should
not be a mere recital of the subjects covered. Expressions such as
is discussed and is described should never be included! The
abstract should be a condensation and concentration of the
essential information in the paper. (Bulletin of the American
Association of Petroleum Geologists vol 50, no 9)
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6.5.10.1. Informative abstract
An informative abstract is usually written by the author(s) of
a report. It appears in the same document as part of the complete
text. This abstract describes the research or project and presents
the main ideas of the report in a summarised form. Informative
abstracts do not duplicate references or tables of results. To
achieve economy of expression, the style of informative abstracts
often omits terms which identify the particular report (such as `this
paper' or `this report').
Lawson, J. (1990) `The education of the future senior health
manager'. Australian Health Review Vol. 13 no 3 pp 184-8
Primarily due to economic forces, health services are being
forced into a tight organisational framework of hospitals, clinics and
services which need to be managed by educated professional
managers. These managers need to be competent general and
financial managers, competent planners, knowledgeable about
health status, health issues, the Australian health care systems and
knowledgeable about society, law and ethics. Assumptions that
recruitment of people with such a formidable array of talents would
be difficult are incorrect as judged by current experiences. Very
talented and experienced candidates are being attracted to
graduate education programs in health service management in
many Australian universities. Accordingly the future management of
Australian health services should be in good hands.
6.5.10.2. Descriptive abstract
A descriptive abstract is compiled by someone other than
the author of the report to appear in another source, such as a data
bank or library catalogue. A descriptive abstract describes the
contents of a report but does not include interpretive statements,
conclusions or recommendations. It is possible to base a
descriptive abstract on the table of contents of a report. It is usually
much briefer than an informative abstract.
Edwards, P. & Gould, W. (1988) New directions in
apprentice selection: self perceived `On the job' literacy (reading)
demands of apprentices. Victorian TAFE Papers 8, 14-17
6.5.11 References
The reference list is placed at the end of the report. It is
arranged in alphabetical order of authors' surnames and
chronologically for each author. The reference list includes only
references cited in the text. The author's surname is placed first,
immediately followed by the year of publication. This date is often
176
placed in brackets. The title of the publication appears after the
date followed by place of publication, then publisher (some sources
say publisher first, then place of publication). There are many other
minor differences in setting out references (exa. use of commas,
colons, full stops) depending upon personal preferences or house
styles. The important thing is to check for any special requirements
or, if there are none, to be consistent.
Some lecturers require only a reference list. Others require,
in addition, a bibliography. While the reference list includes only
those texts cited in the body of your paper, a bibliography includes
all material consulted in the preparation of your report.
It is important that you give precise details of all the work by
other authors which has been referred to within the report. Details
should include:
Authors name and initials
Date of publication
Title of the book, paper or journal
Publisher
Place of publication
Page numbers
Details of the journal volume in which the article has
appeared.
References should be listed in alphabetical order of the authors'
names.
Make sure that your references are accurate and comprehensive.
6.5.12 Appendices
An appendix contains additional information related to the
report but which is not essential to the main findings. This can be
consulted if the reader wishes but the report should not depend on
this. You could include details of interview questions, statistical
data, a glossary of terms, or other information which may be useful
for the reader.
6.6 Style of writing
There are several points that you will need to consider when you
are writing your report:
Active or passive?
Your tutor will be able to advise whether the report should be
written in the active or passive voice.
The active voice reads as follows:
177
I recommend ...
The passive voice reads:
It is recommended that ...
The active voice allows you to write short, punchy sentences.
The passive appears more formal and considered.
Be aware of these differences and avoid mixing the two voices.
6.6.1 Simplicity
Most written reports should avoid using overly complicated
language. If a report is to persuade, brief or justify, its message
must be clear. Furthermore, the factual presentation of data should
not be swamped with sophisticated, lengthy sentences.
Avoid using unnecessary jargon. This confuses even the
most informed reader.
Ensure that your abbreviations are standardised. All too
often authors invent their own jargon to ease the pressure on
writing things in full. Be cautious of confusing your reader.
6.6.2 Use of language
Most reports should avoid the use of subjective language.
For example, to report on a change incolouration from a "stunning
green to a beautiful blue" is to project your own values onto a
measurable outcome. What does the term "beautiful" mean k to
you? What will it mean to your reader? Such subjective or personal
language commonly has no place in the more objective field of
report writing.
6.6.3 Layout
Most reports have a progressive numbering system.
The most common system is the decimal notation system.
The main sections are given single Indian numbers -
1, 2, 3 and so on.
Sub-sections are given a decimal number - 1.1, 1.2,
1.3 and so on.
Sub-sections can be further divided into - 1.11, 1.12,
1.13 and so on.
An example structure would look as follows;
1. Introduction
1.1 -
1.11 -
1.2 -
1.21 -
2. Methodology
2.1 -
2.11 -
2.12 -
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The following suggestions will help you to produce an easily read
report:
Leave wide margins for binding and feedback comments from
your tutor.
Paragraphs should be short and concise.
Headings should be clear - highlighted in bold or underlined.
All diagrams and illustrations should be labelled and numbered.
All standard units, measurements and technical terminology
should be listed in a glossary of terms at the back of your report.
6.6.4 Conclusion
Report conclusions, unlike introductions, cannot readily be
analysed in terms of characteristic structural features. Conclusions
are distinguished more by function than by form. In general terms,
the principal function of conclusions is to relate to the purpose and
scope of the report, as stated in the Introduction. In other words,
the conclusion should confirm for the reader that the
communicative intention has been achieved, and that the
previewed aspects of the topic have been covered.
This general function can be more specifically expressed in
a number of ways, including
to restate purpose and scope
to review or synthesise the main sections or units of the
discussion
to reiterate the principal points or findings
to affirm the validity of argument or judgement
To assert the viability of approach or interpretation
Two further points to note:
Though normally and substantially retrospective, conclusions
can extend or advance the topic, for instance by disclosing a
further perspective (to be pursued elsewhere) or by making
an additional, final judgment. Thus it is not strictly true to say
that conclusions never contain anything `new'.
In reports, the conclusion section can take the form of a
series of separately stated points and for these the plural
term `conclusions' may be used. Subsequent
recommendations would then be intended to address these
points.
6.6.5 Presentation
Once you have written the first draft of your report you will
need to check it through. It is probably sensible to leave it on your
desk for a day or so if you have the time. This will make a clear
179
break from the intensive writing period, allowing you to view your
work more objectively.
Assess your work in the following areas:
Structure
Content
Style
Look at the clarity and precision of your work.
Use the report writing checklist at the end of this section to check
your report.
You may like to carry out a more formal evaluation.
Use the section Assessing yourself to help you draft
assessment criteria and evaluate your work.
The skills involved in writing a report will help you to
condense and focus information, drawing objective findings from
detailed data.
The ability to express yourself clearly and succinctly is an
important skill and is one that can be greatly enhanced by
approaching each report in a planned and focused way.
6.6.6 Redrafting and checking
Summary
Title page
Does this include the :
Title?
Authors name?
Module/course details?
Acknowledgements
Have you acknowledged all sources of help?
Contents
Have you listed all the main sections in sequence?
Have you included a list of illustrations?
Abstract or summary
Does this state:
The main task?
The methods used?
The conclusions reached?
The recommendations made?
Introduction
Does this include:
Your terms of reference?
The limits of the report?
An outline of the method?
A brief background to the subject matter?
180
Methodology
Does this include:
The form your enquiry took?
The way you collected your data?
Reports and findings
Are your diagrams clear and simple?
Are they clearly labelled?
Do they relate closely to the text?
Discussion
Have you identified key issues?
Have you suggested explanations for your findings?
Have you outlined any problems encountered?
Have you presented a balanced view?
Conclusions and recommendations
Have you drawn together all of your main ideas?
Have you avoided any new information?
Are any recommendations clear and concise?
References
Have you listed all references alphabetically?
Have you included all the necessary information?
Are your references accurate?
Appendices
Have you only included supporting information?
Does the reader need to read these sections?
Writing style
Have you used clear and concise language?
Are your sentences short and jargon free/
Are your paragraphs tightly focused?
Have you used the active or the passive voice?
Layout
Have you clearly labelled each section?
Is your labelling consistent throughout the report?
Presentation
Have you left sufficient margin space for binding/feedback?
Are your headings clear?
Have you checked your spelling?
Overall:
What are the main points for consideration?
What have you done well?
What needs fine tuning?
A long report usually has the following sections:
181
This is an example long report template for you to copy to your
word processor or print out. Then you can fill in your own details
Title Page
The Title; e.g.'A Report on ....'
.....................'An Investigation into...'
.....................'An Analysis of ...'
.....................'A Comparison of ... and ...'
Your Name
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement of the
............................course.
If you are a HKPU student, your student number.
The date.
Acknowledgments
"I would like to thank my supervisor, Mr. _______, for the valuable
advice and support he has given me in the writing of this report. I
would also like to thank my teachers, Mrs._______ and Mr.
_______ for their encouragement and guidance. Thanks also to
my typist, Ms. _______, for her immaculate job and her
suggestions. My deepest thanks go to my wife/husband, for
her/his love, understanding and support."
Summary / Abstract
This study was to ______________________________
It was requested by ____________________________
It was requested on (date).
The investigation was done by ____________________
The main findings were that ______________________
It was concluded that __________________________
The recommendations are that _______should be ______
182
Contents Page
Section......................................................Page Number
1. Introduction.......................................................................1
2. Literature Review..............................................................3
3. Methodology.....................................................................5
4. Findings.............................................................................7
5. Conclusions.....................................................................14
6. Recommendations............................................................16
7. Appendices......................................................................18
8. Bibliography.....................................................................25
List of Figures
1. Bar Chart of Answers to Question 1...................................8
2. Pie Chart of Socio-economic Status of the
Respondents.....9
List of Tables
1. Survey Findings by Gender and Age Group........................10
1. Introduction
Background
This report has been written because ....
It was requested by ...
It was requested on (date).
Objectives
The objectives of this report are to ....
Scope
This report examines .... . It does not examine ..... because ......
183
2. Literature Review
The area of investigation has been commented on by Channel
(1994), Hoey (1993), Halliday (1993) and Lesser (1979), who are
in agreement that...
However, they have different opinions on ....
Due to the differences highlighted above, it was decided to
investigate ....
3. Methodology (also called the 'Method' or 'Procedure')
___ respondents, chosen by the method of _____ were surveyed
from (start date) to (end date). Of these, ______ were invited for
interview on (date).
The statistics were analysed using a _______ test because .........
The significance of the results was __________
4. Findings
4.1. Introduction
In general, the findings indicated that...
The major finding of the investigation was that...
In addition, ....
Surprisingly, ........ , which was an unexpected consequence of .....
5. Conclusions
The main conclusion that can be drawn is therefore that...
In the light of this, it is recommended that... (+ a general
recommendation; e.g. that something needs to be changed. The
detailed recommendations should go in the Recommendations
section below.)
184
6. Recommendations
In the light of these conclusions, I recommend that _____ should be
____
In addition, a _______ could ______
Grammar Note:
To make suggestions and recommendations you should use 'could
+ infinitive verb' (if you are less sure), or 'should + infinitive verb' (if
you are more sure). You could also use 'suggest + _ing' or 'suggest
that + a subject noun (e.g. 'we') + a verb (e.g. 'could' + infinitive
verb). Do NOT use 'suggest to'.
Appendices
Appendix 1: Sample Survey Form
Appendix 2: Results of Statistical Analysis by ______
Bibliography
Channel, J. (1994). Vague language. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Halliday, M.A.K. (1993). Quantitative studies and probabilities in
grammar. In Hoey, M.(Ed.) Data, description, discourse. London:
HarperCollins, 1-25.
Hoey, M. (1993). Data, description, discourse. London:
HarperCollins, 1-25.
Lesser, R. (1979). Linguistic investigations of aphasia. Studies in
language disability andremediation 5. London: Edward Arnold.
6.7 SAMPLE I
Sample
Computer systems computer systems
Assignment 1 - Topic: scanners
Date:
Student name:
Student number:
Tutor name:
Tutorial time:
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Abstract
This report investigates the current state of scanner
technology and examines the predicted future advancements of
scanners. A brief history of the scanner and its operation is initially
outlined. The discussion then focuses on the advantages and
limitations of the five main types of scanners in common use today:
drum, flatbed, sheet-fed, slide, and hand held scanners. The
performance of these scanners is examined in relation to four main
criteria: resolution, bit-depth, dynamic range and software. It is
concluded that further technological advances in these four areas
as well as the deployment of new sensor technology will continue to
improve the quality of scanned images. It is also suggested that
specialised scanners will increasingly be incorporated into other
types of technology such as digital cameras.
Table of contents
Abstract i
1.0 Introduction 1
2.0 How scanners work 2
3.0 Types of scanners 2
3.1 Drum scanners 2
3.2 Flatbed scanners 2
3.3 Sheet-fed scanners 2
3.4 Slide scanners 3
3.5 Hand held scanners 3
4.0 Scanner specifications 3
4.1 Resolution 3
4.2 Bit-depth 4
4.3 Dynamic range 4
4.4 Software 4
5.0 Future developments 5
6.0 Conclusion 5
7.0 Reference list 5
Appendices 6
Appendix 1 Image Sensor Scanner 8
Appendix 2 Frequently Used References 9
Appendix 2.1 Scanner Tips 10
Appendix 2.2 Scanners, Digital Cameras and Photo
CDs
11
Appendix 2.3 The PC Technology Guide 12
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1. Introduction
The purpose of this report is to survey the current state of
scanner technology and to briefly discuss predicted advancements
in the field.
By examining a range of recently published journal articles,
magazine articles and internet sites on the topic of scanners this
report describes the main types of scanners in common use today
and examines their performance in relation to four criteria:
resolution, bit-depth, dynamic range and software. The report then
considers the effect of further technological advances in these four
areas, as well as the deployment of new sensor technology on the
future development of scanners.
The first scanner, initially referred to as a 'reading machine',
was developed in 1960 by Jacob Rabinow, a Russian born
engineer. The device could scan printed material and then compare
each character to a set of standards in a matrix using, for the first
time, the "best match principle" to determine the original message
(Blatner, Fleishman and Roth 1998, p.3). This reading machine was
to form the basis for the development of current scanning, sorting
and processing machines.
An early improvement on the reading machine was the drum
scanner. These scanners used a type of scanning technology
called photomultiplier tubes (PMT). Drum scanners are still used in
industry today because of the high quality images they
produce. The development of smaller, more economical scanners
such as desktop scanners and scanners for domestic use followed
the drum scanner as the number of computer users increased and
computer technology advanced.
Scanners can now capture images from a wide variety of two
and three dimensional sources. These images are converted to
digitised computer files that can be stored on a hard-drive or floppy
disk. With the aid of specific software, these images can then be
manipulated and enhanced by the user. It is now possible to deploy
electronic acquisition to create an entire layout (including all graphic
elements) from the same computer. This means manual stripping is
no longer required (Scanners, digital cameras and photo CDs
2000). Scanners are considered an invaluable tool for adding
graphics and text to documents and have been readily adopted by
both business and domestic users.
2. How scanners work
A scanner is a device that uses a light source to
electronically convert an image into binary data (0s and 1s). This
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binary data can then be used to store the scanned image on a
computer. A scanner recreates an image by using small electronic
components referred to as the scanner's 'eyes' (Scanner tips 2000).
The type of 'eyes' used in today's scanners are charge-coupled
devices (CCD) and photomultiplier tubes (PMT). These electronic
eyes measure the amount of light reflected from individual points on
the page and translate it to digital signals that correspond to the
brightness of each point (Englander 2000).
To create a file on the computer that represents a colour
image, the scanner divides the image into a grid with many
individual points called pixels or picture elements (Scanner tips
2000). A scanning head, termed a row of 'eyes', reads over the grid
and assigns a number to each pixel based on the main colour in
that pixel, using green, blue and red. For example an aqua pixel
would be saved as a number to represent the proportion of blue,
green and red which represents the colour aqua (Scanners, digital
cameras and photo CDs 2000).
3. Types of scanners
There are five main types of scanners in common use today:
drum scanners, flatbed scanners, sheet-fed scanners, slide
scanners, and hand held scanners.
3.1 Drum scanners
Drum scanners were widely used in the past, however they
are much less commonly used today due to advances in scanner
technology. As a result of their expense, these machines are
primarily used by professionals in industry, where they are
considered important due to the high-end quality image they
produce and because they use PMT technology which is more
sophisticated than charge-coupled devices (CCDs) and contact
image sensor's (CISs). Drum scanners are difficult to operate and
technicians operate these scanners by placing the item to be
scanned on a glass cylinder rotating at high speeds around the
sensor (Sullivan 1996).
3.2 Flatbed scanners
The most popular scanners for general use are flatbed
scanners. This type of scanner is highly versatile because it is able
to scan flat objects as well as small three dimensional objects. Flat-
bed scanners operate by placing the item to be scanned on a glass
window while scanning heads move underneath it. A transparency
adapter is used to scan transparent originals such as slides or x-
rays, and an automatic document feeder is available for scanning
large numbers of documents (Scanner tips 2000).
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3.3 Sheet-fed scanners
Sheet-fed scanners have grown in popularity in recent years,
particularly for small office or domestic use as they are reasonably
priced, can scan full-sized documents and are compact, requiring
limited desk space (Scanner tips 2000). Most models of sheet-fed
scanners have an inbuilt document feeder to overcome the problem
of manually feeding one sheet of paper at a time. However the
actual process or scanning with a sheet-fed scanner may result in
distortion as the image to be scanned moves over the scanning
heads (Scanner tips 2000). A further limitation of sheet-fed
scanners is that they are unable to scan three dimensional objects.
3.4 Slide scanners
This type of scanner is used to scan items such as slides
that need careful handling during scanning. Unlike other scanners,
the scanning heads in slide scanners do not reflect light from the
image, but rather pass light through it. This enables these scanners
to produce superior results without distortions caused by reflective
light. To be able to scan small and detailed items, these scanners
have a large number of eyes on the scanning head which produces
a high quality result. Slide scanners tend to be more expensive and
less versatile than flatbed and sheet-fed scanners as they are
limited to only scanning slides and film. These scanners, however,
are well suited to users requiring high quality scans of large
numbers of slides (Scanner tips 2000).
3.5 Hand held scanners
Hand held scanners are compact, portable scanners which
are simply dragged across a page manually to capture an image.
These scanners are easy to use and economical to purchase;
however, their use is limited to text of up to four inches in diameter
that does not require a high resolution. For this reason, hand held
scanners are unsuitable for colour images. A further disadvantage
of hand held scanners is that the user must have a steady hand
when scanning or the resulting image will be distorted (Scanner tips
2000).
4. Scanner specifications
The performance of a scanner can be examined in relation
to four main criteria: resolution, bit-depth, dynamic range and
software.
4.1 Resolution
Resolution is a measure of how many pixels a scanner can
sample in a given image. It is used to describe the amount of detail
189
in an image (Figeiredo, McIllree and Thomas 1996). Higher
resolution scanners are generally more expensive and produce
superior results as they have a greater capacity to capture detail.
Scanners have two types of resolutions: optical resolution and
interpolated resolution.
Optical resolution, or hardware resolution, is a measure of
how many pixels a scanner can actually read. A current model
desktop scanner typically has a resolution of 300 x 300 dots per
inch (dpi) (Anderson 1999). This means that this scanner has a
scanning head with 300 sensors per inch, so it can sample 300 dpi
in one direction and 300 dpi in the other direction by stopping the
scanning head 300 times per inch in both directions. Some
scanners stop the scanning head more frequently as it moves down
the page, giving an optical resolution of 300 x 600 dpi; however,
scanning more frequently in one direction does not improve the
result of the scan. The basic requirement for scanning detailed
images and line art from photos or other printed originals is an
optical resolution of 600 dpi. When scanning slides and negatives
the minimum optical resolution is 1200 dpi.
Interpolated resolution measures the number of pixels a
scanner is able to predict. A scanner can turn a 300 x 300 dpi scan
into a 600 x 600 dpi scan by looking in-between scanned pixels and
guessing what that spot would have looked like if it had been
scanned. This prediction is then used to insert new pixels in
between the actual ones scanned. This technique is less precise
than optical resolution; however it assists in improving the
enlargement of scanned images.
4.2 Bit depth
Bit depth refers to the amount of information that a scanner
records for each pixel when converting an image to digital form.
Scanners differ in the amount of data they record for each pixel
within an image. The simplest kinds of scanners only record data
related to black and white details and have a bit depth of 1
(Anderson 1999). The minimum bit depth required for scanning
photographs and documents is 24-bits, while slides, negatives or
transparencies need a scanner with at least 30-bits.
Thus for a scanner to produce a high quality scan with
colour, a higher bit depth is required. In general, current scanners
have a bit depth of 24, which means that 8 bits of information can
be collected for the three primary colours used in scanning; blue,
red and green (Anderson 1999). This high resolution allows
scanners to produce images close to photographic quality.
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4.3 Dynamic range
Dynamic range refers to the measurement of the range of
tones a scanner can record on a scale of 0.0 to 4.0, with 0.0 being
perfect white and 4.0 being perfect black. Colour flat-bed scanners
usually have a dynamic range of 2.4. A range of this measurement
is unable to provide high quality colour scans. A dynamic range of
2.8 and 3.2 is suited to professional purposes and can be found in
high-end scanners. An even higher dynamic range of 3.0 to 3.8 can
be provided by drum scanners.
4.4 Software
A scanner, like any type of hardware, requires software.
Typically the two most common pieces of software provided with
scanners include optical character recognition (OCR) and image
editing software. Optical character recognition software translates
the information recorded in a scan, tiny dots, into a text file which
can be edited. Image editing software allows the tones and colours
of an image to be manipulated for better printing and display. Image
editing also gives filters to apply special effects to scanned images
5. Future developments
The quality of scanned images is constantly improving as
characteristics such as resolution, bit-depth and dynamic range are
enhanced and further developed. More sophisticated image editing
and optical character recognition software development is also
resulting in superior quality scans. Future advances are expected to
result in the incorporation of specialized scanners into other types
of technology such as the recently developed digital camera. This
device allows the user to take pictures of three-dimensional objects
much like a regular camera, except that instead of using film, the
objects are scanned by the camera in a similar process to the
functioning of a flatbed scanner.
The relatively new area of sensor technology in the form of a
contact image sensor (CIS) (see Appendix 1) is expected to
improve the functionality of scanners and the quality of images as it
"replaces the cumbersome optical reduction technique with a single
row of sensors" (Grotta and Wiener 1998, p. 1). Developers have
already been able to produce a CIS scanner which is thinner,
lighter, more energy efficient and cheaper to manufacture than a
traditional CCD base device. However, the quality of the scan is not
as good as its counterparts. Further development of CIS technology
is needed to improve image quality and colour, and to address the
problem of a limited 300 or 600 dpi.
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6. Conclusion
This report has identified five types of scanners currently
available. Some are primarily used for professional purposes such
as the drum scanner; others are used more broadly in the
workplace and home such as flatbed scanners and to a lesser
extent sheet fed scanners. Scanners for specialized purposes have
also been identified such as slide and handheld scanners. The
performance of these scanners is dependent upon their resolution,
bit-depth, dynamic range and software. Scanners have improved
significantly in recent years in terms of weight, size, price and
speed, and the replacement of CCD technology with CIS
technology is anticipated to produce further benefits to these areas
as well as to scan quality. The impact of these improvements is
expected to increase the accessibility of scanner technology to a
wider range of users and its suitability for a wider range of
purposes. In relation to this, the future of scanner technology
seems to point to the convergence of different technologies.
Specialized scanners are currently being incorporated into other
types of technologies such as digital cameras, printers, and
photocopiers. This can be expected to continue with other forms of
technology in conjunction with further improvements to image
quality, speed, price, size and weight.
7. Reference list
Anderson, D. The PC Guide.
[http:www.pctechguide.com/18scanners.htm].
Blatner, D., Fleishman, G. Roth, G. (1998) Real world scanning and
halftones 2nd edition, Tata McGraw Hill
Englander, I (2000). The Architecture of computer hardware and
systems software. John Wiley, India, p272.
Figeiredo, J. McIllree, J. Thomas, N. (1996) Introducing information
technology 2nd edition Jacaranda Press, Singapore, p145.
Grotta, D. and Weiner, S. What's now ...What's next.
[http://www.zdnet.com/pcmag/features/scanners98/intro.html] PC
Magazines 20 October 1998. 8/4/00
Prepress, scanners, digital cameras and photo CDs.
[http://www.prepress.pps.com/mem/lib/ptr/scanners.html] 1998.
6/4/00
Scansoft scanner tips
[http://www.scannercentral.com/scanners/tips/tips1.asp]
2000.6/4/00
Sullivan. M. Types of scanners.
[http://hsdesign.com/scanning/types/types.html] 1996. 8/4/00
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6.8 SUMMARY
Formal report writing in professional, technical and business
contexts has evolved certain conventions regarding format, style,
referencing and other characteristics. Reports are a highly
structured form of writing often following conventions that have
been laid down to produce a common format. Structure and
convention in written reports stress the process by which the
information was gathered as much as the information itself.
6.9 EXERCISE I
1. Explain the concept of a report? What is the significance of
report writing to the modern business organisation?
2. How do you organise a report logically?
3. What is the difference between statutory and non-statutory
reports? In what other ways can reports be classified?
4. What is the essential difference between a report written by an
individual and a report written by a committee?
5. What are the different forms of report writing? Explain them.
6. Bring out the salient features of an Ideal Report.
7. What is a Progress Report? What purpose does it serve the
organisations?
8. What form should be adopted for a Committee Report? What
points should be borne in mind while writing such a report?
6.10 EXERCISE II
1. You are team leader of your bank. Your bank has introduced
new deposit scheme. Draft a progress report to be submitted to
the Manager.
2. Draft the progress report of the correspondence and share
departments under your charge.
3. Draft the half yearly progress report of a training of your
employees for new recruits of your company of which you have
been appointed to train them.
4. Write a progress report on three officers and ten office
assistants of the Share Department which -is in your charge.
5. A committee has been entrusted to investigate the possibility of
starting a new bank branch in Navi Mumbai. Submit the findings
of the committee in the form of a report.
6. The workers in a large industry have been asking for a rise in
wages and housing accommodation. The management appoints
a committee to investigate the merits of the demand. Draft the
committees report.
193
7. Your office caught fire a week before and it has been badly
damaged your office. You are the manager. Draft a report to
your directors, informing them of the accident and your
preliminary findings.
8. A committee has been appointed to investigate the possibility of
expanding an export business with African nations. Draft the
committee report regarding prospects and legal hurdles and
solutions to it.
9. As Labour Welfare Officer, you have been asked by the Board
of Directors to investigate the cause of frequent slow down and
poor performance of your employees. Submit your report with
recommendations to improve the situation.
10. A public limited company is considering a proposal to establish
a new factory in your city. Some of the factors that will influence
its decisions are
a) Availability of raw materials
b) Labour
c) Transport facilities
d) Market
e) Competition climate
f) Construction cost and
h) Communication facilities.
Draft a report with the help of the above points.
11. Invent other necessary details and write a report to the
Managing Director of the company about the suitability of the
place for the establishment of the new car service center at
Latur Maharashtra.
12. A committee of finance and accounting experts is appointed by
the Director of your financial consultants firm. Submit a report
on the causes of poor auditing and management of accounts of
your banks. Draft the committee's report outlining the causes
and also recommending measures improve the situation.
13. The Kadam Garment Co. Mumbai has been receiving frequent
complaints from customers from the Karnataka state about non-
delivery and shortage of goods dispatched from its factory in
Navi Mumbai. Draft a report to be submitted to the Manager.
14. The Chief Executive of the Sales Department of your insurance
company has been asked to investigate and report with
recommendations. Draft the report.
15. A committee has been formed to investigate the possibility of
194
starting a book stall and stationery store in your college Draft
the report of the committee making favorable recommendations.
16. As the general secretary of the Students' council of your college,
submit the report to the principal on the necessity of opening a
fully equipped gymkhana in your college.
17. A committee has been appointed to look into the case of a big
financial mismanagement in your company. As the chairman of
the committee, draft a suitable report along with a covering
letter.
18. Draft a periodic progress report of the personnel department,
which you are heading for the past two years at your financial
consultant firm located at Navi Mumbai.
19. Submit a proposal to the regional manager of the industrial bank
you are working for, on the feasibility of expanding your bank at
Navi Mumbai Industrial area.


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7
WRITING: SUMMARIES, AND
ABSTRACTS AND TECHNICAL
DEFINITIONS
Unit Structure
7.1 Objectives
7.2 Introduction
7.3 TIPS: Follow these helpful steps when writing a summary
7.4 Executive Summary
7.5 Abstract Summary
7.6 Technical Definitions
7.7 Definitions
7.8 Informal Definitions
7.9 Formal Definition
7.10 Dictionaries
7.11 Extended Definitions
7.12 Summary
7.13 Exercise
7.14 Exercise
7.1 OBJECTIVES
To equip with special skill of summarizing
To know the different types of summaries
To understand the skill of framing technical definitions
To learn the art of writing technical definition
7.2 INTRODUCTION
A summary is a condensed account of the essential
information included in a longer piece of writing. A summary usually
appears at the end of an article or report. The function of a
summary is similar to that of a schematic diagram, which gives a
clear, brief presentation of a device without the clutter of the actual
materials necessary to build the device.
196
For example, if you needed information on a report about the
HST (Hubble Space Telescope), you would find information in
many sources, too many sources to actually read. You might find
professional abstracts of journal (magazine) articles. By reading
these brief summaries, you would be able to judge which articles
would be most useful to you.
A summary answers the basic questions that readers want
answered before they devote more time to reading the article or
book. Many people who are interested in keeping up with
technology do not have the time to read every article printed about
their field. They often rely on professional abstracts to find the most
useful articles.
A reader searching for information has predictable questions
for each article:
What?Who'? Where? When? Why? How?
Summaries include only the key facts, ideas, and conclusions.
7.3 TIPS: FOLLOW THESE HELPFUL STEPS WHEN
WRITING A SUMMARY
1. Read the article carefullymore than oncebefore starting to
write. Use your pencil to mark key ideas, phrases, and conclusions.
2. Look for the author's own summaries at the beginning or end of
the article. Often, boldface headings indicate a transition and a new
key idea.
3. Note the author's organizationfind the main idea of each
paragraph or section.
4. The length of a summary is usually about 33 percent of the
length of the article, although this is by no means a rule. Instructors
seldom require more than one page, and professional abstracts are
rarely longer than one paragraph, no matter how long the article.
5. Summarize each section (of longer articles) or paragraph (of
shorter ones). Disregard figures of speech, examples, detailed
descriptions, and discussions.
6. Do not include personal interpretations, agreements, or
disagreements (no I statements). Write in the third person (he, she,
it, they).
7. Read the article once more and compare it to your summary.
Make any revisions that are necessary for clarity.
8. Format: the summary should contain the following information,
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a. Identification of the article being summarized (name of author,
title of article, title of book or magazine, date of publication).
b. Statement of the main idea of the article,
c. Statements that explain all the important points used to support
the main idea,
d. Explanation or clarification of important points, if necessary,
In a summary, writers reword and condense ideas. Copying
exact sentences is considered plagiarism. Do not plagiarize other
people's writing in a summary, or any other piece of documentation,
for that matter,
A summary of a research project would recap the purpose,
results, conclusions, and recommendations, and would be written
for a semi-technical or nontechnical audience. Two special types of
summaries are the executive summary and abstract.
7.4 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
An executive summary is a modified summary located at the
beginning of a report or document. Its purpose is to highlight the
bottom-line information needed by upper management to make a
decision, including staffing, budget, and timeline considerations,
sometimes in a bulleted list. It might also include a final
recommendation or conclusion depending on the purpose of the
report. If the document describes a research project, the executive
summary includes the purpose, background, results, conclusions,
and recommendations, written for a semi-technical or nontechnical
audience.
7.5 ABSTRACT SUMMARY
Abstracts can include the author(s), title and subtitle, source
(such as the magazine and date), description of the article, and
identifier keywords related to the topic. Services and databases
include a record number for easier retrieval. Academic abstracts
also include the affiliation (university or institution) of the first (lead)
author.
To conduct extensive research on a topic, ask a librarian or
search the Internet for an abstracting service. Most services charge
a fee and specialize in categories of information, such as
astronomy or current events. When you enroll, you can provide
authors' names, publication dates, or keywords and combinations
of keywords to the service. Then the service provides you a list of
abstracts that match your entries. From the list of abstracts, you
select the articles you want to read.
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7.6 TECHNICAL DEFINITIONS
The reading passage included definitions of terms essential
for understanding the topic. Without a precise definition of
defamation and harassment, we might not understand the legal
issues surrounding the use (and misused of e-mail on the Internet.
7.7 DEFINITIONS
Definitions of terms are the foundation of technical writing. A
precise set of terms is used in technology, and only with a common
understanding of those terms can information be communicated
accurately.
Some terms used in technology, have meanings entirely
different from those with which you are familiar in everyday life.
Examples of such words are power, force, and communication. For
example, the term communication used in casual conversation can
include speaking, listening, reading, writing, and body language.
But to an electronics technician, if the message wasn't transferred
electronically, it wasn't communicated at all. In fact, the study of
communications systems begins with Samuel Morse's invention of
the telegraph in 1837, even though we all know that throughout
history, people have been sending verbal and nonverbal messages
to anyone who would pay attention.
Some terms are used with more precision in technology than
in everyday life. Words such as the following have precise
meanings in technology and must be used carefully: absolute
current fundamental critical force ground intensity pow specific
inversely rate static potential relative uniform
Some terms are frequently confused. Can you state the
difference between force and power? These are words that are
used interchangeably in everyday language, but in technology the
meanings are different. There are many such terms in technical
writing.
Sometimes students are in such a hurry to do problems and
assignments that they skip to the end of the chapter, referring to the
chapter only as a last resort. These students are missing the
"verbal" part of their fieldhow the concepts are explained in
words. Don't be this kind of reader. Eventually, you will have to
communicate what you know in words, either spoken or written.
You won't be able to communicate entirely in numbers. Get used to
how the experts, the authors, describe the principles of your
technology. Learn the terms and how to use them correctly. Several
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examples of short and long, and formal and informal definitions are
presented in this chapter to give you practice in this skill.
7.8 INFORMAL DEFINITIONS
You can probably remember learning your first definition in
your field. In electronics, it was probably
Resistance- opposition to current flow.
This is an informal definition. A definition placed between commas
or parentheses is usually an informal definition.
A potentiometer (variable resistor) is used for volume controls.
If too many informal definitions are used, a report may
become, disjointed and distracting. Normally, who plans on using
more than two unfamiliar technical terms in a report will define the
terms formally in the introduction of glossary.
7.9 FORMAL DEFINITION
A formal definition has two functions: it identifies the larger
class (group or category) that the term belongs to, and it provides
distinguishing characteristics.
Term>class>characteristics
For example, consider the term Porsche. A porsche is the
class called automobiles, or more specifically, German
automobiles. The definition goes on to provide distinguishing
characteristics or details about the term that make it different from
other members of the group.
A Porsche, pronounced "pour-sha" (term), is a German-
made automobile (class) with high- performance capabilities, a
small, aerodynamic body design, and a price tag starting at
S25,0019(characteristics).
A formal definition can be written for any technical term, and
often the most difficult part is determining the class! For example, is
resistance a device, a quality, a capability or an action?
Technicians must occasionally make such subtle distinctions.
Device Quality Capability Action
resistor resistance receptivity resist
module modular modularity modulate
In which of the groups above does each of the following terms
belong?
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Resonance resonant resonator resonate
Resonator is an object, something you can touch, so it would
be in the class of devices. Resonate is a verb, so it is a process or
action.Resonant is how we describe an object, an adjective, so it is
a quality. Resonance is the capability of performing the action.
Once the group has been determined, technicians usually
don't have much trouble following the distinguishing characteristics.
A resistor electronic that is used in electronic circuit to
oppose and control current flow.
(term)
(Class)
(distinguishing characteristics)
Its capacity to resist current is indicated by color code or
stamped values.
One final point to remember to avoid-variation of the term in
the remainder of the definition
Wrong: A resistor is electronic device that resists current flow.
In the example above, find a synonym to (another word with same
meaning) for resist, such as oppose or control.
Technical writing can be efficient. Writers say things one
time only--no repetition, no rewording. Technical terms and jargon
have been defined and clarified by professionals in your field. Most
jargon been established because it describes an idea or concept in
a few words. Imagine trying to describe waveforms without using
jargon such as sawtooth or square, or trying to describe joint
designs without V- root c. J-groove, or scarf joint. The result would
be wordy and cumbersome.
The disadvantage of jargon is that it assume- that the reader
also understands the technical meaning of the term. Writing for non
technical audience, those not expert in your technology, takes
special attention. It requires explicit definitions of terms in clear,
simple language.
7.10 DICTIONARIES
Dictionaries are written for certain audiences. Think for a
minute about a car manual. It may be geared for general owners
with only the basic operating needs, or for highly trained automotive
specialists who need precise specifications. Likewise dictionaries
may be geared for everyday word usage or for highly specialized
purposes.
201
Small, pocket-sized dictionaries provide only the most
commonly used words and definitions. If you look up resistance in
one of these dictionaries, you will probably only find the root word,
resist, with several common endings but no mention of current flow.
At the opposite end of the spectrum are technical or
scientific dictionaries that offer only technical terms and definitions.
One example is Websters World Dictionary of Computer Terms by
Bryan Pfaffenberg (Que. 1999). If you look up resistance in this
book, you will find only the electronic, usage. This dictionary and
others like it are useful guides for beginning technical students and
people who need to read technical information.
"College editions" and large dictionaries include the comma
and used definitions as well as an extensive number of technical
definitions of terms that are used in different scientific disciplines.
Keys such as Elec. or Mech. indicate the specific definition used in
technology. If you look up resistance, you may find seven or more
distinct definitions of how the word is used in different disciplines.
7.11 EXTENDED DEFINITIONS
Some objects or concepts require more than a one-sentence
definition. An extended definition might require a paragraph or even
several pages to fully define a complex concept or object. An
extended definition includes the standard definition sentence, but
also provides more details that describe the object. It can contain
related definitions and examples that illustrate the term.
The following paragraph defines harassment by providing
not only a definition, but also two differing situations under which
harassment can occur and the legal consequences of each one.
Harassment is words or actions that are designed to
threaten, intimidate, and/or make a person's workplace or
educational environment unbearable and intolerable. E-mail can be
harassing. If harassment occurs in the workplace and is directed
toward employees of a certain race, ethnic group, age, disability,
religion, or gender, then it is a violation of state and local EEO laws.
If harassment is in an educational setting and is directed at
students, then civil rights laws prohibiting discrimination in
educational and/or public institutions are violated.
More commonly, extended definitions include examples that
illustrate and clarify the term or idea. For example, the author
clarifies the definition of an e-mail discussion group by comparing it
to an electronic roundtable:
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An e-mail discussion group (newsgroup, listserv, chat room,
etc.) is nothing more than an electronic roundtable. As with any
roundtable, the participants share information about a particular
topic. A subscriber to the group may ask other group members for a
reference about a product or person, e.g., "Has anyone used (fill in
name of product or service)? or has anyone worked with (fill in
name of person or organization)?" Sometimes a subscriber warns
or "advises" other subscribers about a product or vendor.
7.12 SUMMARY
Writing summary is a special skills one need to develop in
his career. Summaries are condensed from of the matter. It
contains all relevant details and important points. It helps in quick
revision. The summaries are abstract and executive in nature. We
can manifest the art of writing summaries by following few tips
mentioned above. The technical definitions are needed to be
designed for preparing reports and instructions in process of the
technical operations. Technical definitions contain the special
language that makes the reader the idea of the term involved.
7.13 EXERCISE
Summarise the following passages:
1. Cinema requires 'electricity. As there are many villages in
India, especially in the Hindi heartland which have not received the
benefits of electricity there are many people who 'have seen a film
only once or- twice in their life time. The occasion arises when - the
- villagers visit a neighbouring town or a rich farmer celebrates a
marriage by installing a generator and screening' a film for the
'benefit of the populations of two or three neighbouring villages.
For a country that covers 32 million sq. kilometers and has a
population of over 950 million, India has just about 13,* 181
permanent cinema halls and 5,000 temporary or touring ones.
Andhra Pradesh leads the country with 2615 theatres halls while
Tamil Nadu -has 2447, Maharashtra 1,071, and Kerala 1,379-
(Figures of 1991). A recent development is that in cities like
Bombay, cinema h4lls are being closed down as the owners find it
more remunerative to build shopping, centers or residential blocks
on the same site. Also the very high taxation by the state
government leaves the theatre owner with a very meagre profit.
The language barrier acts as a great hindrance to the
development of the cinema. Except Hindi films, all - other - films
have only a -regional -market. In order to earn" back their
investment, film producers are reluctant to experiment and prefer to
produce mythological, historical and run of the mill escapist films of
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the Hindi type. The- Hindi film industry, which has the .resources to
experiment with the medium suffer from a severe lack of talent and,
is under the constraints of the star system.
The film industry in India may be compared to a giant who is
prisoner to himself. In terms of numbers the industry seems to have
achieved a great d-cal. The Indian film industry is the biggest
producer, of feature films in I the world. It produced 910 films in
1992. An estimated 70 million people watch these films every day.
Many of these films are a craze in the neighboring countries
of the sub-continent and among Indian residents abroad. One
frequently hears of video tape smuggling of Hindi films. But in terms
of social responsibility the film industry in India has failed miserably.
The glossy, glamorous films of the make believe world encourage
escapist trends among the people. And when the films are not
unreal they wallow in vulgarity, obscenity and violence.
An unsavory aspect of the Hindi films industry was exposed
in March 1993 by the Bombay bomb blasts. A nexus was found to
exist between underworld and anti-national elements with black
money and film producers and artists. After the boycott initiated by
some political parties, it is expected that the film industry will be
purged of these elements and such illicit funding will stop.
2. India is very different from the West in social structure,
religious orientation and political - experience. But -more
importantly, its time-scale of recorded civilization is daunting, while
its size and internal regional differences involve the student in an
ente4prise equivalent to that o f investigating all the countries of
Europe together.
Some factors have to be taken for granted in any study of
India. The essential starting point is India's geography. Then one
has to consider its social structure which is based on caste rather '
than class. This was a development that arose out of the particular
ecological context of the sub-continent and the use I made of its
human, resources. , Thirdly, the ideological underpinning of society
in Hindu-religious tradition has to be given due importance in any
analysis of India. These factors have for centuries been accepted
as facts in Indian history, and have constrained and, at times, even
imprisoned those who attempted political dominion of the
subcontinent whether Moghuls, British or post-independence
governments.
A myth commonly heard even in scholarly circles in the past
w a s that of- an "unchanging India" where,: values and social
relations inhibited change, and economic development' in
particular. This myth has been dispelled. It has been shown that
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India's social structure and g many long-established attitudes have
proved adaptable, enabling industrial production and modern
investment within traditional towns. Village studies show much that
is still traditional. Even here though, there is change. India's
economic development, her involvement in an international
economic community and' the emphasis on education are making
their impact even in the villages.
But the "feel" of India is elusive, whatever the amount of
academic study devoted to it. Among the best ways for the outsider
to enter into India's culture and history is through the door of,
imaginative literature.
3. There are basic differences in' the way boys and girls
experience the world, and more importantly, in the social- roles they
are trained to fulfil., In the past, from childhood onwards the talents
and ambitions of girls were channelled in directions - which were
different ; from- those of boys. For boys, the family was the place,
from which'' they started: out and to which they returned for,
comfort and support. But their field of action, was the larger world'
of adventure industry, labour and politics. For girls, the family was,
their world, and the'' home- was their field of action A man,
expressed -himself in his work, and through his work and social
action, helped to change his environment. A woman's -individual
growth and choices, were restricted, and she expressed herself
only through love, wifehood, and motherhood, that is, through
supporting and carting for others. The way in which male and
female roles were `x pressed changed in the course of history; the
differences in the' roles -given to the sexes widened or narrowed,
but the fact of different sex -role indoctrination remained.
Life was experienced at a different - rhythm by men and
women. For a boy education was directed toward a vocational or
professional goal and his life ideally moved upward and outward in
a straight line until, it reached a steady - level of fulfillment the girl's
education was often interrupted; it did not lead to the fulfillment of
her life role, but -rather competed with it. Her development was
dependent: on her relationship with others and was, often
determined by them; it seemed to move I n circles. In the boy's
case, the important stages of his, life were connected to his career;
separation 11 from the family for purposes of greater educational
opportunity success or failures in his career; economic or losses.
For the girls, the important stages in her life were connected with
her biological development; transition from childhood to
adolescence and then to marriage which meant, in the past, loss of
freedom and greater restrictions, rather than the independence
which it meant for the boy. Love and marriage for her meant only a
shifting from one household to another and the beginning of her
serious responsibilities childbirth, child rearing and caring for the
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family. Finally came the crisis of widowhood which could mean,
depending on her economic circumstances, increasing freedom
and independence or a difficult struggle for economic survival.
7.14 EXERCISE
1. Write formal definitions for the following terms in your own
words. The classes are provided for the first five terms. Find
the technical definitions, noted in dictionaries by
abbreviations in italics such as Elec. (electronics) or Mech.
mechanics).
Example ConductorA conductor is a device or material
that readily carries electricity, heat or sound.
i. Electron (particle)
ii. Torque (twisting effect)
iii. Piston (sliding piece)
iv. Girder (structural beam)
v. Fillet (concave junction or arc)
vi. Module
vii. Power
viii. S. Battery
ix. Chord
x. Load
2. Define 10 technical terms in your area of study. Write formal,
one-sentence definition of each term.
3. Find a magazine article focused on your area of study.
Locate and copy five technical definitions from various
articles in the magazine. Then critique each definition, and
revise it to include any elements needed to make it a formal
definition.
4. Choose one term from earlier exercise, and write an
extended definition in a paragraph. Write the definition
sentence as your topic sentence. Include the details or
examples that give meaning to the term.

206
8
USER INSTRUCTION MANUAL
Unit Structure
8.1 Objectives
8.2 Introduction
8.3 Elements of Formal Instructions
8.4 Guidelines for Writing Instructions
8.6 Summary
8.7 Exercise
8.1 OBJECTIVES
To learn the art of preparing user instruction manual
To make aware of the different tips for effective user
instruction manual
8.2 INTRODUCTION
We are all familiar with the statement, "If all else fails, read the
directions." Why is it so common to avoid reading the directions?
Why do people risk the trial-and-error approach rather than reading
the instructions before beginning? Possibly it's because they are
impatient to get started. Or possibly the instructions seem
incomprehensible, as though the writer assumes the reader has
technical training and fails to define terms, locate parts with
graphics, or provide basic information.
To make matters worse, some instructions sound ridiculous,
possibly due to poor translation from other languages:
On a kitchen knife: Warning keep out of children.
Today, as the chapter states, people expect readable,
accurate instructions, ranging from easy-to-follow steps to
multivolume user manuals and service guides. Companies that fail
to provide good instructions for customers lose revenue due to
technical support calls and product returns. For this reason, many
companies hire technical writersthose who write documentation
as their primary jobto complete the finished user information.
These writers may or may not have any technical training, but they
know the art of writing understandable instructions.
207
However, as indicated in the chapter, technical writers
cannot do the job alone. Your employer might one day ask you to
provide input into the documentation provided to your customers,
either as a technical expert or as a reviewer.
Some technicians and engineers turn to technical writing as
a career, drawing on their training and expensive to make
instructions and manuals more accurate. These people must take
special care to understand the audience, listen to users' questions,
and add the basic information sometimes unintentionally
overlooked by technical experts.
More commonly, you will be asked to write informal
instructions to coworkers and customers. You could be asked to
write instructions to install a software program, assemble a piece of
equipment, troubleshoot a problem, or drive from the nearest major
airport to your office.
Following a few, simple guidelines can improve the
readability and usefulness of your directions. You can adapt these
guidelines for different types of instructions, as needed.
8.3 ELEMENTS OF FORMAL INSTRUCTIONS
TIP Formal instructions should include the following elements:
Orientation: Provide an overview of the device, such as the
purpose of the instructions or function and starting state of
the device.
List of materials: Specify the materials, including sizes, part
numbers, and quantities, needed to complete the procedure.
Step-by-step instructions: In each step (usually
numbered), use the active, imperative voice with the implied
"you."
Graphics: When needed for clarity or understanding, add
numbered or labeled graphics. Reference each numbered
graphic in the text, or adds a description under the graphic to
orient the reader to the figure. Use consistent terms in the
text and the description.
Conclusion or summary: Describe the final state after
following the instructions so readers can complete the
project, and add information for any additional or optional
procedures.
Some instructions for complex devices or procedures also
include troubleshooting tips or frequently asked questions. This
information should address typical problems with the procedures,
based on your own testing and customer feedback.
208
8.4 GUIDELINES FOR WRITING INSTRUCTIONS
The following guidelines describe the general process of
writing instructions. As an example, consider the task of writing
instructions for using a new software program Whether the end
product will be a one-page "Fast Track" for colleagues or a full
manual for users, the general guidelines are the same.
Step 1: Perform the procedure yourself Learn all you can about the
process or product before you start writing anything. This might
include observing others performing the procedure or talking to the
experts (such as a developer or engineer) or other involved people,
Read the product specification or user manual. Become familiar
with all the features and terminology.
Perform the procedures, logging all the steps you complete.
It is easy to miss the small steps unless you perform them yourself.
Don't rely on others to tell you how something is supposed to work.
If you experience problems, log the scenario in which the
problem occurred. Then log what you did to correct the problem.
Use your log to add information in your steps at the appropriate
spot to prevent those same problems. Or, for longer documents,
add a troubleshooting section with the problems you encountered
and a description of what you did to correct (or prevent) them.
Step 2: Prepare a working draft. Write a draft of the numbered
steps. Focus on the behaviors. Don't worry about spelling,
grammar, or even complete sentences at this point. Let others read
your draft, following each step. Their feedback will uncover missing
or confusing information. Often, test subjects uncover confusing
wording, such as: ``When you said to 'Close all applications before
starting the installation,' did you mean I have to close Windows, too,
or just the programs running on my Windows desktop?"
Thinking like a new user can be the hardest part of writing
instructions. If you write for the broadest audience (nontechnical),
your instructions should pass the "6th-grader test," meaning that
the instructions should be clear enough for the average 6th-grade
student to follow. Revise your initial draft to clarify the instructions.
Step 3: Write the steps using simple, direct language. Now start to
refine the language. If you struggle with describing a step, do more
research and experimentation. Ask others to suggest alternatives
for vague words or confusing sentences. Rewrite the instructions
using an action verb and the implied "you." Don't worry about
Use standard terminology that is appropriate for the
audience. If you are writing for coworkers, use the terms or
209
acronyms common within your company or industry If you are
writing for a general audience, use simple language as much as
possible. If a technical term is unavoidable, define it the first time
you use the term. When possible, use terms that are common in
the industry rather than terms used solely by your company.
Step 4: Include graphics if needed. Not all instructions require
graphics. However, if the steps include parts' names, users will
appreciate a graphic that illustrates or labels the trickier parts. If you
include callouts to labeled parts, be sure to use consistent terms in
the callout and in the text.
If a step includes details difficult to describe clearly, an
illustration can show the details in pictures to supplement the
discussion. A flow chart with decision points can illustrate different
paths or options, and better orient the reader.
Step 5: Format the instructions to identify the organization. Select a
layout and format that make the instructions clear and easy to
follow. For example, if your steps are brief, simple numbering is
appropriate. If the process has several distinct stages with steps
within each stage, use headings to identify each stage. Typically,
writers increase the font size of headings and make them bold.
Use a consistent format for headings and text to clarify the
organization. For example, use the same font, font size, and
paragraph spacing for all main headings, use a slightly different
appearance for subheadings, and so on.
Avoid overuse of bold, italics, underlining, font changes, and
unimportant graphics. When overused, these elements add "noise"
that distracts readers from the information and overall organization.
Use numbered steps when they must be followed in
sequence (and check that the numbers are sequentialnumbers
can easily get mixed up during revisions). Become familiar with
numbering formats available with your word processor, because
they can provide a consistent style (font and margins) for numbered
steps. Typically, writers indent the entire step so the numbers are
easy to spot. Add white space between steps. If sequential steps
require more than one paragraph with long explanations of each
step, a numbered format is sometimes not practical, instead, use a
standard paragraph format with other methods to identify separate
steps, such as clear transition words that signal sequence. For
example, use words such as first, next, then, and finally at the be-
ginning of a paragraph starting a new step. Start a new paragraph
for each new step. For exceptionally long steps, consider using
headings and subheading for steps instead of numbers.
210
Use bulleted lists for alternatives within a step or for, steps
that do not have to be followed in order. Lists are easier to read
than paragraphs. But they ' are most effective with only one or two
sentences per bullet. Although most writers stick to the standard
round or square bullet symbol, you can use other symbols, For
other options, check your clip art set or the symbols set available
with your word processor. Use consistent tabs and spacing
between bullets to improve the appearance of the list.
Experiment with other layout techniques, such as centering
headings, changing the font type or size, and manipulating the line
spacing to increase the visual clarity.
Step 6: Write an introduction to orient the reader. Discuss who
should follow this procedure and why, when or where to folio", it,
what it does, and where to go for further information or questions.
This is the information that lays the groundwork for the instructions
and identifies the intended audience and outcome. Writers
sometimes write the introduction last because they don't have all
the information themselves until the end.
Building a Bookcase
Our pine bookcase features a simple design to be built with
basic woodworking tools. We made i the case out of materials
available at most lumberyards. These instructions will produce a 4-
shelf bookcase with overall dimensions of 10" deep - 34" wide x 48"
tall. While the depth of the case is directly tied to the 1 x 10 stock,
you can vary the height....
Some writers also include a summary or conclusion at the
end of the document, which further clarifies the expected outcome,
or briefly describes any remaining steps not included with the
instructions.
Adding the Finishing Touch
If you plan to paint your bookcase, first apply two coats of
shellac over each knot to prevent the knots from bleeding through
the final paint job. Then prime and paint the bookcase according to
the manufacturer's instructions....
Step 7: Add a materials or requirements list. Include all equipment,
tools, or minimum requirements needed for the complete project.
Many writers include this information in a listed or bulleted format to
make the items easy to spot. Include precise quantities, sizes, and
part numbers. Categorise the materials into logical groups, espe-
cially if different types of materials are needed:
211
Materials List
Basic tools: Lumber:
Portable circular saw (1) 1/2 x 1/4" parting strip
Block plane (2) pieces of 1 x 4 pine
Combination square... (5) Pieces of 1 x 10 pine...
Step 8: Identify notes and warnings. Use clear wording and formats
to highlight information that has special importance to the user. Use
Notes, Tips, Cautions, and Warnings, according to the conventions
of your style guide. Position the information prior to or within the
relevant step, not hidden at the end of the document. General
warnings belong at the beginning of the document. Use a box, bold
heading, or special symbol to catch the reader's eye. Many
companies have a guideline for the correct usage of each type. For
example, the conventions at one company are the following:
Use "Note" to emphasize information or supplement
information that was already provided in the instructions but
might apply only to certain situations.
Note: Becoming a registered user makes you eligible for discounts,
updates, and free technical support.
Use "Tip" to provide shortcuts, alternative methods, or
techniques for performing an action, but not for essential
information.
Tip: If you choose not to include this program in your Startup folder,
you can start it using Start > Programs.
Use "Caution" when an action or failure to take an action
could result in loss of data. Caution! Back up each file
weekly for archival purposes.
Use "Warning" when an action or failure to take an action
could result in harm to the user or damage to the hardware.
Warning! Unplug the power cable before opening the console
casing.
Step 9: Edit, revise, and refine your language. Review your
document, and, if possible, ask other people to review it. Aim for
two types of reviews: one for language and one for technical
accuracy. Each reviewer might suggest different revisions. Most
professionals consider the review process an integral part of
document developmenta time to fillet (prepare) the instructions
before they "go out the door." From time to time, reviewers
disagree with each other or write conflicting edits. Sometimes you
might disagree with their edits. When this happens, focus on the
audience, your intended readers. Discuss disagreements with your
reviewers, letting them understand the other viewpoint.
212
This is also the time to examine grammar and spelling,
reduce wordiness, eliminate repetition, and sharpen your language.
Revise the steps as needed, based on the review process.
Step 10: Observe someone follow your instructions. The best way
to test instructions is to ask someone (a test subject) to read and
follow your instructions. Avoid helping the subject; let the person
rely only on the written information. Keep a log of difficulties
experienced by the testerthey are bound to occur at
unanticipated spots. Note where, when, and why the test subject
had problems.
Then revise your document accordingly, clarifying
misunderstood steps and adding missing information in places
where the test subject had problems. If possible, ask another
person to test your revised document.
Step 11: Put the final touches on the instructions. Complete the
final revisions based on the testing. Take a last look at the layout,
send the document to the printer, and give yourself a standing
ovation!
Writing instructions might not be as easy as one, two, three, but
you can feel a great deal of satisfaction from producing instructions
that work.
8.6 SUMMARY
Technicians and engineers need to write on their training
and expensive to make instructions and manuals more accurate.
These people take special care to understand the audience, listen
to users' questions, and add the basic information sometimes
unintentionally overlooked by technical experts. The guidelines
describe the general process of writing instructions.
8.7 EXERCISE
1. Internet assignment. Use keywords such as "create Web
site" to search for instructions on how to set up a Web site.
Test them by setting up your own Web page. Evaluate the
effectiveness of the instructions.
2. Copy a set of instructions for a device. Critique the
instructions by answering the following questions:
What makes them effective?
What can be improved?
Do they pass the 6th-grader test?
3. Write travel directions on how to get to your house from
college, including a map.
213
4. Write numbered instructions for one of the following
procedures:
i. Hook up a VCR.
ii. Install a car radio.
iii. Set up a campsite.
iv. Set a digital watch.
v. Prepare for a journey.
5. Expand the instructions from Exercise 4 into a formal set of
instructions. Include the following elements:
i. An introduction (background, purpose, definitions)
ii. Materials list (all items, including quantities, needed for the
procedure)
iii. Step-by-step instructions
iv. Conclusion (finishing tips or how to evaluate correct
performance)

















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9
Unit V
(REQUIRED SKILLS)
READING SKILLS
Unit Structure
9.1 Objectives
9.2 Introduction: Reading
9.3 Types of reading
9.4 Reading to study type of reading
9.5 Summary
9.6 Exercise
9.1 OBJECTIVES
To learn the reading skills
To know various types of reading
To develop good habit of reading
9.2 INTRODUCTION
Most of us think of reading as a simple, passive process
which involves reading words in a linear fashion and internalizing
their meaning one at a time. But reading is actually a very complex
process that requires a great deal of active participation on the part
of the reader.
To get a better sense of the complexity of reading, read what
some experts in the field have said about the reading process:
What do we read? The message is not something given in
advance--or given at all-- but something created by interaction
between writers and readers as participants in a particular
communicative situation. - Roy Harris in Rethinking Writing (2000)
Reading is asking questions of printed text. And reading with
comprehension becomes a matter of getting your questions
answered. - Frank Smith in Reading without Nonsense (1997)
215
Reading is a psycholinguistic guessing game. It involves an
interaction between thought and language. Efficient reading does
not result from precise perception and identification of all elements,
but from skill in selecting the fewest, most productive cues
necessary to produce guesses which are right the first time. The
ability to anticipate that which has not been seen, of course, is vital
in reading, just as the ability to anticipate what has not yet been
heard is vital in listening. - Kenneth Goodman in Journal of the
Reading Specialist (1967)
Literacy practices are almost always fully integrated with,
interwoven into, constituted as part of, the very texture of wider
practices that involve talk, interaction, values, and beliefs.- James
Gee in Social Linguistics and Literacies (1996)
As you can see, reading involves many complex skills that
have to come together in order for the reader to be successful. For
example, proficient readers recognize the purpose for reading,
approach the reading with that purpose in mind, use strategies that
have proven successful to them in the past when reading similar
texts for similar purposes, monitor their comprehension of the text
in light of the purpose for reading, and if needed adjust their
strategy use. Proficient readers know when unknown words will
interfere with achieving their purpose for reading, and when they
won't. When unknown words arise and their meaning is needed for
comprehension, proficient readers have a number of word attack
strategies available to them that will allow them to decipher the
meaning of the words to the extent that they are needed to achieve
the purpose for reading. Reading is also a complex process in that
proficient readers give to the text as much as they take. They make
meaning from the text by using their own prior knowledge and
experiences. Proficient readers are constantly making predictions
while reading. They are continuously anticipating what will come
next. Their prior knowledge and experiences with texts as well as
with the world around them allow them to do this. It is this
continuous interaction with the text that allows readers to make
sense of what they are reading.
9.3 TYPES OF READING
9.3.1 Survey Reading
Lets look at the basics of learning how to comprehend when
reading.
1. Look at a book cover. What information is the
author/publisher giving you about the story? What does the
title suggest? Why did they use this particular graphic on the
cover?
2. Read the Table of Contents. Its an outline of the story.
216
3. Read the Introduction or Preface. It gives you a good idea of
where the author wants to take you.
4. Can you make any predictions about the story with this
information alone?
5. Look at the back cover. What are the comments being made
by critics who have read the book? What other clues can you
pick up?
6. Preview the book to make sure its what you are looking for.
Skim the headings and subheadings.
7. Remember that the first and last sentences of a paragraph
give you the essence of that paragraph, especially when
reading non-fiction.
8. What do you know about the subject? Prior knowledge will
help you to fill in information, to understand vocabulary
words and concepts the author wants you to know.
"People often read slowly and carefully, because teachers in
elementary schools require students to sound and read the word
aloud, which takes longer than "seeing" the word. As a young
student matures he continues pronouncing each word in his mind
as he reads" (Foster) Reciting the word in your head is called sub-
vocalization and is what slows a reader down.
9.3.2 Scanning Type of Reading
Scanning is the first thing that you do when you select a
resource. It answers the question: - Is this the right resource to help
me find the answers to my questions? Will it give me the answers I
want?
Scan - by zapping through the whole resource homing in on the
important bits.
Scan before you start skimming.
Scanning gives you a feeling for the whole item.
Think about:
* Is it relevant?
* Is there anything in it that answers the target questions?
Look at:
* Title page.
* The contents page. Are there chapters or sections that you may
want to read?
Are there maps, diagrams, pictures, captions? Do they look
as if they would be helpful? Scanning involves running your eyes
down the page looking for specific facts or key words and phrases.
Recall how you find a word in a vocabulary? You don't read
any more than necessary to find the word you seek. Notice that you
go directly down a column. Maybe you use your finger to guide your
eyes. This type of reading is usually called scanning.
217
Scanning is a technique you often use when looking up a
word in the telephone book or dictionary. You search for key words
or ideas. In most cases, you know what you're looking for, so you're
concentrating on finding a particular answer. Scanning involves
moving your eyes quickly down the page seeking specific words
and phrases. Scanning is also used when you first find a resource
to determine whether it will answer your questions. Once you've
scanned the document, you might go back and skim it.
When scanning, look for the author's use of organizers such
as numbers, letters, steps, or the words, first, second, or next. Look
for words that are bold faced, italics, or in a different font size, style,
or color. Sometimes the author will put key ideas in the margin.
Reading off a computer screen has become a growing
concern. Research shows that people have more difficulty reading
off a computer screen than off paper. Although they can read and
comprehend at the same rate as paper, skimming on the computer
is much slower than on paper.
Similarly, scanning skills are valuable for several purposes in
studying science. First, they are an aid in locating new terms, which
are introduced in the chapter. Unless you understand the new
terms, it is impossible to follow the author's reasoning without
dictionary or glossary. Thus a preliminary scanning of the chapters
will alert you to the new terms and concepts and their sequence.
When you locate a new term, try to find its definition. If you are not
able to figure out the meaning, then look it up in the glossary or
dictionary. (Note: usually new terms are defined as they are
introduced in science texts. If your text does not have a glossary, it
is a good idea to keep a glossary of your own in the front page of
the book. Record the terms and their definition or the page number
where the definition is located. This is an excellent aid to refer to
when you are reviewing for an examination, as it provides a
convenient outline of the course).
Secondly, scanning is useful in locating statements,
definitions, formulas, etc. which you must remember completely
and precisely. Scan to find the exact and complete statement of a
chemical law, the formula of a particular compound in chemistry, or
the stages of cell division. Also, scan the charts and figures, for
they usually summarize in graphic form the major ideas and facts of
the chapter.
Just start: Scan how the page is laid out, and use bold headers
and captions to get an overview of the ideas and themes.
* Use peripheral vision; don't focus only on the logical flow of the
text. Observe what you're reading with a wide-angle scope, as if
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you were looking at an image rather than a block of text. Use the
same wide-eye span as you do when driving, looking at all that
surrounds you and heading your way.
* Using the wide-span approach, there are several methods in
which you can "read" a page.
- Read paragraphs diagonally, and place emphasis on the key
words.
- Read the page in a "Z"
- Read in a "U", moving down the page, and back up.
* Skim the text by reading the first sentence of each paragraph.
* Try to speed up your eye movements to take in more per
reading, rather than stay fixated and focused on a word.
* Use the help of your index finger, by moving it at a slightly
faster pace than your reading speed. When reading on the Internet,
scroll down quicker than you actually read.
9.3.3 Skimming Type of Reading
Skim by zooming through the text quickly trying to spot key
words. Don't start at the beginning and plod or shuffle through the
text. After you have scanned the text and found the bits that you
think look relevant and interesting then skim read.
Concentrates keep your keywords and questions in your mind.
Skimming involves searching for the main ideas by reading
the first and last paragraphs, noting other organizational cues, such
as summaries, used by the author.
Skimming is used to quickly identify the main ideas of a text.
When you read the newspaper, you're probably not reading it word-
by-word; instead you're scanning the text. Skimming is done at a
speed three to four times faster than normal reading. People often
skim when they have lots of material to read in a limited amount of
time. Use skimming when you want to see if an article may be of
interest in your research.
There are many strategies that can be used when skimming.
Some people read the first and last paragraphs using headings,
summarizes and other organizers as they move down the page or
screen. You might read the title, subtitles, subheading, and
illustrations. Consider reading the first sentence of each paragraph.
This technique is useful when you're seeking specific information
rather than reading for comprehension. Skimming works well to find
dates, names, and places. It might be used to review graphs,
tables, and charts.
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Skimming is when you "browse", or glance randomly through
a book. It has great importance in learning and is emphasized as a
strategy in speed reading particularly for exam taking. The purpose
of skimming is to get an "overview" not the specific details of the
material. We use it to decide if the book, article or report is worth
our time, and has anything new and worthwhile to tell us. Why
waste time if it is a rehash of stuff we already know?
Skim several times
When reading extensive material, you can first skim over the
chapter and section titles to give you an idea of when the material
is about. Then quickly scan through the material again to get a
better idea of the topic. Finally, you read the assignment, but still
reading rapidly.
Skimming is a step you should always take before you read
any article of factual or practical narrative. You will soon be able to
detect most important facts, strange vocabulary, and words that are
clues to important relationships.
It's a good practice to skim everything in mass media after
reading the title and first paragraph. You may get all the information
you want. This keeps your skimming skills from deteriorating, or will
give you the practice you need to develop necessary skills.
Skim everything you intend to read before you make a final
decision to read, discard, or study the material.
Skim all highlighting and develop a read-skim pattern to use
for rapid review. And don't overlook this! Reviewing frequently and
rapidly is the best way to memorize (or simply remember
information) from notes and long text assignments.
... And then read
Some speed reading methods have you first skim-read the
material and then read it over a second time more carefully, but yet
still at high speed. In skim reading you often just scan through the
material, letting your eyes catch key words that give you the crux of
the written material.
Take some reading material and read it as fast as you can
for a minute. When reading at this pace you do not have to
understand a single word of what you are reading. Then start over
for another minute and try to get to a further point that you did the
last. Repeat this step over and over trying to beat the place where
you got to last. Eventually time yourself for a minute and read for
comprehension and you will see how fast you can really read.
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Like scanning, skimming requires you to read quickly. When
you skim a text, though, you are not looking for specific information,
but rather, you are trying to get the main idea or point of the text
you are reading. When skimming a reading selection, start with the
title of the text, then read the topic sentence of each paragraph.
Skimming is a skill that is especially suited for doing research. By
skimming a few pages of a reference book or novel, you can
generally tell if the book or novel will be useful for your research.
9.4 READING TO STUDY TYPE
A method of reading for study is called SQ3R2, (SQ3R,
SQ4R, and PSQ5R) the aim is to understand the material in some
depth. The method involves five simple steps; Survey, Question,
Read, Recall and Review.
* Survey: skim through to gain an overview and not key points.
* Question: devise questions you hope the text will answer.
* Read: slowly and carefully.
* Recall: from memory, write down the main points made by the
chapter.
* Review: revisit your questions - compare these to your recall
and establish how well the text has answered them; fill in any gaps
by further reading and note-taking.
9.4.1 Practice and speed reading
Question: I'm currently interested in speed reading, a possibly
useful augmentation on my natural state, I'm not sure about its
effectiveness (or even possible effectiveness). A bit curious about
the experiences of others, and of possible studies into the subject.
So, the question is, do you happen to have some information that
might help me?
Answer: A few things to look at:
1. How much do you read?
2. How often do you read?
3. How much do you enjoy reading?
Speed reading is a skill that is acquired after much reading. I
started heavily reading at the age of 10 and by the time I was 12-13
I could speed read flawlessly. That skill has not degraded at all over
the years. I think the more you read the more your mind adapts to
it, to were eventually it will pick out the most important words,
naturally to were with less words you understand it as well as if you
read every word or the whole sentence.
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9.4.2 SQ4R Reading
The SQ4R Method will help you keep studying organized
and efficient. The steps to SQ4R ( Survey, Question, Read, Recite,
Record, Review) are explained in the steps below.
SURVEY
Glance over the material to get a feel for what you will be reading.
Survey the entire text
When you first receive the text, spend about 20 minutes skimming
the entire textbook to acquire an overall understanding of how the
book is organized.
1. Read at the title page.
2. Read at the copyright page.
3. Read at the table of contents.
4. Read the preface.
5.Read at the ancillary material (appendix, glossary, bibliography,
and index)
6. Read at any illustrations (including charts, graphs, and tables)
Survey each chapter
Survey a chapter assignment before you actually read it.
Survey should tell the scope of the content, how different topics are
organized, and what the author's purpose and point of view are.
The chapter survey will also give you sufficient background
information for class notes.
1. Read the chapter title.
2. Read the chapter objectives.
3. Read the chapter summary or review.
4. Read the major headings and subheadings.
5. Read the visual aids.
6. Read the italicized and/or underlined words and terms.
Survey the illustrations
Our society is visually oriented; authors and publishers are
well aware that effective use of illustrations in textbooks is more
necessary than ever. Illustrations can literally replace hundreds of
words and convey a message more dramatically and quickly than a
comparable section of text. Formats range from equations,
theorems, and formulas to tables and graphic illustrations.
QUESTION
Ask questions before, during, and after reading the material
As you survey the material, ask the questions about what
you will be reading and what you will try to answer. Turn the
headings and subheadings into questions. These questions give
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you a real reason for reading and will help you concentrate on the
subject you are reading.
Imagine, as you read the textbook, that the author is
speaking directly to you. Question the author statements.
Challenge the ideas presented. Textbooks are not the A final word,
but are a means of actively involving you, the reader, in the learning
process. Do not passively accept the author is presentation of
material; look at it critically and read with a questioning and
searching attitude. Ask the standard questions: what, why, and
how.
READ
Read for the main ideas and organization
Now you should read actively with these certain questions in
mind and attempt to answer the questions and organize the
material. These answers will be the important facts and details.
Read everything in a chapter including any of the visual aids such
as picture captions, graphs, charts, etc. Note any words or phrases
that are italicized, underlined, or in bold print (there=s a reason this
material is highlighted!) The tendency in reading is to keep going,
but you should stop at the end of each section to see if you can
answer the questions you asked at the start of the section.
Find the main ideas in each chapter or section. Textbook
authors write as you have been taught to write: they develop a topic
sentence and/or paragraph, substantiate it, and draw conclusions.
Concentrate on what you are reading. Try to feel the rhythm
of the author's prose (short, snappy sentences or long, labored
explanations) and then "go with the flow." Note particularly the
headings and subheadings; they indicate the relative importance of
each topic.
Study the illustrations. These serve as "pegs" to help you
remember the major points being discussed in the text.
RECITE
Summarize aloud what you read: Recite the main ideas, in
other words, aloud or to yourself, after finishing a page. Check the
comprehension and make sure you have the correct information.
Do the same for the major points after reading each section or
chapter.
By reciting what you've read, you are able to see how much
information you absorbed, areas you didn't understand and need to
review, and answers to the questions you generated for yourself. If
you cannot answer the questions, go back to the material and
reread.
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RECORD
Marking words in the books increases understanding of the
material for the present and for future reference. The process of
selecting and marking requires you to find the main ideas. Later,
when you review the text for exam purposes, you will find that the
textbook markings and highlights enable you to grasp the essential
points without having to read entire paragraphs and chapters again.
Write down the central points for the chapter or section in the
notebook. Do each assignment before class. This will prepare you
to participate in class discussions which will, in turn, help you
remember the material you have read and to put it into perspective.
Underline and make marginal notes: Underlining key words and
sentences will make those items stand out in the mind.
Marginal notes give you the opportunity to question a
statement or position taken by the author as well as making you
select the key words or items you want to remember from the
paragraph. Summaries enable you to write a brief summation of a
section in other words.
Develop your own system of reading: Use whatever
facilitates your retention of the material and works best for you. You
might use the following: a double underline for main ideas and a
single underline for supporting points; a bracket to enclose several
consecutive lines that are important, rather than underlining all of
them; or a box or circle around key terms.
Read before you mark. Read a few paragraphs or sections
and then go back over the material and underline those topics
and/or words that you feel are important.
Be selective: Underline only those points that are clearly
essential. You will then have a visible outline of the major points on
a page.
Use other words: Marginal notations and summaries should
be in other language so you can readily recall the original material
as you review. Using the text in this manner enables you to extract
all that the book has to offer you in a learning situation, now and in
the future. You will be able to use the texts for review in later
softwares in the same field or in an allied field, thus reducing the
need to re-read the material. You will reap the most benefit from
reviewing the notes in the text, rather than being distracted by
notes you may find written by some other person in a used text.
Coordinate class notes and textbook notes: Read the textbook
material on time and prior to the corresponding class or lecture if at
all possible. You can then follow the instructor's thought more
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easily, separate important points from lesser details, and have
class notes become more meaningful to you.
Develop your own note-taking technique for each class.
Many students use only one side of the paper for class notes,
leaving a 2- or 3-inch margin on the left side of the page for writing
key words and labeling.
Combine the text notes and class notes. Do this by writing
class notes on the right hand page of the notebook and transferring
text notes to the appropriate left hand facing page. You can then
easily review all the information gained from class and text reading.
REVIEW
Review constantly. Reviewing is an essential part of
retention. Review the textbook notes shortly after you have written
them and continue to review them periodically.
Spend a few minutes going over the earlier notes before
beginning a new reading assignment. This will help you keep the
overall picture of the author's development in mind and will let you
place the new material properly within that arrangement.
Review any and all supplements to the text. These usually
contain quizzes and self tests on material in the text which will
prepare you better for examinations. Constantly review throughout
the software will greatly reduce the time you will need to spend
preparing for exams and will make that time less stressful
("cramming") and more relaxing ("reviewing").
9.4.5 Active Reading
Keep paper and pen within reach. Before beginning to read,
think about the purpose for the reading. Why has the teacher made
this assignment? What are you supposed to get out of it?
Use the cursor on computer like a magic wand as you read
text. Underline reading text. The cursor becomes a finger, and
instinct kicks in - your eyes follow for moving object. This increase
information perception on 50%, and add that important 10% to
memory and concentration.
So that's it, you're on the way to improved knowledge
acquisition. Want to know why the most intelligent people hate
reading? It slow and boring and their brain is moving at the speed
of sound.
Use a guide (pencil, finger, ruler) to stop regression. Train
yourself to bypass your automatic response to mentally speak each
word. Reading groups of words and phrases at a time, using our
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peripheral vision. Specifically, taking in a sentence in three gulps,
not ten, which is typical for educated professionals. But now you
have the first two steps.
When you are reading it is often useful to highlight, underline
and annotate the text as you go on. This emphasizes information in
the mind, and helps you to review important points after you have
finished studying the text. Active reading helps to keep the mind
focused on the material and stops it wandering.
This is obviously only something to do if you own the
document or book. If you find that active reading helps significantly,
then it may be worth copying information in more expensive texts.
You can then read and mark the photocopies.
Marking & Underlining in a Textbook
1. First read a section.
2. Review the section, marking and underlining selectively.
3. Underline information as if you were preparing brief notes
from which you could study.
4. Underline all definitions of terminology.
5. Mark or label examples that represent main ideas.
6. Circle and box special vocabulary words and transitional
words and phrases.
7. Number important or sequential ideas.
8. Jot down paraphrases, questions, and summaries in
available space within the text.
Readers should use a pen or finger to trace each line of text
as they move down the page to keep track of where they are
reading.
Use index and middle fingers to run across the text.
Switching fingers with each line previews the next, and you can
grasp the information better. The eye sees the next line.
Subconsciously, the eye will skip around a page of text,
which is why reading can take so much time.
Always read with a pen in your fist underlining each word of
a sentence as you think. You will increase speed reading in 50%,
and add 10% to concentration and memory. It's an instinct - our
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eyes follow a moving object. It's what saved our cave-dwelling
ancestors from sneaky dinosaurs and enemies next door.
9.5 SUMMARY
Reading is a skill. People read for different purposes. But reading is
actually a very complex process that requires a great deal of active
participation on the part of the reader. The reading is of different
types which include survey reading, active reading, scanning,
skimming, SQ3R, SQ4R or etc. We can profess this art only on
practicing in a perfect way and reading with a purpose.
9.6 EXERCISE
Read the following paragraphs and answer the questions
given below:
1. Thomas Alva Edison lit up the world with his invention of the
electric light. Without him, the world might still be a dark
place. However, the electric light was not his only invention.
He also invented the phonograph, the motion picture
camera, and over 1,200 other things. About every two weeks
he created something new.
Thomas A. Edison was born in Milan, Ohio, on February 11,
1847. His family moved to Port Huron, Michigan, when he
was seven years old. Surprisingly, he attended school for
only two months. His mother, a former teacher, taught him a
few things, but Thomas was mostly self-educated. His
natural curiosity led him to start experimenting at a young
age with electrical and mechanical things at home.
When he was 12 years old, he got his first job. He became a
newsboy on a train that ran between Port Huron and Detroit.
He set up a laboratory in a baggage care of the train so that
he could continue his experiments in his spare time.
Unfortunately, his first work experience did not end well.
Thomas was fired when he accidentally set fire to the floor of
the baggage car.
Thomas then worked for five years as a telegraph operator,
but he continued to spend much of his time on the job
conducting experiments. He got his first patent in 1868 for a
vote recorder run by electricity. However, the vote recorder
was not a success. In 1870, he sold another invention, a
stock-ticker, for $40,000. A stock-ticker is a machine that
automatically prints stock prices on a tape. He was then able
to build his first shop in Newark, New Jersey.
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Thomas Edison was totally deaf in one ear and hard of
hearing in the other, but thought of his deafness as a
blessing in many ways. It kept conversations short, so that
he could have more time for work. He called himself a "two-
shift man" because he worked 16 out of every 24 hours.
Sometimes he worked so intensely that his wife had to
remind him to sleep and eat.
Thomas Edison died at the age of 84 on October 18, 1931,
at his estate in West Orange, New Jersey. He left numerous
inventions that improved the quality of life all over the world.
1. Thomas Edison did things in this order:
a. he became a telegraph operator, a newsboy, and
then got his first patent
b. he became a newsboy, got his first patent, and then
became a telegraph operator
c. he got a patent, became a telegraph operator, and
then became a newsboy
d. he became a newsboy, a telegraph operator, and
then got a patent
2. Edison considered his deafness:
a. a disadvantage
b. a blessing
c. something from a priest
d. a necessity
3. Of all the inventions, __________ was probably the most
important for civilization.
a. the vote recorder
b. the stock ticker
c. the light bulb
d. the motion picture camera
4. The main idea of this passage is:
a. Thomas Edison was always interested in science and
inventions, and he invented many important things.
b. Thomas Edison could not keep a job.
c. Thomas Edison worked day and night on his
experiments.
d. Deaf people make good inventors because they can
focus without the distraction of spoken conversation.
5. Summarise the above passage.
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6. His mother, a former teacher, taught him a few things,
but he was mostly self-educated.
a. taught himself
b. born a genius
c. loved school
d. thought of himself
7. His natural curiosity soon led him to start
experimenting with electrical and mechanical things at
home.
a. experiencing
b. inventing
c. making tests and playing with
d. ignoring
8. He left numerous inventions that improved the quality
of life all over the world.
a. numbered
b. many
c. none
d. modern
9. Sometimes he worked so intensely that his wife had
to remind him to sleep and eat.
a. passionately and with great focus
b. carelessly and with many distractions
c. hard
d. problems
10. Make notes of the above passage.
II. In Glacier National Park, which is in the Rocky Mountains of
Montana, there once roamed a little deaf Indian boy. He loved to
wander in the forest, and made friends with the animals who lived
there. Since he loved animals, he would observe them intently and
learn their habits. This little Indian boy's name was John Lewis
Clarke.
John Lewis Clarke's grandfather was a graduate from West
Point and a captain in the U.S. Army. He was married to the
daughter of a Blackfoot Indian Chief and adopted by the tribe. His
son, John Lewis Clarke's father, also married an Indian princess,
the daughter of Chief Stands Alone. Sadly, John's grandfather was
later killed by Indians of another tribe near Helena, Montana.
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John Lewis Clarke was not born deaf. He became ill at a
young age with scarlet fever. Though he survived, he could no
longer hear the sounds that the forest animals made. He could not
hear his Indian friends when they called to him. Scarlet fever had
caused him to lose his hearing. His Indian friends gave him the
name Cutapuis (Cu-ta-pu-ee) which means, "man who talks not."
Because John could not talk, he could not tell his parents
about his many animal friends in the forest and the exciting things
that he saw, but he found another way to express himself. He made
figures of them out of clay from the river banks. Later, when he was
older, he learned to carve things out of wood. He loved to carve
animals. With an axe and a pocket knife, he carved a life-sized
image of a bear from a cedar trunk. The bear looked so real, the
only thing missing was its growl.
When John was old enough to go to school, his parents sent
him to the Fort Shaw Indian School. However, since he needed
special education, he was transferred to a school for the deaf at
Boulder, Montana. He also attended the School for the Deaf at
Devil's Lake, North Dakota. When he was older, he enrolled at St.
Francis Academy in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, where he studied
wood carving.
While he was still in his teens, John returned to Montana and
opened a studio. He began to carve all the animals he had known
very well in his childhood, and offer them for sale. He made
models of animals out of wood, clay, and stone. He painted
pictures using water colors and oils, and did excellent pen and ink
drawings. He began to make a name for himself as an artist.
John spent most of his 89 years at his home studio in
Glacier Park. Every year when the park season was over, he
continued his work in Great Falls, Montana, his second home.
Many important people bought John's work. John D. Rockefeller,
Jr., the famous multimillionaire, was one of them. John's work was
on exhibit in many places in this country. John died on November
20, 1970. In his life-time, he literally carved his way to fame.
1. John probably started to use American Sign
Language as soon as:
a. he became deaf.
b. he entered a school for the deaf.
c. he could make figures out of clay.
d. his Indian friends taught him.
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2. The subject of his artwork was mostly animals. This is
most likely because:
a. the environment he grew up in influenced him.
b. he was an Indian.
c. it was his way of expressing ideas.
d. he did not like people.
3. "The bear looked so real. The only thing missing was
its 'growl.'" This phrase means:
a. John forgot to add one more thing.
b. the bear was missing.
c. the bear missed growling.
d. the bear looked perfect except that it could not
make any sound.
4. During the course of his education, John attended:
a. two schools.
b. only a residential school for the deaf.
c. four different schools.
d. a school in Maine.
5. Because John could not talk, he could not tell his
parents about his many animal friends in the forest
and the exciting things that he saw, but he found
another way to express himself. He made figures out
of clay.
a. speak with voice
b. be quiet
c. communicate
d. write his thoughts
6. The bear looked so real. The only thing missing was
its growl.
a. snarl
b. growth
c. mouth
d. talking back
7. Since he needed special education, he was
transferred to a school for the deaf at Boulder,
Montana.
a. traveled by train
b. moved to
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c. kept at
d. transformed
8. John's work was on exhibit in many places in the
country.
a. sale
b. loan
c. walls
d. display
9. In his lifetime, he literally carved his way to fame.
a. in action
b. really
c. probably
d. supposedly
10. Many important people bought John's work. John D.
Rockefeller, Jr., the famous multimillionaire, was one
of them.
a. someone who has many millions of dollars
b. someone who has a million dollars
c. someone who gives a lot of money to charity
d. someone who doesn't care about money
III. People can lose their hearing at any age - before they are
born, as infants, during childhood, or as _____1_____. Each
age of onset has a different name and the deafness may
have different origins.
Prenatal deafness means that a baby is born deaf. There are
several reasons why this can happen. If parents are deaf,
they may have a deaf baby. There are genes related to
deafness that hearing parents can also pass on to their child.
Genes control the way we look and all of our characteristics.
If the baby gets the right genes from hearing parents, it will
be born deaf. Other prenatal _____2_____ of deafness can
include: accidents; medicine or drugs that the mother takes;
illnesses; and genetic syndromes.
Genetic syndromes are a group of characteristics that a child
inherits from its parents. There are two very common types
of genetic syndromes related to deafness. One is
Waardenburg's Syndrome. Its characteristics are very
____3______. The person may have pigment disorders: a
streak of white hair; two different color eyes; or streaks of
white in a man's _____4_____. Most residential schools
have children with these characteristics. It is possible to
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have the physical traits of Waardenburg's Syndrome but not
be deaf.
Usher's Syndrome is also fairly common. Children with
Usher's Syndrome are born with a hearing loss and later
lose their vision. The first symptoms of this genetic
syndrome occur at _____5_____. A person with Usher's
Syndrome will experience problems seeing well in the dark.
Later, they will lose their peripheral vision and see only
within a tunnel area in front of them. This is called "tunnel
vision." Persons may eventually lose more and more of their
vision and become blind or partially blind.
If you notice that a deaf person does not see you when you
stand at his or her _____6_____, that person may have this
syndrome. The best way to communicate with a person who
has Usher's Syndrome is to stand directly in front and to sign
_____7_____.
Adapted from Deaf Heritage: A Student Text and
Workbook. National Association of the Deaf.
1 People can lose their hearing at any age - before they are born,
as infants, during childhood, or as __________.
adults
friends
relatives
students
citizens
2 Other prenatal __________ of deafness can include:
accidents; medicine or drugs that the mother takes;
illnesses; and genetic syndromes.
benefits
causes
degrees
tests
results
3 The characteristics of Waardenburg's Syndrome are very
__________.
rare
valuable
old-fashioned
obvious
dangerous
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4 The person may have pigment disorders: a streak of white
hair; two different color eyes; or streaks of white in a man's
__________.
smile
clothing
picture
glasses
beard
5 The first symptoms of the Usher's Syndrome occur at
__________.
night
home
dinner
rest
recess
6 If you notice that a deaf person does not see you when you
stand at his or her __________, that person may have this
syndrome.
window
rear
side
door
mirror
7 The best way to communicate with a person who has Usher's
Syndrome is to stand directly in front and to sign
__________.
politely
clearly
quickly
quietly
English
8. Make notes of the above text and give suitable title to it.
IV. In cobra country a mongoose was born one day who didn't
want to fight cobras or anything else. The word spread from
mongoose to mongoose that there was a mongoose who didn't
want to fight cobras. If he didn't want to fight anything else, it was
his own business, but it was the duty of every mongoose to kill
cobras or be killed by cobras.
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"Why?"asked the peacelike mongoose, and the word
went round that the strange new mongoose was not only pro-
cobra and anti-mongoose but intellectually curious and against the
ideals and traditions of mongoosism.
"He is crazy," cried the young's mongoose's father.
"He's sick, "said his mother.
"He is a coward," shouted his brothers.
"He's a mongoosexual," whispered his sisters.
Strangers who had never laid eyes on the peacelike
mongoose remembered that they had seen him crawling on his
stomach, or trying cobra hoods, or plotting the violent overthrow of
Mongoodia.
"I am trying to use reason and intelligence,"said the
strange new mongoose.
"Reason is six-sevenths of treason,"said one of his
neighbours.
"Intelligence is what the enemy uses," said another.
Finally the rumour spread that the mongoose had venom
in his sting, like a cobra, and he was tried, convicted by a show of
paws, and condemned to banishment.
Moral: Ashes to ashes, and clay to clay, if the enemy doesn't
get you your own folks may.
Exercise:
THE PEACELIKE MONGOOSE
The only question in the whole text is___________ and it is
asked by the _________ mongoose. The fact that a mongoose
must inevitably cobras ____________ isn't obvious to him so he
wants to know the ____________ for such behaviour. However,
this is interpreted by his fellow mongooses as ___________ . If
you look closely at the words "reason" and "treason" you will find
out they have letters ____________ in common, that is why the
author refers to reason being of treason.
The other mongooses have never asked themselves
questions about ____________ and they have been
____________ to think that this is the only way to ____________.
This blind acceptance of ideals and traditions has led them not
only to constant ____________ against cobras with no hope of an
end but also ____________ towards anyone who ____________
such behaviour. They have not been taught to use either
____________ or intelligence.
Can you relate the story and its moral to any particular
historical event? If you do, write a short paragraph describing it,
making a parallel between both stories and send it to us.
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V. English as a National Foreign Language
India has two national languages for central administrative
purposes: Hindi and English. Hindi is the national, official,
and main link language of India. English is an associate
official language. The Indian Constitution also officially
approves twenty-two regional languages for official
purposes.
Dozens of distinctly different regional languages are spoken
in India, which share many characteristics such as
grammatical structure and vocabulary. Apart from these
languages, Hindi is used for communication in India. The
homeland of Hindi is mainly in the north of India, but it is
spoken and widely understood in all urban centers of India.
In the southern states of India, where people speak many
different languages that are not much related to Hindi, there
is more resistance to Hindi, which has allowed English to
remain a lingua franca to a greater degree.
Since the early 1600s, the English language has had a
toehold on the Indian subcontinent, when the East India
Company established settlements in Chennai, Kolkata, and
Mumbai, formerly Madras, Calcutta, and Bombay
respectively. The historical background of India is never far
away from everyday usage of English. India has had a
longer exposure to English than any other country which
uses it as a second language, its distinctive words, idioms,
grammar and rhetoric spreading gradually to affect all
places, habits and culture.
In India, English serves two purposes. First, it provides a
linguistic tool for the administrative cohesiveness of the
country, causing people who speak different languages to
become united. Secondly, it serves as a language of wider
communication, including a large variety of different people
covering a vast area. It overlaps with local languages in
certain spheres of influence and in public domains.
Generally, English is used among Indians as a link
language and it is the first language for many well-educated
Indians. It is also the second language for many who speak
more than one language in India. The English language is a
tie that helps bind the many segments of our society
together. Also, it is a linguistic bridge between the major
countries of the world and India.
English has special national status in India. It has a special
place in the parliament, judiciary, broadcasting, journalism,
and in the education system. One can see a Hindi-speaking
236
teacher giving their students instructions during an
educational tour about where to meet and when their bus
would leave, but all in English. It means that the language
permeates daily life. It is unavoidable and is always
expected, especially in the cities.
The importance of the ability to speak or write English has
recently increased significantly because English has become
the de facto standard. Learning English language has
become popular for business, commerce and cultural
reasons and especially for internet communications
throughout the world. English is a language that has become
a standard not because it has been approved by any
standards organization but because it is widely used by
many information and technology industries and recognized
as being standard. The call centre phenomenon has
stimulated a huge expansion of internet-related activity,
establishing the future of India as a cyber-technological
super-power. Modern communications, videos, journals and
newspapers on the internet use English and have made
knowing English indispensable.
The prevailing view seems to be that unless students learn
English, they can only work in limited jobs. Those who do not
have basic knowledge of English cannot obtain good quality
jobs. They cannot communicate efficiently with others, and
cannot have the benefit of Indias rich social and cultural life.
Men and women who cannot comprehend and interpret
instructions in English, even if educated, are unemployable.
They cannot help with their childrens school homework
everyday or decide their revenue options of the future.
A positive attitude to English as a national language is
essential to the integration of people into Indian society.
There would appear to be virtually no disagreement in the
community about the importance of English language skills.
Using English you will become a citizen of the world almost
naturally. English plays a dominant role in the media. It has
been used as a medium for inter-state communication and
broadcasting both before and since Indias independence.
India is, without a doubt, committed to English as a national
language. The impact of English is not only continuing but
increasing.
1. According to the writer, the Indian constitution
recognises
22 official languages
Hindi as the national language
2 national, official languages
2 national languages
237
2. English's status as a lingua franca is helped by
its status in northern India
the fact that it is widely understood in urban centres
the fact that people from the south speak languages
not much related to Hindi
it shares many grammatical similarities with Hindi
3. In paragraph 3, 'toehold' means that English
dominated India
changed the names of some cities in India
has had a presence in India
has been in India longer than any other language
4. Hindi-speaking teachers
might well be heard using English
only use English
only use English for instructions
do not use English
5. In paragraph eight, it says 'the prevailing view', which
suggests that
the view is correct
the view is held by the majority
the view is incorrect
the view is held by the minority
6. English in India
is going to decrease
has decreased since independence
causes disagreement
is going to have a greater importance54rtfvg
7. Summarise the above text into one third of it.
8. Make the note points of the text given above.

238
10
NOTE MAKING AND PRECISE WRITING
Unit Structure
10.1 Objectives
10.2 Note Making: Introduction
10.3 Note-making or note-taking
10.4 Note-making techniques
10.5 Note-making tips
10.6 Checklist/tips
10.7 Prcis Writing: Introduction
10.8 Summary
10.8 Exercise
10.1 OBJECTIVES
To learn the note making techniques
To understand and adopt the strategies for effective note
making
To know the concept of precise writing
To learn the art of precise writing
10.2 NOTE MAKING: INTRODUCTION
The notes you make whilst studying at university are a
valuable resource for our learning and they will build up quickly
during your studies. They help you to map and record what you are
learning, and then to recall and understand it later. You will depend
upon your notes for exam revision, as well as for preparation of
essays and other coursework assignments. It is therefore important
to develop efficient and effective skills for both creating notes and
keeping study records. This guide suggests ways in which you can
use the note-making process to engage with your subject as well as
ensuring that your records are easy to use and contain all the
information you need.
239
10.3 NOTE-MAKING OR NOTE-TAKING
Note-taking can mean you write down what you hear or read
without thinking about the material, perhaps by copying from the
original source and re-written in a similar format. They are often
non-selective, covering most or all of the information given. Note-
taking is a passive study technique, where note-making is active.
When making notes, be selective, find one or two learning
points rather than noting everything the speaker or writer says
(Levin, 2009). Remember that the introductions and conclusions
usually summarise the key ideas. Note-making requires
concentration as you have to select, analyse and summarise what
you hear or read. If you have never thought about how you make
notes, ask yourself:
What sort of notes do I make?
What do I do with my notes after I have made them?
Are my notes effective for revising or assignments?
(After Burns and Sinfield, 2004)
10.4 NOTE-MAKING TECHNIQUES
10.4.1 Sequential or linear notes usually follow the same order
as the speaker or writer. Good sequential notes include key words,
headings and sub-headings to express the connections between
key concepts, accompanied by extra information in brief. It helps if
you leave wide margins and write on every other line as this
provides space for comments or the addition of further notes at a
later date; the inclusion of diagrams and flow charts enhance
sequential notes and usually reduce the number of words you need
to write. Underlining and highlighting will focus your attention and
enable you to find the important points quickly. Both annotating
(making brief notes in the margins), and abbreviating speed up your
note-making. Summarising, which involves writing a much shorter
version, may save time and reduce the risk of plagiarism (using
others words or ideas and representing them as your own).
When making sequential notes, you are following the sense
of what is being said/read and creating a set of notes for review that
can be quickly scanned for the main points. You should also be
helping yourself to think creatively by focusing on concepts and
ideas, rather than becoming immersed in the detail.
10.4.2 Visual notes some learners prefer to make visual notes
organised around particular concepts or ideas. Pattern notes,
spider-diagrams and mind maps use lines, arrows and circles to
240
link key ideas. Pattern note-making reduces the impulse to make
notes in the order the information was presented you have to re-
process and organise it at the point when you receive it.
When using visual note-making, you are expressing your
understanding of the information by thinking through where each
aspect fits in relation to all other aspects. You are also creating a
unique visual image which may be easy to recall. These techniques
can take many forms but may look something like the example
below in figure 1.
There are a number of other methods of visually, or
graphically, representing what you have heard or read. These
include:
flowchart/series of events chain to express stages or
sequencing of an event or process
continuum scale to rank items from one end of a spectrum
to another e.g.: time line or low to high
compare and contrast matrix table or chart which is good
for showing similarities and differences
fishbone map shows the causal interaction in a complex
setting
cycle/process with an emphasis on circularity, a cycle
stresses patterns of repetition
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If you are a slow writer, experiment with pattern techniques.
Essentially, any note-making technique that supports quick, easy
and informative review is good. Experiment and choose the
approach which best suits your needs.
10.4.3 Concept Maps and Diagrams
You can set down information in a concept map or diagram.
This presents the information in a visual form and is unlike the
traditional linear form of note taking. Information can be added to
the concept map in any sequence. Concept maps can easily
become cluttered, so we recommend you use both facing pages of
an open A4 note book. This will give you an A3 size page to set out
your concept map and allow plenty of space for adding ideas and
symbols.
Begin in the middle of the page and add ideas on branches
that radiate from the central idea or from previous branches.
Arrows and words can be used to show links between parts
of the concept map.
Colour and symbols are important parts of concept maps,
helping illustrate ideas and triggering your own thoughts.
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Fig 2 Concept Maps
10.4.4 Use Symbols and Abbreviations
The use of symbols and abbreviations is useful for lectures,
when speed is essential. You also need to be familiar with symbols
frequently used in your courses.
Develop a system of symbols and abbreviations; some
personal, some from your courses
Be consistent when using symbols and abbreviations
243
Some examples of commonly used symbols and
abbreviations are presented in the following tables.
Symbols Meaning in note making
= equals/is equal to/is the same as
is not equal to/is not the same as
is equivalent to
therefore, thus, so because
+ and, more, plus
>
<
more than, greater than
less than
less, minus
gives, causes, leads to, results in, is given by, is
produced by, results from
rises, increases by
falls, decreases by
proportional to
not proportional to
10.5 NOTE-MAKING TIPS
You will make your best notes when you are well-prepared.
Consider what you already know about the topic, how it fits in with
the whole course and what you now need to find out.
Do not be intimidated by academic language. You may not
be familiar with all the terms you hear and read or the way in which
language is used, but you will get used to it. Note any terms you do
not understand and check their meanings later.
Be aware that some sources are more valid than others
many websites, magazines and newspapers base their content on
opinion rather than research-based evidence. Remember this if you
are considering referencing them in your academic work. If you
understand why the source exists to inform, advertise, entertain
etc this will help you to select according to your need.
244
Regard your notes as part of a learning cycle. Any activity
which takes you back to your notes later will contribute to your
learning. So set yourself regular review tasks based on your notes.
10.5.1 Identify How Information is Organised
Most texts use a range of organising principles to develop
ideas. While most good writing will have a logical order, not all
writers will use an organising principle. Organising principles tend
to sequence information into a logical hierarchy, some of which are:
Past ideas to present ideas
The steps or stages of a process or event
Most important point to least important point
Well known ideas to least known ideas
Simple ideas to complex ideas
General ideas to specific ideas
The largest parts to the smallest parts of something
Problems and solutions
Causes and result
10.5.2 Record keeping
Plan how you are going to keep and store your notes before
you begin to make them:
10.5.2.1 Paper notes:
Ensure you have the necessary notebooks to meet your
needs avoid merging all your notes together on
consecutive pages, especially when you are working on
more than one module at the same time.
Keep lecture notes separate from your own research notes
for assignments so you can navigate your files quickly and
easily.
Label and store handouts, photocopies and notes in folders.
Consider having a colour code to represent specific topics.
10.5.2.2 Electronic notes:
Organise your work folders in a clear and logical way.
Use comment boxes to annotate documents and colour (text
and highlighter) to indicate key ideas and themes.
Keep video and audio files within your electronic storage
system.
245
Important: When making notes from books, journals and
web sources remember to record the bibliographic or reference
information. This includes: name(s) of author(s), year of publishing,
title of book/journal and the specific chapter/article title, place of
publishing and publisher (in the case of a book) and volume
number and issue number (in the case of an article) and the exact
page(s) that your notes come from (Pears & Shields, 2008). If the
book or journal you accessed is an e-version, include the exact
URL and the date you accessed the material. The university library
has Metalib and Voyager which can track your resource searches.
For further information contact the library. For other electronic
resources copy the exact link with your notes. If you do not do this,
you may have difficulty finding the page again later.
10.6 CHECKLIST/TIPS
Plan in advance. Ensure you always have a pen and paper.
Experiment with different note-making techniques to see if
they work for you.
Be selective. Get the main points down; dont get hung up on
detail.
Note concepts/ideas or terms you dont understand so you
can clarify meaning later.
Store your notes carefully and always note the bibliographic
source or reference.
Review your notes to improve your learning
Label and store handouts, photocopies and notes in folders
Consider having a colour code to represent specific topics.
10.6.1 Electronic notes:
Organise your work folders in a clear and logical way
Use comment boxes to annotate documents and colour (text
and highlighter) to indicate key ideas and themes.
Keep video and audio files within your electronic storage
system.
Important: When making notes from books, journals and web
sources remember to record the bibliographic or reference
information. This includes: name(s) of author(s), year of publishing,
title of book/journal and the specific chapter/article title, place of
publishing and publisher (in the case of a book) and volume
number and issue number (in the case of an article) and the exact
246
page(s) that your notes come from (Pears & Shields, 2008). If the
book or journal you accessed is an e-version, include the exact
URL and the date you accessed the material. The university library
has Metalib and Voyager which can track your resource searches.
For further information contact the library. For other electronic
resources copy the exact link with your notes. If you do not do this,
you may have difficulty finding the page again later.
10.6.2 Checklist/tips
Plan in advance. Ensure you always have a pen and paper.
Experiment with different note-making techniques to see if
they work for you.
Be selective. Get the main points down, dont get hung up on
detail.
Note concepts/ideas or terms you dont understand so you
can clarify meaning later.
Store your notes carefully and always note the bibliographic
source or reference.
Review your notes to improve your learning
10.7 PRECIS WRITING: INTRODUCTION
A precise (form both singular and plural, pronounced pray
see) is a brief summary of the essential thought of a longer
composition. It attempts to provide a miniature of the original
selection, reproducing the same proportions on smaller scale, the
same ideas, and the same mood and tone, so far as possible. The
writer of a prcis cannot interpret or comment; his or her sole
function is to give a reduced photograph of the original authors
exact and essential meaning. Nor can he or she omit important
details. Lambs Tales from Shakespeare, for example, is not really
a series of prcis, because from the originals have been deleted
some important subplots as well as all that was thought unfit for
children.
Prcis (pray-see, pl. pray-seez) writing is a basic and very
useful skill. It has been variously referred to as 'abbreviation',
'subtraction', 'abstract', 'summary', and 'condensation'. The French
gave it the name 'prcis' the pruning away of all that is
inessential.
10.7.1 Definition
"A prcis is a brief, original summary of the important ideas
given in a long selection. Its aim is to give the general effect
created by the original selection." It is a concise and lucid summary
that forsakes all unnecessary details (including illustrations,
247
amplifications, and embellishments) in favor of reproducing the
logic, development, organization and emphasis of the original.
Retaining the substance of a fuller statement, it seeks to articulate
another authors thoughts by extracting the maximum amount of
information and carefully conveying it in a minimum number of
words.
10.7.2 The Purpose
Prcis writing aims at intelligent reading, and clear and
accurate writing. It is a skill of both analysis and genesis that
critically questions every thought included and excluded, each word
used to express those thoughts, and the proportions and
arrangements of those thoughts both in the original and in the
prcis. In its exaction it mercilessly reveals an author's wordiness
and looseness or thinness of thought and construction. It should
strengthen our style, our sense of proportion and emphasis, and
our sensitivity to word meanings and an author's viewpoint,
A prcis is usually reduced to at least one-fourth of its original
length and frequently much more. How long it is will be determined
by its purpose and by the nature of the original.
10.7.3 Preliminary to Precise Writing
1. An abstract is a condensation of a passage, the important
words, phrases, and sentences containing the essential
thoughts being worked as simply as possible into sentences.
It simply requires the ability to pick out essential facts.
Exercises in abstracting will involve underscoring the
essential facts in a passage and combining them into a
single whole. (N.B.: Here 'abstract' is used in its narrow
sense to mean a digest or running summary.)
2. A paraphrase is a restatement of a difficult passage, stating
clearly and fully in language of the simplest sort just what the
passage means. Because it clarifies hidden meanings and
obscure passages, it is usually longer than the original."
Prcis writing involves the ability to paraphrase, but adds to
it concision, all the while being careful to not to lose or distort
the original meaning Exercising in paraphrasing might
involve transposing poetry to prose, explaining the meaning
of proverbs, etc.
3. In prcis writing it is necessary to say as much as possible in
as few words as possible." A word may substitute for a
248
phrase and a phrase for a clause. The concern is for the
precise meaning or connotation of a word.
4. The proper use of the colon and semicolon in punctuation is
an aid to good prcis writing.
5. Generally a prcis should be written in reported or indirect
speech. This means a prcis will be in third person, in the
past tense. Exercises will involve the change of direct
speech to indirect speech.
6. A prcis title must be cold and matter of fact, not attractive to
the imaginative mind. It is a prcis of the prcis.
10.7.4 Method
It will be well to remember the object of prcis writing: a brief and
clear summary or prcis of what you have first carefully read.
No words, phrases, clauses, or sentences which are unessential to
the thought of the selection, are considered. Every unnecessary
word is discarded until all that you have left is the thought, the
dominating idea, of what you have read. Then in your own words,
give this thought as briefly and clearly as possible. Your sentences
must be carefully constructed. Do not omit any essential articles,
prepositions, or conjunctions.
10.7.4.1 First Reading
1. Read every word slowly and carefully until you clearly
understand the sense of the passage.
2. Look up all unfamiliar words, phrases, and allusions
3. Identify the dominating idea, the essential thought, of the
passage. Ask if this idea were omitted, would the
fundamental meaning of the passage be changed?
4. Determine what emphasis and space to give the thought in
each section; write a heading for each section.
10.7.4.2 Second Reading
1. Underscore with a pencil the important facts containing the
essential thoughts. This is a process of differentiation
between what is essential and what is not. Generally you will
omit examples, illustrations, conversations, and repetitions.
2. Reread your selections to see that they are wise and
adequate.
3. Determine if your underscoring expresses the main ideas.
249
10.7.4.3 Final Reading
Rapidly and intensely reread the origin, dwelling on the
important facts selected for a prcis.
10.7.4.4 In constructing a prcis, follow these suggestions
1. Select carefully the material to be condensed. Some selections
can be reduced satisfactorily, but others are so tightly knit that
condensation is virtually impossible. You can make prcis of
novels, short stories, speeches, or essays, but do not select
material the style of which is especially compact and
epigrammatic.
Avoid material which has already been summarized, edited, or
abridged; continual distillation cannot accurately indicate the
essential thought of the original composition.
2. Read the selection carefully. The major purpose of a prcis is to
present faithfully, as briefly and clearly as possible, the
important ideas of the selection being cut down. In order to
grasp the central ideas, you must read carefully, analytically,
and reflectively. Look up the meanings of all words and phrases
about which you are in doubt. Do not skim, but look for
important or key expressions. Before starting to write, you must,
to use Sir Francis Bacons phrase, chew and digest the
selection, not merely taste it or swallow it whole in a single
gulp. You must see how the material has been organized, what
devices the writer has used, what kinds of illustrations support
the main thought. You must be sure to distinguish fact and
opinion, and you will want to question critically the writers
statements. These suggestions are, of course, those which you
would ordinarily follow every time that you attempt to read and
to think as intelligently as you can.
3. Use your own words. Quoting sentencesperhaps topic
sentencesfrom each paragraph results in a sentence outline,
not a prcis. You must use your own words for the most part,
although a little quotation is permissible. Ordinarily, the phrasing
of the original will not be suitable for your purposes. Once you
have mastered the thought of the selection, your problem is one
of original composition. You are guided and aided by the order
and wording of the material, but the prcis itself represents your
own analysis and statement of the main thought.
4. Do not use too many words. Nothing of real importance can be
omitted, but you must remember that the central aim of a prcis
250
is condensation. The length of a condensation cannot arbitrarily
be determined, but it is safe to say that most prose can be
reduced by two-thirds to two-fourths. Some verse is so compact
that it can hardly be condensed at all; other verse can be
shortened far more than most good prose.
5. Do not alter the plan of the original. Follow the logical order of
the original so that the condensation will be accurate. Thoughts
and facts should not be rearranged; if they are, the essence of
the original may be distorted. Give attention to proportion. Try to
preserve as much as possible of the mood and tone of the
original.
6. Write the prcis in good English. The condensation should not
be a jumble of disconnected words and faulty sentences. It
should be a model of exact and emphatic diction and clear,
effective sentence construction because it must be intelligible to
a reader who has not seen the original. Transition from
sentence to sentence must be smooth and unobtrusive,
emphasizing the unity of the summarization. The prcis is not
often likely to be so well written as the original, but it should
read smoothly and possess compositional merit of its own.
10.7.5 Examples
10.7.5.1. ORIGINAL
For a hundred years and more, the monarchy in France had
been absolute and popular. It was beginning now to lose both
power and prestige. A sinister symptom of what was to follow
appeared when the higher ranks of society began to lose their
respect for the sovereign. It started when Louis XV selected as his
principal mistress a member of the middle class; it continued when
he chose her successor from the streets. When the feud between
Madame Du Barry and the Duke de Choiseul ended in the
dismissal of the Minister, the road to Chanteloup, his country
house, was crowded with carriages, while familiar faces were
absent from the court at Versailles. For the first time in French
history, the followers of fashion flocked to do honor to a fallen
favorite.
People wondered at the time, but hardly understood the
profound significance of the event. The king was no longer the
leader of society. Kings and presidents, prime ministers and
dictators provide at all times a target for the criticism of
philosophers, satirists, and reformers. Such criticism they can
251
usually afford to neglect, but when the time-servers, the
sycophants, and the courtiers begin to disregard them, then should
the strongest of them tremble on their thrones. (208 words).
Duff Cooper, Talleyrand
Prcis
For more than a hundred years, the monarchy in France had
been absolute and popular. But Louis XV lost the respect of the
upper ranks of society by choosing his mistresses from lower
classes. When the feud of the Duke de Choiseul with Madame Du
Barry resulted in the Ministers dismissal, the court turned its
attention to him, away from the king. The king, no longer the leader
of society, could well tremble for his throne. (76 words)
10.7.5.2. ORIGINAL
But as for the bulk of mankind, they are clearly devoid of any
degree of taste. It is a quality in which they advance very little
beyond a state of infancy. The first thing a child is fond of in a book
is a picture, the second is a story, and the third a jest. Here then is
the true Pons Asinorum, which very few readers ever get over. (69
words) Henry Fielding
Prcis
Most people lack taste; they remain childlike. Readers, like
children, rarely ever get over the bridge of assess constituted by
pictures, stories, and jokes. (24 words)
10.7.5.3. Today there are 3000 million people in the world. Fifty
years ago only about 2000 million people lived in it. If earths
population were evenly distributed over its land surface, there
would be about 550 persons to the square mile. But Earth has vast
areas of forest, mountains and desert which are almost totally
inhabited. On the other hand, it has great cities each with millions of
people living in a few square miles.
To feed the fast growing population of our earth, scientists
and planners have to discover new ways to produce more. One
possible way is to bring more land not under cultivation. This can
be done only in places where there is lot of land not used for
productive purposes. In many places there is no longer possible all
the arable land is already cultivated. A second way is to make use
of new types of seeds to produce more. Already a number of new
strains of paddy and wheat have been developed in different parts f
the world. India is one of the countries where a lot of useful work
has been done in the field of agriculture research.
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Prcis
Title: World Population and Food Production
During the last fifty years, the world population has
increased from 2000 to 3000 million. It is unevenly distributed with
millions of people living in a few big cities. Scientists in India and
abroad are, therefore, busy with agriculture research to find out
new methods of increased food production to feed them all and
they have already developed many new strains of paddy and
wheat.
10.8 SUMMARY
Note making is an advanced writing skill which is acquiring
increasing importance due to knowledge explosion. There is a need
to remember at least the main points of any given subject. Making
notes is a complex activity which combines several skills. Anyone
can make notes, but it is difficult to make good, concise, brief,
accurate notes that may both reflect and comment on the nature of
the information you are referring to and which you can use and
understand at a later date. There are, however, a number of
techniques that you can use for making effective notes. A precise
(form both singular and plural, pronounced praysee) is a brief
summary of the essential thought of a longer composition. It
attempts to provide a miniature of the original selection,
reproducing the same proportions on smaller scale, the same
ideas, and the same mood and tone, so far as possible.
10.8 EXERCISE: MAKE THE NOTES OF THE
FOLLOWING PASSAGES:
1. "Children display an amazing ability to become fluent speakers of
any language consistently spoken around them. Every normal
human child who is not brought up in' complete isolation from
language -use soon comes to speak one or more languages
fluently.
The child's acquisition of his native language is not
dependent on any special tutoring. Parents may spend many hours
reinforcing every reorganizable bit of their' child's verbal activity
with a smile or some other reward, or trying by means of
"baby talk" to develop their linguistic skills. But there is no particular
reason to believe that such activity has any bearing on the child's
ultimate success in becoming a native speaker of his parents'
language. Children can pick up a language by playing with other
children who happen to speak it just as, well a s they can through
the concentrated efforts of fond parents, All they seem to need is
sufficient exposure to the' language , in question.
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The capacity for acquiring language is remarkable for a
number of .reasons. It is remarkable first because of, its uniformity
throughout the human race. There simply are no cases of normal
children who given the chance, fail to acquire a native language. By
way of comparison, it is not at all unusual for a child to fail to master
arithmetic, reading, swimming, or gymnastics, despite a
considerable' amount of f instruction. Language acquisition, in other
words, is uniform'" far all human beings. It is also specific to the
human species. Every normal person learns a human language,
but no other animal, not even the most intelligent ape, has been
shown to be capable of making the slightest progress in this
direction, although some animals cart learn to solve problems, use
tools, and so on Language acquisition thus appears to 'be different
in kin d from acquisition of other skills mentioned.
The process is further remarkable for its comparative speed
and perfection. When we - actually attempt to take a language -
apart to see how it works, we find that it is extraordinarily complex
and that it involves highly abstract organizational principles. Yet,
within the first few years of his life, human chi1d had
succeeded in mastering at least one such system. Furthermore, the
linguistic system that the child masters, I s for all practical
purposes, identical to the one employed by - the people around
him. The differences are slight indeed when measured against the
magnitude of the accomplishment."
2. 'The effect of books Ls two-fold they preserve knowledge in
time and spread it in space. Suppose for example that you think of
a n important idea or a beautiful poem. Unless you can write ' it
down, your idea or poem will die when you die. Even if you I do
write it down it perishes as soon as the mice eat the paper, which
they often do and do quickly. But once printing had been
discovered, it did not matter how soon you died or, how many
copies of what you had written were eaten by mice, for, so long 'as
one new copy remained the idea or the poem could-. be made to
last -for just as long as people chose to -go' on printing. it. And s o it
could live long after you died. 'Not only could, it live in time, it could
spread through space, for - by making enough copies of it you
could bring it to the notice of hundreds and thousands of people
until today you can send it all- over the world.
Books are the chief carriers of civilization because of them
ideas live and spread. How important books are you can judge from
the fact that very hot countries, as, is well known are slow in
becoming civilized in the modern sense. There are many reasons
for this, but one of the most important is that the white ants, which
live in the tropics, eat up all the bold. For example, in tropical South
America there are practically no books more than forty or fifty years
old. Where there are no books there are no records and no
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literature; the ideas and knowledge of one generation can only be
handed down -by word of 'mouth, and it is much more difficult for
the race to progress and become civilized. But it is n o use having
books unless people can read them and learning to read is part of
what is called education.
It may seem strange to speak of education as a piece of
machinery, but looked, at properly that is just what, it is, machinery
for passing o n knowledge and ideas. By its means each fresh
generation of people can be made acquainted with all that the
preceding generations have found ' out, so ,that instead of
beginning all over again, as it 'were, - they, can start where those
who went before Ahem left off. Thus knowledge is like a torch
which is passed on from generation to generation by the hand of
education."
3. "Arthur Koestler in his novel 'Darkness at Noon' describes
how political prisoner in a Russian jail communicated with each
other by tapping messages s on the pipes in their cells. Modern
crime a n d detective fiction had made us familiar with the idea that
members of the "underworld" have sub-codes and communicate by
signals which others do not understand. This, is what the dictionary
means when' it explains grapevine as "a means of secret
communication, used by criminals or prisoners." This is, of course,
in addition to the usual meaning of the word as "a kind of vine on
which grapes grow.
Writers on Communication have given a degree of
respectability to the word by using it" to mean an informal means of
communication within an organisation by which news and
information are quickly transmitted among - people who work
together in a I group. Strangely enough the word has retained a--
part of its, original meaning. Like, the plant, the grapevine, spreads
rapidly to every part of the organisation and it- is a "secret
communication" in the sense -that this information is supposed to
be spread without the knowledge of the management.
Grapevine is a kind of horizontal communication and it
consists of a -complex network of informal contacts that occur all
day long on the job, spontaneous channels through 'which facts,
half-truths and rumours pass. It is possible for such rumours to
result in upward and downward communication, but the general
direction is horizontal as such communication takes place between
people who work at the same level and who know and trust each
other. Thus- one fine morning, the story may spread among the
clerks in the Share Department that the supervisor, Mr. Prabhu, has
been transferred to another department to, hush up - a scandal
about his dealing with a firm of stock brokers.. As may well ' b e
imagined the grapevine can do great harm or good to an
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organisation it may cause the workers to lose their morale or to
work with redoubled vigour. If top management is intelligent it will
feed the* grapevine with information that is accurate and- which will
serve as a morale booster."
4. The problem which most preoccupies the public mind at the
present moment is that of scientific warfare. It has become evident
that, if scientific skill is, allowed free scope, the human race will be
totally destroyed, if not in the next, war, then in the next but one or
the next but two at any rate at no very distant date. To this problem
there are two possible reactions: there are those who say, Let us
create social institutions which will make large scale war
impossible; there are others who say, Let us not allow war to
become too scientific. We cannot perhaps go back to bows and
arrows, but let us fit any rate agree with our enemies so that, if we
fight them, both sides will fight inefficiently. For my part, I favour the
former', answer since I cannot see that either side could be
expected to observe an 'agreement not to use modern weapons
once war had broken out. It is on this ground what I do, not think
that there will long continue to be human beings methods are found
for permanently preventing large-scale wars.
There are things which an individual must not do because
the criminal law forbids them. The law and the police are in most
case strong, enough to prevent such things from being done
murderers are a very small percentage of the population of any
civilised country. But the relations between nations are not
governed by law and cannot' be until there is a supranational armed
"force'' strong enough. ' to enforce the decisions of a supranational
authority. In the past, although the wars resulting from international
`anarchy caused much suffering and destruction, mankind was able
to survive them. Today, however, the risks of war have become so
great that the continued existence of our species either has
become or will become impossible in the face of the new methods
of scientific destruction.




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11
AUDIO VIDEO AIDS AND EFFECTIVE
PRESENTATIONS
Unit Structure
11.1 Objectives
11.2 Introduction
11.3 Formal Presentations
11.4 Informal Presentations
11.5 Preparation of Presentations
11.6 Guidelines
11.7 Body Language
11.8 Visual Aids
11.9 Summary
11.10 Exercise
11.1 OBJECTIVES
To know the techniques of presentation
To learn the art of presentation
To learn to use the audio and video aids in presentation
To learn to make the presentation effective
11.2 INTRODUCTION
Developing proper solutions is one thing, but getting moral
and financial support for the ideas is as important. Thus, a proper
presentation to organisations, to stakeholders, or to potential
donors for getting support for the ideas is vital. Therefore one has
to pay some attention to presentation techniques: each module
ends with a presentation by some of the participants. To facilitate
these presentations, a short introduction into the basic skills for
giving oral as well as written presentations is provided.
Moreover, after a brief introduction of the distinct stages of a
project (project cycle) this module will acquaint the participants with
the contents of a feasibility study and explain how to structure the
presentation of projects in a written document.
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At the end of this module the participants will be able to:
1. Compose a presentation within a set time frame.
2. Realise an oral presentation within a set time frame, using basic
presentation skills (E.g. Visual aids, time management, and delivery
performance).
3. Prepare and present a project proposal to address the problem
that requires mitigation.
Many people openly admit that their biggest fear is public
speaking. Whether it's in front of a class, coworkers, managers, or
total strangers, they experience physical symptoms of sweating,
trembling, rapid heartbeats, and worse. Their minds go blank, their
mouths go dry, and their voices quiverall classic signs of
nervousness. For a few people, the fear is debilitatingwe hear
now and then of talented singers and musicians who are so
paralyzed by stage fright that they cannot perform in public.
Most people experience some degree of fear when facing an
audience, but they learn techniques to control their voice tone and
body language to project confidence. Successful public speakers
often attribute their apparent relaxation to rehearsalpracticing
their speech or presentation enough times, and in a similar setting
to the real one, that the words flow easily, despite a jittery stomach.
Rehearsal appears to be the key solution for beginning speakers.
If a public-speaking class is available in your college, you will
find it a good opportunity to practice different types of speeches
and polish your deliveryyour case of nerves might not go away
entirely, but it can become manageable.
11.3 FORMAL PRESENTATIONS
In business, people in sales and marketing make formal
presentations at customers' sites, annual meetings, and training
seminars. When money is at stake or the audience is large, the
presentation becomes more formal. For these situations, people
take extra steps to guarantee a successful speech. Speakers
sometimes videotape themselves giving the speech to observe
facial expressions, body language, and delivery. They prepare
visual aids that look polished and professional. They create
handouts with detailed information and allow extra white space for
notes. Many speakers enlist technical experts as backups to help
answer detailed technical questions or operate the presentation
equipment.
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11.4 INFORMAL PRESENTATIONS
Most presentations are less formal. For example, some companies
hold "brown-bag lunches," where a speaker discusses a topic while
the audience eats lunch (the presentation-might be recorded or
telecast), or an employee presents an idea to a manager. While
these situations are less formal than a sales presentation to a
customer, the speakers usually prepare in similar ways, with
research, an outline and notes, and handouts.
Even more informally, a manager might ask an employee to
discuss a technical topic at a staff meeting. Sometimes these
speeches are impromptu, meaning a speaker begins speaking
without preparation or planning.
11.5 PREPARATION OF PRESENTATIONS
Begin by checking all the details you need to plan your
presentation, this includes:
The duration of the talk.
Whether time for questions is included.
The size and location of the room.
Have a look around the room and try out the equipment not
later than the day before your presentation, so you are able to use
it with confidence.
The most important thing to remember is that people have a
limited attention span, and that you must therefore organize your
talk very clearly so that the main points stand out. This is how you
do it:
11.5.1 Analyse your audience and limit your topic accordingly.
What do your listeners already know? What do they need to
know? How much information can they absorb?
11.5.2 Determine your primary purpose. What is the main point
you wish to communicate? Build your presentation around that.
11.5.3 Select effective supporting information. Remember, your
listeners will only remember at most three or four supporting points
and only two or three supporting details for these points. So choose
the information that will sell your case to your particular audience.
11.5.4 Choose an appropriate pattern of organization. Often
your supporting information can be ordered according to one
dominant pattern of organization: problem-solution, criteria, chain of
reasoning, process of elimination, experimental research,
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chronological description, or comparison and contrast, to mention a
few. Whatever pattern you choose, stick to it.
11.5.5 Prepare an outline. Main points and main supporting points
only. Only write out the whole text if you feel the information is too
technical for you to be able to just explain it. Select appropriate
visual aids. These are indispensable, firstly as prompts to help you
and secondly as attention-getters. People remember visuals much
more than they do words.
The following options are available for technical oral presentations:
- Overhead transparencies
- Slides
- Flip charts
- Chalkboard
- Handouts
- Computer screen projection (PowerPoint)
Capture the interest of your audience from the beginning
make your opening comments strong. Never begin with an apology.
Remember that it takes a few minutes for an audience to
establish a relationship with a new speaker: do not begin with key
information. You might say what your talk is about and show a
transparency with the title on it. This allows the audience to settle
in. After these preliminaries, you should introduce your topic.
Make sure your listeners are clear about whatever the basic
problem or issue is. If necessary, provide background information
and define essential terms. In the introduction you should:
1. Explain the structure of your talk.
2. Set out the aims and objectives of the presentation.
3. Explain your approach to the topic.
11.6 GUIDELINES
Generally, the better prepared you are, the better your presentation
will be.
TIPS:
Although you might never have the advantage of a
professional speechwriter, as President Kennedy undoubtedly did,
you can follow these guidelines to reduce nervousness and
increase the effectiveness of your presentation:
11.6.1. Research your topic. Choose a topic and collect the data
to back up your message or convince your audience. You might not
use all the data, but keep them with you for questions from the
audience.
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11.6.2. Analyse your audience. Determine their level of technical
background. Anticipate what your audience wants to know about
the topic and what the audience intends to do with the information.
Anticipate possible questions (general and technical) and prepare
for them.
To help you think about your audience ask yourself...
Who are they?
How many will be there?
Do they have any prior knowledge of the subject?
What are their age, sex, and level of ability?
Why are they there?
What are their needs?
What do they need to know?
The presentation will be a failure if the audience does not
understand it. Therefore, you should aim to make your message
clear and easy to understand.
11.6.3. Outline your message. State the main point you want to
make in one sentence. Then write the supporting points you want to
make in a bulleted list. Sequence them in the order that makes
sense for your purpose.
11.6.4. Use a multimedia approach. Most people are poor
listeners, so provide visual aids for them to see and read. Handouts
or transparencies not only visually organize and reinforce your
message, but add interest, as well.
11.6.5. Rehearse the speech out loud. When you recite your
speech, you can work out exact wording and possibly discover
areas within the topic that need more research. Time yourself Not
only will you know, but you can inform others, if asked, of the time
allotment needed. You can rehearse in front of the mirror (good for
practicing facial expressions, as well), while driving the car, or at
the front of an empty room. If possible, ask someone to listen and
give you feedback. Ask the person to note any signs of
nervousness, such as tight facial expressions or fiddling with hair or
glasses.
11.6.6. Arrive early. Get comfortable in the room, take some deep
breaths, and arrange your notes and visual aids. If you plan to use
any electronic equipment, make sure it works and you know how to
turn it on, to reduce stress, many professional trainers carry vital
supplies in their briefcases, including their own markers, masking
tape, and even an extra bulb for a projector. Greet people as they
arrive, making eye contact and starting to establish rapport. For
smaller audiences, this might be an opportunity to learn some of
261
the names and backgrounds of your audience. Write down a few
names in your notes, especially key people, so you can address
people by name, if needed.
11.6.7. Start with an introduction. Instead of launching into the
body of your speech, take a few minutes to introduce yourself and
your subject and orient your audience to the scope of your speech.
Experienced speakers include a "springboard motivator," such as
an anecdote, question, or activity that captures the interest and at-
tention of the audience and gets them involved with the subject.
11.6.8. Use note cards or your visual aids to keep on track and
prevent from missing an important point. (But do not read your
speech from a script.)
11.6.9. Don't let questions digress from your main topic. If
someone in the audience asks a question that is unrelated to your
topic, or strays too far from the scope of your presentation, tactfully
ask the person to "hold that question" until the end of your
presentation. If you have time later, respond to the question. Also, if
you do not know the answer to a question, admit it, and establish
how you will follow up with the person. For example, ask for the
person's phone number or e-mail address. Or ask the person to
send you an e-mail with more details about the question.
11.6.10. End with a summary of your main points. Your closing
is an opportunity to reestablish your key points and show how they
logically lead to your conclusion. Do not throw in new points or re-
argue your prior points during your conclusionjust restate them
and close.
11.7 BODY LANGUAGE
Body language consists of all the nonverbal messages we
deliver to our audience. Nonverbal signals can be deliberate
actions to support a message. For example, public speakers might
pound a podium to emphasize a point, or walk into an audience to
increase audience participation. Tapping fingers signal impatience.
Clenched fists signal anger. Open, uplifted palms signal a need for
understanding or help. Waving arms signal intense emotion.
Other nonverbal messages can be physiological reactions to
situations that we cannot easily control. For example, when
someone is angry, lips get thinner, brows furrow, and faces get red
and warm (hence the expression "hothead"). When someone is
afraid, eyebrows go up, causing eyes to get wide ("wide-eyed with
fear").
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When the message delivered by body language contradicts
the spoken message, listeners remember the body language. This
means we must pay attention not only to what we say, but how we
say it. Our entire appearance adds to our message, including our
posture, where our eyes focus, how we move our hands, and how
close we get to the audience. The detailed explanation to the body
language is taken up in earlier chapter
.
Observe how professionals (actors or public speakers whom
you consider convincing) use facial expressions and hands
gestures to augment their words.
When you have written the content of your speech, you must
practice speaking in front of a mirror. While practice use verbal and
nonverbal expressions and gestures that support your message.
Record yourself using a video camera, or ask someone you trust, to
identify any distracting habits or mannerisms, such as words that
you might overuse (saying "OK" frequently), wringing your hands,
or fidgeting. Many times, we can break these habits just by
becoming aware of them.
This is where you have to deliver or present your message
to the audience. When you begin to speak, the audience will listen
carefully to what you say and watch closely how you perform. It is
important to understand that how you say something is just as
important as what you say.
Did you know?
The tone of your voice and your body language can account
for 65% of the message. Your body language (body movements)
can express your attitudes and thoughts.
Therefore pay attention to the following parts of your body:
11.7.1 Your voice
Speak slowly so that everyone can follow
Speak loudly so that everyone can hear
Speak clearly so that everyone can understand
Dont use slang (e.g. I aint)
11.7.2 Your face
Smile to give your audience reassurance and try not to look
confused, bored or scared.
Try to be yourself and natural.
11.7.3 Your eyes
You can build a good relationship with the audience by
looking at them when you are presenting your message. Looking at
someone when you are talking to them is called eye contact. Dont
read from your notes all the time.
263
Maintain eye contact with your audience. Move your eyes
slowly from person to person. Watch out for staring at one person
(which is bound to make that person uncomfortable) or staring at
only a part of the room (the rest of the room will feel left out and
possibly lose interest).
11.7.4 Your posture
Stand up straight and dont lean against objects.
Make sure you are not standing in the way of the visual aid.
Check that everyone can see the board.
11.7.5 Your hands
Dont play with objects e.g. a pen in your hand and dont
leave your hands in your pockets when you are talking.
Rest or fold your hands comfortably on the table or podium,
or hold an appropriate object, such as a pointer. This reduces the
chance that hand gestures will become distracting to listeners. With
experience, speakers learn to use natural hand gestures that
amplify the spoken message.
11.7.6 Your feet
Try not to walk up and down the room too much or tap your
feet when you are talking.
11.7.7 Your appearance
Dress appropriately for the presentation not too casual
(e.g. jeans). Remember to dress for the audience and not yourself.
Try to remember not to wear jewellery that might shine or move
about.
Smile occasionally, especially during introductions and
conclusions. Usually a genuine smile can lighten the intensity of
any information or news. It makes the speaker appear relaxed and
confident, and that relaxes listeners, as well.
11.7.8 Your attitude
Be enthusiastic about the subject you are presenting and be
confident. Try to stay calm and be professional!
11.8 VISUAL AIDS
Select the visual aids that are practical for you and
appropriate for your audience, including transparencies, slide
shows, videos, flip charts, eraser boards, demonstration models,
and handouts. Consider the following factors when making your
choice:
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11.8.1 Size of audience: As a general guideline: The larger the
audience, the larger the visual aids. People in the back of the room
want to see your visual aids. If you can't find a projection system to
do that, consider handouts. For smaller audiences, your choices
are broader.
11.8.2 Location and logistics: Consider the size of the room,
placement of chairs in the room, and equipment available. For
example, auditoriums usually have projectors and screens available
for far-away viewing. Other types of visual aids, such as flip charts
or demonstration models, might not be visible by people in the back
of a large room. Conference or seminar rooms, on the other hand,
are usually smaller and have flip charts, eraser boards, and
projectors readily available. All types of visual aids will be viewed
easily.
11.8.3 Subject matter: If your speech includes numerical data
(such as statistical results or budgets) or detailed drawings (such
as engineering drafts), provide the data on handouts for easier
viewingprojections of detailed items are difficult to read. Bulleted
lists of key points, however, are easily viewed on projections, flip
charts, or eraser boards.
11.8.4 Resources: Your resources, including software, hardware,
time, and materials. Make the best of what you have to create a
professional visual aid. If you have to learn a program or software
application to create visual aids, allow enough time for
experimentation.
11.8.5 Ambiance: Keep the audience, room, and subject matter in
mind when creating visual aids. For example, use a large enough
font for projections and transparencies that the people in the back
of the room can read them. If the audience can read your message
as well as hear it, you increase the chances that they'll remember it.
11.8.6 Multimedia: Multimedia presentation programs, such as
Microsoft PowerPoint and Lotus Freelance Graphics, can
incorporate photographs, slides, bulleted lists, and other text in
exciting colors, fonts, and formats. Depending on the hardware
available, you can project them on a screen from a computer or
print them as transparencies and hand-outs. These programs might
require a little training to use, although each contains ready-made
templates, from which you can quickly choose the style and format
for your presentation. If you are unfamiliar with the program, ask for
assistance from friends, classmates, or instructors to get started,
and allow a little practice time.
11.8.7 Additional Media: If no hardware will be available in the
room (no transparency projector or computer), create posters or flip
265
charts to take with you. You can hand-letter your lists and charts.
Or you can purchase templates for letters, or even paste computer-
created words and graphics for a more professional look.
11.8.8 Few additional Guidelines: Limit the scope of each visual
aid to one point. If you pack too much onto a projection or page, it
will be unreadable. Stick to one bulleted list, one chart, or one
graphic per page. Include key words or phrases, not entire
concepts.
If you want to interact with your audience, such as
brainstorming for ideas, use equipment that you can write on and
that will be visible to the audience, such as clear transparencies,
flip charts, or eraser boards. Be sure you have the correct markers
for each type. If you prefer, ask someone in the audience to write
on the board while you lead the discussion.
Demonstrate with actual objects, when possible. For
example, when discussing a software program, bring in a laptop
computer and show a pre developed and well-rehearsed
demonstration of the program. Or when discussing how to take
blood pressure (BP), bring in a BP cuff and demonstrate on a
member of the audience.
Remember that audiences stay more attentive if they
participate somehow. If time allows (sometimes it won't), ask for
personal experiences, questions, or demonstrationsthe audience
will feel more involved.
11.9 SUMMARY
11.10.1 Exercise
1. How far do you agree that presentation makes a great
difference in business organisation? Explain with reference to
significance of presentation in business.
2. What factors would you like to consider for framing presentation
for sales promotion?
3. List out the general factors to be considered for presentation.
4. Differentiate between presentation and speech.
5. What are the different forms of presentation? State their general
features.
6. What is the importance of visual aids in presentation?
7. To what extent the body language matters in oral presentation?
Illustrate it with suitable examples.
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11.10 EXERCISE
I. Draft presentations on the following topics:
1. Introduction of New Recurring Deposit Scheme of your
bank.
2. On New Life Insurance Policy
3. AIDS Awareness Campaign
4. Stress Management and Motivation For Employees
5. Health Awareness Program
6. The Progress of the Sale of New Product in Market
7. Need of Protecting Environment
8. The Importance of Communication In Business
9. The Water Conservation: A Need
10. The Leadership Skills

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12
ORAL COMMUNICATION
Unit Structure
12.1 Objectives
12.2 Introduction: Oral Communication Skills
12.3 Importance of Oral Communication in Business
12.4 Face to Face Communication
12.5 Telephone Communication
12.6 Communication with Visitors
12.7 Listening
12.8 Summary
12.9 Exercise
12.10 Exercises for Discussion
12.1 OBJECTIVES
To explain the importance of oral communication to
business
To Identify and give examples of the objectives of oral
communication
To describe the similarities and differences between face-to-
face oral communication and using the telephone
To explain the techniques for communicating with visitors
To identify and explain the techniques of effective listening
12.2 INTRODUCTION: ORAL COMMUNICATION
SKILLS
For successful communication, students require more
than the formal ability to present well and a range of formulaic
expressions. Successful communication is context dependent and
therefore embedded in its particular discourse community (Bizzell,
1989).
Oral communication reflects the persistent and powerful
role of language and communication in human society. As Halliday
(1978, p. 169 explains, communication is more than merely an
268
exchange of words between parties; it is a sociological
encounter (Halliday, p. 139) and through exchange of meanings in
the communication process, social reality is created, maintained
and modified (Halliday, p. 169). Such a capacity of language is
also evident in Austins (1962) earlier work on speech act theory
where, as cited by Clyne (1994, p. 2), language and thus
communication is a instrument of action. Speech act theory,
concerned with the communicative effect, that is, the function and
effect of utterances, dissects an utterance into three components:
the actual utterance (the locution); the act performed by the
utterance (the illocution); and the effect the act has on the hearer
(the perlocution). Searles (1969) work further defined speech acts
as directives, imperatives, requests, and so on.
Communication is a dynamic interactive process that
involves the effective transmission of facts, ideas, thoughts,
feelings and values. It is not passive and does not just happen; we
actively and consciously engage in communication in order to
develop information and understanding required for effective group
functioning. It is dynamic because it involves a variety of forces and
activities interacting over time. The word process suggests that
communication exists as a flow through a sequence or series of
steps. The term process also indicates a condition of flux and
change. The relationships of people engaged in communication
continuously grow and develop.
Communication is an exchange of meaning and
understanding. Meaning is central to communication.
Communication is symbolic because it involves not only words but
also symbols and gestures that accompany the spoken words
because symbolic action is not limited to verbal communication.
Communication is an interactive process. The two communication
agents involved in the communication process are sender (S) and
receiver (R). Both the communication agents exert a reciprocal
influence on each other through interstimulation and response.
At its most basic level, oral communication is the spoken
interaction between two or more people. The interaction is far more
complex than it seems. Oral communication is composed of
multiple elements which, when taken as a whole, result in the
success or failure of the interaction. Not everyone is an effective
communicator.
In order to function successfully academically and
professionally, one needs to learn effective oral communication
skills. For many, conversational speech comes naturally.
However, in more formal speech, effective communication
skills are essential. A poorly conducted interview, sales
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presentation, or legal argument could have ramifications that affect
many more people than the speaker. By becoming an effective
communicator one will be able to conduct himself in a variety of
personal, professional, and academic environments with
confidence.
Oral communication is a unique and learned rhetorical skill
that requires understanding what to say and how to say it. Unlike
conversational speech, speech in more formal environments does
not come naturally. What should be learnt is how to critically think
about how to present oneself as a speaker in all occasions and
then how to function in a variety of speaking environments?
Oral communication can take many forms, ranging from
informal conversation that occurs spontaneously and, in most
cases, for which the content cannot be planned, to participation in
meetings, which occurs in a structured environment, usually with a
set agenda.
As a speaker there are several elements of oral
communication of which one needs to be aware in order to learn
how to use them to his advantage. Apart from the language used
for communication, there are several others elements which the
speaker should learn to communicate effectively. The Skills are eye
contact, body language, style, understanding the audience,
adapting to the audience, active and reflexive listening, politeness,
precision, conciseness, etc. At tertiary level it is assumed that the
learners know the basics of the language. At this level teaching
speaking skills is irrelevant.
12.3 IMPORTANCE OF ORAL COMMUNICATION IN
BUSINESS
Oral communication constitutes the bulk of all
communication. Most0 authorities agree that people on the job,
including secretaries, spend an average of about 75 percent of their
communication time either speaking or listening. Most secretaries
work in jobs demanding well-developed oral communication skills.
Oral communication plays two important roles in business:
It establishes the procedures for accomplishing whatever
needs to be done. People usually discuss problems and
solutions before deciding on a course of action.
Oral communication helps establish human relationships.
Office conversations help people understand each other and
make working together enjoyable.
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12.3.1 Advantages of Oral Communication
Oral communication has several advantages over written
communication for most day-to-day, routine transactions:
Oral communication is faster: Two or more people talking can
deliver a message, discuss an issue, reach an agreement, or
ask a question and receive an answer much more quickly
than they could using written communication.
Oral communication permits immediate feedback: When the
receiver does not understand a message, he or she can ask
for clarification right away.
Oral communication a usually more effective for conveying
messages with emotional content: When people
communicate orally, the message consists of more than the
spoken words. A nonverbal message accompanies every oral
communication. Facial expressions, body movements,
gestures, tone of voice, rate of speech, and voice inflection
all add meaning to the words actually spoken. These
nonverbal components help the receiver interpret the
emotional significance of the message.
Oral communication helps establish human relationships:
Through oral communication, people working together are
able to develop team spirit and a sense of mutual
responsibility. By communicating with each other orally,
people are able to improve each other's morale.
12.3.2 Formal and Informal Speaking Situations
In general, oral communication directly related to
organizational objectives, tends to be formal. That related to
establishing human relationships tends to be informal. Compare, for
example, a job interview with a typical morning conversation
between a secretary and supervisor. In the job interview,
interviewer and interviewee communicate within a framework of
well-established rules. The questioning-and-answer format of most
interviews helps interviewer and interviewee achieve their
objectives, but it affords little opportunity for establishing an
interpersonal relationship. Because of the need to proceed
carefully, interviewer and interviewee tend to be formal with each
other. They select words carefully; they stick to the subject. They
do not permit themselves to relax and simply enjoy each other's
company.
The morning conversation between supervisor and
secretary may also proceed along predictable lines, but, under
normal circumstances, neither worries about the results of the
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exchange or about what to say next. Business and personal
matters are discussed interchangeably. In such an atmosphere,
people can converse in a casual, comfortable way.
As a secretary, you will need to distinguish between formal
and informal communication situations. To be formal when
informality is called for is to be considered uncaring; to be informal
when formality is required is to be considered unprofessional. This
chapter discusses formal oral communication situations. Chapters
18 and 19 discuss human relations and interpersonal
communication skills.
12.4 FACE TO FACE COMMUNICATION
Just as each written communication has a specific objective
to achieve, oral communication also has specific objectives. These
objectives fall into three separate categories: asking questions,
giving information, and persuading,
12.4.1 Asking Questions
Much oral communication consists of asking questions and
providing answers. Most questions asked in the office environment
are informal. You will ask questions as they occur to you without
worrying about how your listener might interpret them. For example,
while arranging office furniture, you might ask or be asked, "Should
we move the filing cabinet to- the east wall?" Few people would
look for hidden meanings in such questions, and questions of this
sort rarely present problems.
Questions in formal communication situations, however, can
cause difficulties. In formal situations, questions are often perceived
as threatening. The person answering the questions may resent the
other person for asking them. For example, you might be assigned
the job of finding out and reporting on how office personnel
perceive a new executive in the organization. To complete your
assignment, you would need to ask a series of questions of the
office workers. When you are fared with a formal communication
situation in which you'll need to ask the other person questions, try
to keep the following guidelines in mind:
Ask questions rather than make statements: As obvious as this
advice seems, too often people attempt to obtain information by
making statements. Statements that require the other person to
provide information are usually perceived as more threatening
than a polite question requesting the same information. "Where
did you grow up?" is less threatening than "Tell me a bit about
yourself." Also, statements made in the hope of eliciting
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information are often less specific than questions. "I would like
to know about your job at Exxon" is less specific than, "What
were your job duties at Exxon?"
Ask essential questions only: Most people resent answering
several questions in a row. Each new question appears more
threatening than the last. When possible, keep the number of
questions to a minimum. When you must ask several questions,
take the time to explain why you want the information. Also,
provide positive feedback after each question to reassure the
other person, Be sure to ask the easy questions first. Questions
that can be answered with short answers should come before
difficult questions requiring complex answers.
Avoid deliberately threatening questions: Questions that make
the other person feel defensive will reduce both the amount and
the quality of the information you will obtain. (See Chapter 19,
pages 502-504, for specific examples of questions to ask and
those to avoid.)
Provide positive reinforcement for helpful answers: Let the other
person know that she or he has been helpful. Thank the other
person, and provide appropriate explanations of your need for
the information.
12.4.2 Giving Information
As is true with asking questions, giving information rarely
presents problems in informal situations. If you' asked an informal
question and the other person doesn't understand your response,
the other person will say so and give you another opportunity to
answer. In informal situations, speaker and "audience" agree to
share the responsibility for effective communication. In formal
situations, however, the responsibility for effective communication
lies with the person for whom the communication is more important.
Formal situations also require a person to speak for a longer time
than is usually required by the questions and answers of informal
situations.
When you have the responsibility for presenting information
in a formal situation, your presentation will be more effective if you
keep the following guidelines in mind:
Be aware of the audience: Why should your listeneror
listenersbe interested in the information you are presenting?
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What does your audience know already about your topic? How
much detail does your audience need to solve the problem?
Because people have a natural inclination to present information
from their own point of view, emphasizing those things that arc
interesting to themselves, they sometimes tend to forget that the
audience may not share their interests. Try to .select and
provide information that will he of most interest to the audience.
Make specific points. Just as you are likely to obtain more and
better information by asking specific questions, you are likely to
be better understood if you make clear and specific points.
When possible, make u list of the most important points before
you begin trying to speak so that you will be sure to include
everything you want to say. Avoid undermining your point of
view with contradictory phrases ("I'm probably \\rong, but . . ." or
"It's probably not important, but . . .").
Provide clear transitions from point to point; because much oral
communication depends on chronological or spatial
relationships, listeners need to know what those relationships
are. Use transitional words and phrases to clarify the
relationships between your points. The following words and
phrases can help orient a listener:
first, second, third
next, thus, however
then, later
in two weeks, two weeks ago
turn right at the second light
after completing step two
a small town near Indianapolis
before turning off the machine
12.4.3 Persuading
Most of us do some persuading every day. In our daily
conversations, we frequently need to convince others that our point
of view is correct or persuade them to do something they wouldn't
ordinarily do. As a rule, the (act that we want them to think or do
something is not enough.
To persuade someone, you have to convince him or her that
doing as you suggest will be to her or his benefit as well as your
own. As is true for asking questions and giving information, the
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listener's point of view is important. That is, what does the listener
currently believe? What is the listener currently doing in place of the
action you would like the listener to perform? How will the listener
benefit from believing what you say or from doing as you ask?
Concentrate on those beliefs and actions related to the topic
for persuasion. You won't, for example, need to know the religious
beliefs of the secretarial personnel in your organization to persuade
them to change their procedures for records management.
When you wish to persuade, find out as much as you can
about your listeners current beliefs, actions, and perceived benefits
before you attempt to influence his or her opinion or course of
action. In some cases you may be able to learn all you need to
know by asking some informal questions of a few members of the
group you wish to persuade. In other cases, you may need to
distribute a questionnaire to group members to discover their
attitudes. Instill other cases, you may have to infer their attitudes
based on what you do know about them. However you learn what
you can about your audiences attitudes and current actions, that
knowledge gives you the starting point for Your persuasive
Message.
Think of persuading as a journey; you wish to lead your
audience from where they are now to where you wish them to be.
You are responsible for leading then,-merely describing the
destination is not enough. Some of your listeners may move quickly
from one point to the next; so may not move at all. But unless you
make the trip with them, beginning at a point they are ready to
accept and moving carefully from point to point at a pace they are
willing to accept, none of them will reach the destination you desire.
In asking for and providing information, you have the right to
expect the other person to cooperate in the communication
process. Most people will be as helpful as they can be. In a
persuasive situation, however, the person who wishes to persuade
must assume full responsibility for the success or failure of the
communication. The other person under no obligation is to be
persuaded. In fact, the other person may feel obligated to resist
being persuaded. When you communicate to persuade, you'll need
to overcome the other persons natural inclination to resist.
Persuading orally requires many of the same techniques
written persuasion (see pages 224-226). When the situation is
informal, you'll omit many of the details you would need to
persuade in a formal situation. Its easier, for example, to persuade
a friend to join you for lunch than it is to persuade an executive to
invest in a new piece of office equipment. Because the investment
is small and the benefit is obvious, your friend should be easy to
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persuade. The investment for the executive, however, is larger, and
more risk is involved. To persuade the executive, you would need
to provide specific details about the benefits and prove that those
benefits would be realized.
12.5 TELEPHONE COMMUNICATION
Talking on the telephone is not the same as talking with
someone facet of While the telephone is an extremely useful device
for bringing two or people together, some of the communication is
lost since nonverbal behavior cannot be observed. In face-to-face
situations, body language and facial expressions help people
interpret each other's messages. In telephone conversations, the
words themselves and the tone of voice must do all the work.
12.5.1 Using the Phone
Because most people have grown up with telephones, they
tend to think of themselves as experts in their use. And, to a great
extent, techniques learned through trial and error are correct.
Proper business use of a telephone is not all that different from
proper personal use. Identifying yourself clearly and distinctly,
being polite, and being sensitive to the other person's needs are
important regardless of whether the call is for personal or business
reasons.
In business, the telephone serves as a public relations
agent for your organization. Callers may form their entire impress
on of your organization based on their conversations with you n the
telephone. Your voice, manners, and discretion should all indicate
that you and your company will make good business associates.
Your voice should show that you are alert, pleasant, and
natural. Use your normal speaking range. Avoid speaking too loudly
or too softly. Speak at a moderate rate, neither too fast nor too
slow, and .speak distinctly. In face-to-face communication, people
watch each others eyes and mouths to supplement the oral
messages. The added communications elements help clarify words
that might otherwise be misunderstood. In a telephone
conversation, each word must be clear so it can be understood
without the additional visual cues.
Manners The common courtesies of please and thank you
are even more important in telephone conversations than they are
in person. In face-to-face situations, your smile may substitute for a
thank you, and the other person will still understand your message.
Over the telephone, however, the only way the other person will
know that you appreciate her or his business is by stating your
appreciation explicitly.
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Make sure that you know the other person's name. If you
miss it the first time, ask him or her to repeat it-and to spell it, if
necessary. Write it down, and use it in the conversation from time
to time.
Give the person to whom you are talking your full attention.
Avoid sounding hurried. You should give the caller the feeling that
she or he is your most important business at the moment. When
the other person talks, you must listen carefully. When you talk, be
as pleasant and as cheerful as possible. Put a smile in your voice.
Avoid side comments and conversations with others while a
person is waiting on the line. If you must leave the line to obtain
information or to handle other business, give the other person the
option of holding or having y on return the call. Use the hold button
if your telephone has one. If sour telephone does not have a hold
button, lay the receiver down gently. Remember that if the line is
"open," the other person will be able to hear much of what you say
even though you may not be next to the telephone. Return to the
phone promptly. If you need to be away from the phone for are than
a few minutes, tell the other person that you will call back as soon
as possible.
Discretion Remember that every time you talk on the
telephone, you represent the company to the person on the other
end of the line. Your telephone manners and behavior will form an
image of the entire organization in the other person's mind. The
image you should give a of efficiency and helpfulness. Avoid the
impression that your organization is run in a haphazard fashion.
Compare, for example, the different impressions that result from the
following responses
"I'm sorry. but 1 can't find Mr. Milton anywhere. I can't imagine
where could be."
"I m sorry, but Mr. Milton has gone home for the day."
"Air. Milton is not in his office at the moment. May 1 take a
message?"
Alone with using discretion about conveying the right
company image, be sure to use discretion in discussing sensitive
information. The telephone may lull you into a sense of privacy and
confidentiality, but private matters should normally be reserved for
face-to-face conversations.
12.5.2 Receiving Calls
When your telephone rings, answer it promptly. Try to
answer on the first ring. Your promptness shows your caller that
you take her or his call seriously and helps establish your
reputation for efficiency.
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Personalize the call by identifying yourself. You may answer
with your name rather than the customary "hello" used to answer a
home telephone. If you share a telephone line with others in your
department, give the department name as well:
"Personnel Department, Janice Churay."
"Credit Office, Michelle speaking."
If you answer the telephone for someone else, give the
name of the other person as well as your own:
"Ms. Steven's office, Ted lo- speaking."
In addition to observing good manners, try to be as helpful
as possible. Handle the call yourself if you can. When it is
necessary to transfer a call, explain why the transfer is necessary
and make sure that the person calling wants to be transferred. If the
person would rather have someone return the call, make the proper
arrangements to have the appropriate person call with the correct
information.
Be prepared to take accurate messages. Whether the call is
for you or for someone else, you'll need to keep a record of the call
until all business associated with it is complete. Record the date,
time, name of the person calling, the name of the company
represented, the other person's telephone number, and the purpose
of the call. Most companies provide forms similar to that shown in
Figure 10.1 for recording messages for someone else in your office.
When you are taking notes for yourself, use a clean 8'/s x 11 inch
piece of paper to keep an curate record of the conversation. File it,
or use it to prepare any necessary follow-up correspondence.
12.5.3 Placing Calls
Before you place a telephone call-prepare. Make sure that
you have the correct number, including area code, number, and
extension number. Use the telephone directory-when necessary,
and follow the correct procedures for placing local and long-
distance calls. Have your notepaper and pen handy. Be prepared to
take notes covering the important aspects of the conversation.
Remember that unless you have been specifically invited to
call at a particular meeting or other activity. Be prepared to have to
call back or to wait for your party to return your call. Also,
remember time differences when placing long-distance calls. Most
telephone directories contain a map showing the four time zones in
the continental United States so that you can make sure that you a
calling at a convenient time. If your company does business in
Europe or Asia, you will need to be familiar with appropriate calling
times for those in other countries as well.
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12.6 COMMUNICATION WITH VISITORS
Most secretarial positions require communicating with
visitors to the organization. Whether one is working as a
receptionist, whose chief responsibility is to greet visitors, or as an
administrative assistant, who may see visitors on regular basis
only, communicating with visitors is an important public relations
function. Visitors will form their impression of your organization
based on your appearance and the way you treat them.
Ideally, visitors should be greeted by a receptionist in a
specially designed receiving area. The receptionist has the
responsibility of checking credentials (if appropriate) and ensuring
that the visitor is directed to the appropriate person or office.
Visitors with appointments should not have to wait long before
seeing the person they are scheduled to see. Waiting makes mast
people feel uncomfortable and resentful. If an emergency has
occurred, the visitor should be told what has happened and how
long the wait is likely to be. The appointment should be
rescheduled if the visitor prefers to return rather than wait.
Visitors without appointments .should be treated
courteously and according to individual policies. That is, .some
supervisors maintain an "open door" policy and will. see people as
they arrive. Others prefer to see only those who have scheduled
appointments in advance. Visitors without appointments. should
recognize that they are likely to have to wait longer than they would
have if they had made appointments.
Whether the visitor is scheduled o unscheduled, the
secretary or receptionist is responsible for making the guest feel
welcome, much as you would try to make a guest feel welcome in
your home. You should show the visitor where to hang her or his
coat, provide coffee when appropriate, and tell the visitor how long
the wait will be. Some visitors may prefer to leave messages than
to wait, and you should be prepared to take the message and to
ensure that it reaches the appropriate person. Once you have
made the visitor comfortable, you should return to your regular
office work.
You should make an effort to learn the names and faces of
regular visitors and to develop an intuitive understanding of which
people various supervisors would prefer to see (even when they
don't have appointments) and which they would prefer to avoid
seeing. Regular visitors will appreciate being remembered.
Unscheduled visitors who are impatient about having to wait
and those your supervisor would prefer not to see need to be
handled firmly but politely. When possible, make an appointment
279
for these individuals at a time your supervisor would be willing to
see them. For others, you may need to discuss an appointment
with you, supervisor before informing them. Promise to ask your
supervisor and to call with information about an appointment as
soon as you
Some organizations and offices require receptionists and
secretaries to keep a record of visitors either for reasons of security
or for billing purposes. Many manufacturing firms, for example, are
in the process of developing products or processes that should
remain confidential. Visitors to those plants will need to be
screened. Additionally, such visitors may require temporary
identification cards and perhaps even a full-time escort while they
are on the premises. Doctors, lawyers, and many consultants also
require a record of visitors so that they can keep accurate time logs
for billing purposes.
Secretaries have the responsibility of introducing the visitor
to the super-r. In general, when you are introducing two people, you
should name the person of a higher rank ,,told,, person first:
"Mr. Important. may I introduce Mr. Less Important."
The main exception to this rule is that when you are
introducing a woman and a man, the woman should be named first,
regardless of rank or age
"Ms. Smith, may 1 present Mr. Jones."
The table below provides the basic rules for introductions:
Introduction First Name
Distinguished visitor and
Supervisor
Distinguished visitor
Official (political or religious)
and Supervisor
Official
Woman and man Woman
Older person and younger
person
Older person
Individual and group Individual
12.7 LISTENING
Oral communication requires re than speaking. Listening is
actually far more important for effective oral communication than
speaking is. But most people do not listen very efficiently in spite of
the great amount of time they spend listening. Unlike hearing.
which is a passive process, listening is an active process. You hear
words, but you listen for meaning. Whether the communication
situation is a face-to-face conversation, a small group discussion,
280
or a public lecture, effective listening requires concentration. To be
able to listen effectively, you will need to overcome any barriers to
the listening process and to develop specific techniques for
listening efficiently.
12.7.1 Barriers to Effective Listening
Anything that interferes with the ability to listen is a barrier.
While not all barriers to effective listening can be controlled, you
can overcome many by becoming aware of them and by working to
compensate for the difficulties. Barriers can be either internal
(caused by your attitudes or state of being) or external (caused by
factors often beyond your control). The following barriers are the
most common:
Internal Barriers External Barriers
Assumptions
Cultural difference
Emotions
Prejudices
Semantics
Social differences
Distractions (e.g., accents,
interruptions, Attitudes volume
changes)
Hearing loss
Physical condition (e.g., fatigue,
hunger
As you can see, you might be faced with the problem of
overcoming several barriers in anyone listening situation. For
example, in a small group discussion you would need to listen very
carefully to a person from different social group who speaks with an
accent. Furthermore, if that Pearson represents a radically different
viewpoint from your own, and you both hungry and tired while the
meeting is taking place, and the meeting room is noisy, you will
have to work very hard to ensure that you receive the message the
other person intends to send. In such situations, it is easy to give in
to prejudices and assume you understand the other person, when
actually you don't.
12.7.2 Techniques for Effective Listening
Before you can listen effectively, you must want to know
what the other per-on is saying badly enough to expend the energy
required to listen. Effective listening is usually an eight-step process
that begins before the listening situation occurs and continues after
the situation has concluded. These steps are preparation,
concentration, summarization, anticipation, exploration, clarification,
note taking, and evaluation.
Preparation The amount of preparation you need to do to
listen effectively naturally vanes from situation to situation. Informal
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face-to-fare conversations, for example, may not require
preparation beyond your knowing that its important to listen
carefully. A formal, public lecture, on the other hand, may require
that you prelisting by reading about the subject so that you will be
familiar with basic concepts and the terminology the speaker will
use. Preparation also includes considering any barriers that might
interfere with the listening process and, as far as possible,
eliminating or minimizing them.
Concentration Most people would rather talk than listen to
somebody else. Too often, instead of listening to what the other
person is saying, people are busy thinking about what they are
going to say just as soon as they can get a word in edgewise. The
most important aspect of effective listening is paying attention to
what the speaker is actually saying. Whenever you are involved in
an important listening situation, identify the central subject matter
and the speaker's organizational pattern. Formal speeches are
usually arranged either inductively (specific facts followed by
conclusions) or deductively (generalizations supported by specific
facts). Informal conversations and discussions usually proceed by
association (idea to related idea) or m chronological order,
As an aid to concentration, identify each point as evidence
(specific facts) or conclusions (generalizations or inferences).
Focus on the message, not the speaker. Remind yourself from time
to time that if you truly understand the other person, you'll be in a
better position to reply effectively.
12.7.2.1 Summarization
To understand what someone else has said, we need to be
able to grasp the message in its entirety. As the speaker talks
assign one or two key words to each main point. Use the key words
to help you review what the speaker has said. In some listening
situations, it may be worthwhile to restate the message in your own
words so that the speaker can evaluate how much of her or his
message you have understood.
12.7.2.2 Anticipation
During a speaker's pause in presentation, ask yourself what
the speaker is likely to say next. Whether you guess correctly or
not, this will help you concentrate on the message as it is delivered.
Because we can think much faster than others can talk, w needs to
use that extra speed to help us focus on and remember the
message. Summarization and anticipation are two methods of
putting that extra speed to practical use.
12.7.2.3 Exploration
Because nobody communicates, perfectly, the important
aspects of a message are sometimes distorted, concealed, or
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omitted completely from a message. You may need to explore both
what has been said and what has not been said to uncover the real
meaning of a message. This is especially true when the message is
an emotional one. People find it difficult to acknowledge their
feelings, especially when they feel threatened or fearful. In such a
situation, you need to listen between the lines to discover the
meaning behind the message. Listen for emotionally charged words
that indicate an absence of facts to support the conclusion the
speaker wants you to draw. Ask yourself how you feel about the
subject being discussed. What do you know about it already? Do
you agree or disagree with the speaker? In what way do your
feelings and previous knowledge of the subject influence your
reaction to the speaker? Do you know of additional facts that either
support or contradict the speaker? Does the speaker have a valid
point in spite of a poor presentation?
Clarification when you have the opportunity to ask questions
to clarify what the speaker means, do so. One of the best ways to
see whether you have understood the message is to summarize
what you think the other person has said and ask him or her
whether you have summarized accurately and fairly. This technique
especially useful when differences of opinion are strong and
emotions may interfere with effective listening. In less emotionally
charged situations, asking questions is useful to ensure that you
have under-stood the speaker's language. You can often overcome
a semantic barrier by asking a speaker to explain what she or he
means by a particular word or phrase.
12.7.2.4 Note Taking
When you need to remember the message for any length of
time, take notes. As you recall, one of the important advantages of
a written message is that it provides a permanent record. Oral
messages are distorted rather quickly by time. If it is important for
you to have an accurate record of the message, listen carefully for
main points and supporting evidence. And write them down. In
most situations, it will not be possible for you to take down every
word a speaker utters and at the same time listen carefully to the
content of the message. Notes should be taken. Sparingly, using
the key words youve selected for your summary. As soon after the
discussion or speech as possible, review your notes and prepare
more complete summary. If you require a complete transcript, use a
tape recorder.
12.7.2.5 Evaluation
An accurate, fair evaluation of the message is possible only after
1. You've heard the speech or discussion in its entirety.
2. You've had a chance to question the speaker about points
needing clarification.
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3. You've made sure that barriers have not distorted your
perception of the message.
Thus, before you can assess the usefulness of the material
or make a sensible reply, you need to ensure that you've
understood the message and the speakers intent. In your
evaluation, ask yourself whether you agree or disagree and what
evidence supports the speaker's point of view. What evidence
counters the speaker's point of view? How can you benefit from
agreeing with the speaker? Will the benefits that might result
outweigh the costs? Affair and thorough evaluation will help you
make the best response possible.
12.8 SUMMARY
Oral communication constitutes the bulk of all
communication and is important to business for two reasons. First,
oral communication helps establish procedures for meeting
objectives. Second, oral communication helps establish human
relationships. The advantages of oral communication are that it is
faster than written communication, permits immediate feedback, is
more effective for conveying messages with emotional content, and
helps establish human relationships. Oral communications should
be organized to achieve the specific objectives of asking questions,
giving information, and persuading.
Talking on the telephone is not the same as talking with
someone face to face. Face-to-face communication supplements
the spoken word with a wide variety, of nonverbal cues that help
the listener understand the speaker. 1u a telephone conversation,
each word must be understood without the addition of visual cues,
so the speaker must be careful to speak distinctly and at a
moderate rate. Telephone use requires good manners and
discretion so that the listener will not draw the wrong conclusion or
overhear remarks intended for others.
Listening is just as important to effective oral communication
as speaking. Listening, your source of information is an active
mental process. To listen effectively, you need to be aware of and
overcome internal and external barriers you may have and practice
the techniques of effective listening. These techniques include
preparation, concentration, summarization, anticipation,
exploration, clarification, note taking, and evaluation.
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12.9 EXERCISE
1. Why is oral communication important to business?
2. What are the main advantages oral communication has over
written communication for most day-to-day, routine
transactions?
3. What are the general and specific objectives of oral
communications in business?
4. What arc the differences between a face-to-face conversation
and a telephone conversation?
5. Who would you introduce first, your supervisor or a
distinguished visitor? Ms. Wilson, a reporter, or your supervisor?
6. List five internal barriers to effective listening. List three external
barriers.
7. What are the techniques required for effective listening?
12.10 EXERCISES FOR DISCUSSION
1. Under what circumstances would you prefer to deliver a
message orally rather than in writing? Why?
2. Describe typical formal and informal oral communication
situations with which a secretary should be familiar. Would
you be effective in these situations? Explain your answer.
3. Is it easier to lie when talking with someone face-to-face or
on the phone? Why or why not?
4. How do nonverbal messages influence people in a face-to-
face conversation?
5. What special dangers do telephone communication present
for the secretary? How can these be avoided?
6. Why is it important to prepare for incoming and outgoing
calls?
7. What method of preparing notes for a speech do you prefer?
Why?
8. If 40 people all hear the same speech, will they interpret it
the same way? Explain your answer.
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12.10.1 Exercise: Problems
1. Attend a public speech or lecture. Write a summary of the
speech and analyze the speaker's purpose; the audience;
the organization or the subject; the external barriers; the
speaker's delivery; and your internal barriers.
2. Prepare and deliver a 5-minute formal presentation on a
business topic of your choice (for example, sell a product,
present a new business concept, or demonstrate a new
procedure).









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13
Unit VI
MECHANICS OF WRITING
(TRANSITION WORDS, SPELLING
RULES AND HYPHENATION)
Unit Structure
13.1 Objectives
13.2 Introduction: Transition Words
13.3 Introduction: English Spelling Rules
13.4 Understanding English spelling
13.5 General Spelling Rules
13.6 Hyphenation
13.7 Summary
13.8 Exercise
13.1 OBJECTIVES
To understand the methods of mechanics of writing
To learn the art of an effective use of transition words
To learn the various spelling rules in general
To learn the art of hyphenation
13.2 INTRODUCTION: TRANSITION WORDS
Transition words are connecting words or phrases that act
like bridges between parts of your writing. They link your sentences
and paragraphs together smoothly so that there are no abrupt
jumps or breaks between ideas. Transition words act like signposts
to indicate to the reader the order and flow of your writing and
ideas. They strengthen the internal cohesion of your writing. Using
transitions makes it easier for the reader to follow your ideas. They
help carry over a thought from one sentence to another, from one
paragraph to another, or from one idea to another.
There are several different transition words. Some lead your
reader forward and imply the building of an idea or thought, while
others make your reader compare ideas or draw conclusions from
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the preceding thoughts. The following words and phrases can be
used to indicate transitions and to curb your reader about how
ideas are logically connected in your writing.
13.2.1 To Introduce an Example:
especially in this case take the case of
for example one example of this is to demonstrate
for instance on this occasion to illustrate
frequently specifically
13.2.2 To Show Agreement
of course admittedly it is true that
certainly no doubt
13.2.3 To Introduce an Additional Idea
additionally as well as in addition
again besides moreover
also equally important one could also say
and finally nor
and then further not to mention
another furthermore
13.2.4 To show Cause and Effect
and so consequently therefore
as a consequence for this reason thus
as a result hence
13.2.5 To Summarise or Conclude
as a result in conclusion therefore
as shown in other words thus
consequently in summary to conclude
finally on the whole to summarise
hence summing up ultimately
in brief
13.2.6 To Compare (similarity to what has preceded)
also in the same way both . . . and . . .
likewise correspondingly similarly
equally too
13.2.7 To Show Sequence of Thought
Now regarding turning to
with respect/regard to
13.2.8 To Show Time
after a while now afterwards
once at last presently at that time
previously at the same time shortly
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before simultaneously currently since
earlier soon eventually subsequently finally then
formerly thereafter in the meantime
until in the past until now
initially whenever later while
meanwhile
13.2.9 To Show Reference (refers back to previous sentences)
and mainly as follows
mostly chiefly namely
for instance notably for example
or in other words particularly
in particular such as including
that is
13.2.10 To Show Example
for example for instance such as
to illustrate as an illustration to demonstrate
13.2.11 To Show Result (expresses the consequence or
result from what is implicit in the preceding
sentence or sentences)
accordingly now as a result so
as a consequence so that because of
the consequence is consequently the result is
for this/that reason then hence
therefore in order that thus
13.2.12 To Indicate Place
above in front adjacent
in the background at the side in the foreground
behind there below to the left
elsewhere to the right here
13.2.13 To Express Reformulation (expresses something
in another way)
better in other words in that case
rather that is that is to say
to put it (more) simply
13.2.14 To Show Replacement
Again alternatively another possibility would be
better/worse still on the other hand rather
the alternative is
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13.3 INTRODUCTION: ENGLISH SPELLING RULES
There are about half a million words in the English
language. Even though it uses 26 letters for about 44 sounds, many
of its words are not spelt the way they sound. There are historical
reasons for this.
English began as an Indo-European Teutonic dialect, but
during the past millennium it has been subject to changes within the
language itself, as well as the influences of many other languages.
The early form of English (or Anglo-Saxon) was more
phonetically regular than Modern English. In the original English,
grammatical meaning was heavily dependent on word endings:
word order was less important. Some of these original features still
remain (e.g. oxoxen, manmen; mouse-mice). Over time, as word
order assumed greater importance, many of the word endings
dropped off. The silent e at the end of many English words is due to
this change.
After the introduction of Christianity and the Norman
invasion, large numbers of Latin and French words entered the
language. Because the Anglo-Saxon language had many sounds
that were not found in French, and also because French
handwriting was different from that used by the Anglo-Saxons,
some spelling compromises had to be made when writing the
language down. For example, the latter phenomenon led to the
introduction of the letter o in words like love, son, and women.
Regional variations in pronunciation have always been a
feature of English. Consistency in spelling is a comparatively recent
phenomenon. For example, as Anglo-Saxon moved towards Middle
English and into Elizabethan times, many words with i and e vowels
and the ae diphthongs changed.
In Shakespeares time, for example, the word reason was
pronounced raisin (as it still is in parts of the United Kingdom
today), which is why Shakespeare indulges in a play on words with
reasons and blackberries in Henry IV Since medieval times, English
has acquired thousands of new words from a variety of sources.
Many of these were derived from Latin and Greek, because of the
Renaissance.
Many were derived from the languages of communities
colonised by Britain. Following the industrial revolution, many new
words had to be made up.
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When scientific knowledge was growing in the early modern
age, Greek words were used as the basis for coining many new
scientific words. The Greek alphabet has some letter sounds that
the English alphabet does not have, such as phi, chi and psi. This
accounts for the non-phonetic spelling of a host of English words,
such as telephone, trachea and psychology.
With the invention of printing in the fifteenth century it
became necessary to standardise the way in which words were
spelt. Since then, the spelling of words has changed far less,
although with the use of American spelling checkers on computers,
there has been a pressure to Americanise the spelling of some
words.
13.4 UNDERSTANDING ENGLISH SPELLING
Writers need to understand English spelling, in order to spell
correctly. English spelling is a system which integrates phonetic
and morphemic patterns to produce meaning in writing.
Understanding phonetic patterns enables writers to spell those
words that have predictable sound-letter relationships, e.g. mat.
Morphemes are the smallest units of language that carry
meaning. The phonemes /b/, /a/ and /t/ together form the
morpheme /bat/. While the word bat carries some meaning, its
particular meaning depends on the context of its use. For example,
its meaning is different in each of the following:
I bought a cricket bat.
She went in to bat.
The bat spread its wings.
The ending -ing is also a morpheme, even though it carries
meaning only when it is bound to a word like bat, to make batting.
As you see, adding the -ing morpheme causes a change to the
other morpheme, in this case the doubling of the end consonant.
Fortunately, such morphemic changes are fairly regular in English,
which is why understanding morphemic patterns is another
important aspect of spelling knowledge. This is often the point of
spelling rules.
Understanding these features of the English language helps
writers to spell, because it is useful to remember that many of the
words that are difficult to spell have non-phonetic spellings for a
variety of reasons: their present spelling might reflect the way they
were pronounced many years ago (the word knight is an example)
or they might be borrowed from a foreign language (the word
charade, from French, is an example).
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Most of these features must be learnt as individual cases.
There is no consistent approach to what the English language does
with words borrowed from other languages. Either visual knowledge
or etymological knowledge is used in these instances.
The best way to learn how to spell the common word two
correctly is simply to learn that it looks like that, relying on visual
knowledge. On the other hand, the best way to learn how to spell
psychology correctly is to learn that it starts with the Greek letter psi
and has within it the other Greek letter chi, the same letter as in
Christmas. This demonstrates the importance of etymological
knowledge, not only for older students, but also for students at any
stage of learning when they need to learn the spelling of a
particular word.
13.5 GENERAL SPELLING RULES
13.5.1 Rule 1: i before e
Write i before e except after c or when sounding like a as in
neighbor and weigh.
Examples: believe, piece, priest,
"except after c"
Examples: receive deceive receipt
"or when sounding like a/as in neighbor and weigh"
Examples: reign feint freight
Exceptions: The exceptions to this rule:
9. The rule applies only when the ei/ie cluster is pronounced as
one syllable; it does not apply when the letters are divided
between two syllables, as in deity and science.
10. If the word is borrowed from a foreign language, then the rule
may not be applicable; examples are sheik and reichsmark.
11. Some words simply don't follow the rule; examples are heir,
height, and weird.
The following is a list of some of the exceptions to this rule.
Ancient caffeine codeine counterfeit
Either Fahrenheit financier height
Leisure neither prescience protein
Reveille seize sheik sleight
Stein surfeit their weird
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13.5.2 Rule 2 drop the final SILENT e
This rule concerns words that end in a silent e, such as make and
argue. When a suffix is added to a word ending in a silent e, drop
the e if the suffix begins with a vowel, for example -ing, -ile, ; keep
the e if the suffix begins with a consonant, for example, -ment, -ly, -
ful.
Example: word + suffix = new word
serve + -ile = servile
page + -ing = paging
educate + -ing = educating
rampage + -ed = rampaged
time + -ly = timely
atone + -ment = atonement
Exceptions: Once again, there are exceptions to this rule. Here are
a few of the exceptions:
argue + -ment = argument
due + -ly = duly
intervene + -tion = intervention
judge + -ment = judgement
true + -ly = truly
canoe + -ing = canoeing
convene + -tion = convention
13.5.3 Rule 3 : CHANGING y TO i
This rule applies when you add a suffix to a word that ends
in y. Change y to i before a suffix when the y is preceded by a
consonant. For example, apply + -ance = appliance. Do not change
y to i when the y is preceded by a vowel; for example, pay + -s
=pays.
Examples: word + suffix = new word
Flabby + -est = flabbiest
lazy + -er = lazier
byway + -s = byways
pray + -ed = prayed
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Exceptions:
1. If the suffix itself begins with an i, as in, -ing or -ine, then do
not change the y to i before adding the suffix.
Exa : word + suffix = new word
fry + -ing = frying
marry + -ing = marrying
worry + -ing = worrying
2. Certain irregular verbs have exceptions to this rule in their
past tense form. You can memorize the irregular past-tense
pattern of these three verbs:
Present Past
pay paid
say said
lay laid
13.5.4 Rule 4: Doubling the Final Consonant
This rule is very useful, but it is a bit more complicated than
the previous ones. You may find it a bit confusing, yet the rule is
worth studying, because it explains why there are two r's in
preferred, but only one in preference.
The rule for doubling a final consonant has three parts.
1. A final consonant may only be doubled before a suffix
beginning with a vowel; e.g., -ed, -ing.
2. The final consonant must be preceded by a single vowel,
e.g., get + -ing = getting
but greet + -ing = greeting.
3. The base word must either be only one syllable, sit, stop,
spit or it must have an accent on the final syllable when the
suffix has been added, beginning, occurrence, but not
reference, or development
An accented syllable is one that is emphasized or is the loudest
one you hear.
Examples- Double the consonant:
mop + -ing = mopping
begin + -ing = beginning
submit + -ed = submitted
tan + -ing = tanning
Do not double the consonant:
Jump + -ed = jumped
develop + -ing = developing
prefer + -ence = preference
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13.5.5 Rule 5: Spelling Rules for Regular Past Tense
Verbs
1. Add ed to the base form of most verbs
start started
finish finished
wash washed
2. Add only d when the base form ends in an e.
Live lived
Care cared
Die died
3. If the verb ends in a consonant + y, change the y to I and add
ed
Dry dried
Carry carried
Spy spied
4. If the verb ends in a vowel + y, do not change the y. Just add
ed
Pray prayed
Stay stayed
Destroy destroyed
5. If the verb has one syllable and ends in a consonant + vowel
+ consonant (CVC), double the final consonant and add ed.
Stop stopped
Rob robbed
Beg begged
6. Do not double final w or x.
Sew sewed
Mix mixed
7. If the verb has two syllables, and the final syllable is stressed,
double the final consonant.
ad mitadmitted
oc cur occurred
per mit permitted
8. If the verb has two syllables, and the final syllable is not
stressed, do not double the final consonant.
hap pen happened
lis tenlistened
o pen opened
13.5.6 Rule 6 1. qu: Q is always written as qu.
It never stands by itself.
Examples: queen, opaque, quarrel.
13.5.7 Rule 7 ve: We use -ve at the end of words that sound
like they end in (v).
Examples: crave, leave, live, love.
Only exception in English: spiv.
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13.5.8 Rule 8 ge: We use -ge at the end of words that sound
like they end in (j).
Examples: age, cringe, orange.
Exceptions: none in English.
13.5.9 Rule 9: Formation of Plurals
1. Regular Plural Nouns
The plural morphological suffix for most English nouns is
simply -s, which is added to the end of the singular form. For
example, the following chart identifies the singular and plural
forms of some common regular English nouns:
Singular Plural
apple apples
brother brothers
elbow elbows
holiday holidays
kite kites
notebook notebooks
toe toes
zebra zebras
2. However, if the singular form of the noun ends with s(e) or
c(e) [s], z(e) [z], sh [], ch [], or dg(e) [], then the plural
morphological suffix is -es. For example, the following chart
identifies the singular and plural forms of some common
regular English nouns ending in s(e) or c(e) [s], z(e) [z], sh
[], ch [], or dg(e) []:
Singular Plural
ash ashes
box boxes
church churches
English Englishes
judge judges
kiss kisses
language languages
watch watches
3. If the singular form of the noun ends with a consonant
followed by a y, then the y changes to an i and is followed by
the plural morphological suffix is -es. For example, the
following chart identifies the singular and plural forms of
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some common regular English nouns ending in a consonant
followed by a y:
Singular Plural
authority authorities
body bodies
cherry cherries
family families
history histories
memory memories
panty panties
story stories
4. If the singular form of the noun ends with f or fe, then the f or
fe changes to a ve and is followed by the plural
morphological suffix is -s. For example, the following chart
identifies the singular and plural forms of some common
regular English nouns ending in f or fe:
Singular Plural
calf calves
knife knives
leaf leaves
life lives
self selves
thief thieves
wife wives
wolf wolves
The f or fe to ve rule does not apply if the verb form of the noun
ends in ve as in belief-beliefs (noun) and believe-believes (verb).
5. Nouns Ending in -o
The plural morphological suffix for English nouns ending in -
o is either -s or -es, which is added to the end of the singular
form, depending on the specific noun. If the singular form of
the noun ends with an o preceded by another vowel or vowel
sound, then the plural morphological suffix is -s. For
example, the following chart identifies the singular and plural
forms of some common English nouns ending in an o
preceded by a vowel or vowel sound:
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Singular Plural
bamboo bamboos
cameo cameos
duo duos
embryo embryos
radio radios
scenario scenarios
stereo stereos
studio studios
6. If the singular form of the noun ends in o and the word is of
foreign origin including most musical terms, then the plural
morphological suffix is also -s. For example, the following
chart identifies the singular and plural forms of some
common English nouns of foreign origin ending in an o:
Singular Plural
alto altos
canto cantos
kimono kimonos
photo photos
piano pianos
rondo rondos
solo solos
taco tacos
7. If the singular form of the noun ends with an o preceded by a
consonant, then the plural morphological suffix is -es. For
example, the following chart identifies the singular and plural
forms of some common English nouns ending in an o
preceded by a consonant:
Singular Plural
domino dominoes
echo echoes
embargo embargoes
hero heroes
mosquito mosquitoes
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potato potatoes
tomato tomatoes
veto vetoes
8. For some nouns ending in an o preceded by a consonant,
however, the plural morphological suffix is either -s or -es.
For example, the following chart identifies the singular and
plural forms of some common English nouns that take either
the -s or the -es suffix:
Singular Plural
avocado avocados/avocados
buffalo buffalos/buffaloes
desperado desperados/desperadoes
ghetto ghettos/ghettoes
halo halos/haloes
hobo hobos/hoboes
portico porticos/porticoes
tornado tornados/tornadoes
The current trend for spelling the plurals of nouns ending in o
preceded by a consonant seems to be moving in the
direction of adding only the morphological suffix -s,
particularly in the case of nouns with variable spellings.
Rule 10 Spelling Formation of Present Participle
1. Spelling rules for the formation of the Present Participle.
The general rule is: base form of the verb + '-ing':
work - working read - reading
go - going listen - listening
meet - meeting sleep - sleeping
enjoy - enjoying ski - skiing
grow - growing fix fixing
2. If a one syllable verb ends in consonant + vowel +
consonant double the final consonant and add '-ing':
run - running beg - begging
sit - sitting jog - jogging
3. If a verb has more than one syllable and ends in consonant
+ vowel + consonant, we double the final consonant only if
the final syllable is stressed and add '-ing':
occur - occurring begin - beginning
admit - admitting refer referring
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4. When a verb ends in '-ic' we add '-k' and then '-ing':
picnic - picnicking panic - panicking
5. When a verb ends in '-l' the '-l' is doubled and '-ing' is added
(in British English):
travel - travelling cancel - cancelling
6. When a verb ends in silent '-e', the silent '-e' is dropped and
'-ing' is added:
close - closing move - moving
live - living have - having
7. When a verb ends in an '-e' which is not silent, the final '-e' is
not dropped before the ending '-ing' is added:
be - being see - seeing
8. When a verb ends in '-ie', the '-ie' is changed to '-y' before
the ending '-ing' is added:
die - dying lie - lying
The Present Participial can be also used as an adjective in
front of a noun: a running boy, a crying baby, a dancing lady,
etc.
13.5.11 Rule 11 Formation of Suffixes and Prefixes
Anti- against antifreeze
de- opposite defrost
dis- * not, opposite of disagree
en-, em- cause to encode, embrace
fore- before forecast
in-, im- in infield
in-, im-, il-, ir- * not injustice, impossible
inter- between interact
mid- middle midway
mis- wrongly misfire
non- not nonsense
over- over overlook
pre- before prefix
re- * again return
semi- half semicircle
sub- under submarine
super- above superstar
trans- across transport
un-* not unfriendly
under- under undersea
-able, -ible can be done comfortable
-al, -ial having personal characteristics
-ed * past-tense verbs hopped
-en made of wooden
-er comparative higher
-er, one who worker, actor
-est comparative biggest
-ful full of careful
-ic having linguistic
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-ing* verb form running
-ion, -tion, act, process occasion, attraction
-ation, ition
-ity, -ty state of infinity
-ive, -ative, -itive adjective form plaintive
-less without fearless
-ly* characteristic of quickly
-ment action or process enjoyment
-ness state of, condition of kindness
-ous, -eous, -ious possessing the joyous
qualities of
-s, -es* more than one books, boxes
-y characterized by happy
3.6 HYPHENATION
13.6.1 Introduction
Certain words and phrases tend to evolve from separation to
linkage. The trend in English is for frequently used word
combinations to "grow together" from two words to one, sometimes
passing through a hyphenated stage. The two-word phrase data
base, for example, is now most commonly written as one word:
database. (It apparently skipped the hyphenated transition phase.)
The best rule to follow for particular words and phrases is to
check a recent dictionary. However, the following principles are
useful to know.
Two or more adjectives before a noun that act as one idea
(one-thought adjectives) are connected with a hyphen.
Examples: This is a low-budget job. [The sense is not:
this is a low job and a budget job. The words low and budget are
linked into the single concept of "low-budget."]
First-class decisions require clear-headed thinking.
He has a devil-may-care attitude.
13.6.2 NOTES, VARIATIONS, AND APPLICATIONS
When the adjectives before the noun act separately, we are
usually implying the word and (which we replace with a comma), as
in "a ripe, red tomato." The meaning is a ripe tomato and a red
tomato or a ripe and red tomato. But a low-budget job, in contrast,
is not a low job and a budget job or a low and budget job.
When the modifying words are positioned differently in the
sentence - say, after the noun - the hyphen is usually not used. For
instance, well-known has no hyphen in the sentence, "This
institution is well known." Note, however, that some two-word
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expressions are always linked by a hyphen, regardless of position
in the sentence; examples are part-time and full-time.
When we refer to a twelve-year-old boy, the hyphens follow
the rule for one-thought adjectives. No hyphens are used when the
phrase is positioned differently (i.e., after boy): "The boy is twelve
years old." The hyphens are used, though, when we make the
phrase a noun, e.g., "He is a typical twelve-year-old." (In a sense,
the word boy or child is understood.)
Hyphens are used to link words and parts of words. They
are not as common today as they used to be, but there are three
main cases where you should use them:
13.6.2.1 Hyphens in compound words
Hyphens are used in many compound words to show that
the component words have a combined meaning (e.g. a pick-me-
up, mother-in-law, good-hearted) or that there is a relationship
between the words that make up the compound: for example, rock-
forming minerals are minerals that form rocks. But you dont need
to use them in every type of compound word.
Compound adjectives
Compound adjectives are made up of a noun + an adjective,
a noun + a participle, or an adjective + a participle. Many
compound adjectives should be hyphenated. Here are some
examples:
noun + adjective noun + participle adjective + participle
accident-prone computer-aided good-looking
sugar-free power-driven quick-thinking
carbon-neutral user-generated bad-tempered
sport-mad custom-built fair-haired
camera-ready muddle-headed open-mouthed
With compound adjectives formed from the adverb well and
a participle (e.g. well-known), or from a phrase (e.g. up-to-date),
you should use a hyphen when the compound comes before the
noun:
well-known brands of coffee
an up-to-date account
but not when the compound comes after the noun:
His music was also well known in England.
Their figures are up to date.
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Its important to use hyphens in compound adjectives
describing ages and lengths of time: leaving them out can make the
meaning ambiguous. For example, 250-year-old trees clearly refers
to trees that are 250 years old, while 250 year old trees could
equally refer to 250 trees that are all one year old.
13.6.2.2 Compound verbs
Use a hyphen when a compound formed from two nouns is made
into a verb, for example:
Noun verb
an ice skate to ice-skate
a booby trap to booby-trap
a spot check to spot-check
a court martial to court-martial
13.6.2.3 Phrasal verbs
You should NOT put a hyphen within phrasal verbs - verbs made
up of a main verb and an adverb or preposition. For example:
Phrasal verb Example
build up You should continue to build up your pension.
break in They broke in by forcing a lock on the door.
stop off We stopped off in Hawaii on the way home.
If a phrasal verb is made into a noun, though, you SHOULD use a
hyphen:
Noun Example
build-up There was a build-up of traffic on the ring road.
break-in The house was unoccupied at the time of the
break-in.
stop-off We knew there would be a stop-off in
Singapore for refuelling.
13.6.2.4 Compound nouns
A compound noun is one consisting of two component nouns. In
principle, such nouns can be written in one of three different ways:
one word two words hyphenated
aircrew air crew air-crew
playgroup play group play-group
chatroom chat room chat-room
In the past, these sorts of compounds were usually
hyphenated, but the situation is different today. The tendency is
now to write them as either one word or two separate words.
However, the most important thing to note is that you should
choose one style and stick to it within a piece of writing. Dont refer
to a playgroup in one paragraph and a play-group in another.
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13.6.4 Rules: Hyphens between Words
Hyphens showing word breaks
Hyphens can also be used to divide words that are not usually
hyphenated.
They show where a word is to be divided at the end of a line of
writing. Always try to split the word in a sensible place, so that the
first part does not mislead the reader: for example, hel-met not he-
lmet; dis-abled not disa-bled.
Hyphens are also used to stand for a common second
element in all but the last word of a list, e.g.:
You may see a yield that is two-, three-, or fourfold.
Rule 1: To check whether a compound noun is two words,
one word, or hyphenated, you may need to look it up
in the dictionary. If you can't find the word in the
dictionary, treat the noun as separate words.
Examples: eyewitness, eye shadow, eye-opener
Rule 2: Phrases that have verb, noun, and adjective forms
should appear as separate words when used as verbs
and as one word when used as nouns or adjectives.
Examples:
The engine will eventually break down. (verb)
We suffered a breakdown in communications. (noun)
Please clean up your room. (verb)
That Superfund site will require specialized cleanup
procedures. (adjective)
Rule 3: Compound verbs are either hyphenated or appear as
one word. If you do not find the verb in the dictionary,
hyphenate it.
Examples:
To air-condition the house will be costly.
We were notified that management will downsize the
organization next year.
Rule 4: Generally, hyphenate between two or more adjectives
when they come before a noun and act as a single
idea.
Exa: friendly-looking man (compound adjective in
front of a noun)
friendly little girl (not a compound adjective)
brightly lit room (Brightly is an adverb describing lit,
not an adjective.)
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Rule 5: When adverbs not ending in -ly are used as
compound words in front of a noun, hyphenate. When
the combination of words is used after the noun, do
not hyphenate.
Examples:
The well-known actress accepted her award.
Well is an adverb followed by another descriptive
word? They combine to form one idea in front of the
noun.
The actress who accepted her award was well known.
Well known follows the noun it describes, so no
hyphen is used.
A long-anticipated decision was finally made.
He got a much-needed haircut yesterday.
His haircut was much needed.
Rule 6: Remember to use a comma, not a hyphen, between
two adjectives when you could have used and
between them.
Examples:
I have important, classified documents.
Jennifer received a lovely, fragrant bouquet on
Valentine's Day.
Rule 7: Hyphenate all compound numbers from twenty-one
through ninety-nine.
Exa: The teacher had thirty-two children in her
classroom.
Only twenty-one of the children were bilingual.
Rule 8: Hyphenate all spelled-out fractions.
Exa: You need one-third of a cup of sugar for that
recipe.
More than one-half of the student body voted for
removing soda machines from campus.
13.6.5 Rules:Hyphens with Prefixes
Hyphens joining prefixes to other words
Hyphens can be used to join a prefix to another word,
especially if the prefix ends in a vowel and the other word also
begins with one (e.g. pre-eminent or co-own). This use is less
common than it used to be, though, and one-word forms are
becoming more usual (e.g. prearrange or cooperate).
Use a hyphen to separate a prefix from a name or date, e.g.
post-Aristotelian or pre-1900.
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Use a hyphen to avoid confusion with another word: for
example, to distinguish re-cover (= provide something with a new
cover) from recover (= get well again).
Rule 1: The current trend is to do away with unnecessary
hyphens. Therefore, attach most prefixes and suffixes
onto root words without a hyphen.
Exa: noncompliance
copayment
semiconscious
fortyish
Rule 2: Hyphenate prefixes when they come before proper
nouns.
Example: un-American
Rule 3: Hyphenate prefixes ending in an a or i only when the
root word begins with the same letter.
Exa: ultra-ambitious
semi-invalid
Rule 4: When a prefix ends in one vowel and a root word
begins with a different vowel, generally attach them
without a hyphen.
Exa: antiaircraft
proactive
Rule 5: Prefixes and root words that result in double e's and
double o's are usually combined to form one word.
Exa: preemployment
coordinate
Exceptions: de-emphasize, co-owner
Rule 6: Hyphenate all words beginning with self except for
selfish and selfless.
Exa: self-assured
self-respect
self-addressed
Rule 7: Use a hyphen with the prefix ex.
Example: His ex-wife sued for nonsupport.
Rule 8: Use the hyphen with the prefix re only when: the re
means again AND omitting the hyphen would cause
confusion with another word.
Examples:
9. Will she recover from her illness? -Re does not mean again.
10. I have re-covered the sofa twice. -Re does mean again AND
omitting the hyphen would have caused confusion with another
word.
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11. The stamps have been reissued. -Re means again but would
not cause confusion with another word.
12. I must re-press the shirt. -Re means again AND omitting the
hyphen would have caused confusion with another word.
13.7 SUMMARY
Transition words are connecting words or phrases that act
like bridges between parts of your writing. They link your sentences
and paragraphs together smoothly so that there are no abrupt
jumps or breaks between ideas. Transition words act like signposts
to indicate to the reader the order and flow of your writing and
ideas. English spelling is a system which integrates phonetic and
morphemic patterns to produce meaning in writing. Understanding
phonetic patterns enables writers to spell those words that have
predictable sound-letter relationships. Hyphens are used to link
words and parts of words. They are not as common today as they
used to be, but there are three main cases where you should use
them. Hyphenation are used in compound words, in joining
prefixes, between words, in phrasal verbs and etc.
13.8 EXERCISE
Use the Transitions to complete the following paragraphs:
1. Our states correctional system is plagued with problems. (a)
_________, (example) high officials increase their personal
wealth by awarding building and catering contracts to
disreputable companies in return for bribes. (b)
___________, (addition) promotions within the system are
made on the basis of politics, not merit. (c) __________, the
system is filled __________ (result) with people at the top
who know little about what they are doing. (d) __________,
(addition) careless security measures, allowing trusted
inmates to control certain operations of the institution, are
part of the growing problem. But one increasing tendency in
particular is doing harm to the systems image and
efficiency.
This is the tendency of officials who are charged with
important tasks and who make faulty decisions to cover up
their mistakes. (e) __________, one would think that amid all
the strife some effort __________ (conclusion) would be
made to rectify these problems, but a seemingly dogged
determination to resist change overshadows the system.
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2. Genetic screening in business, or testing the genes of
employees to see if they are susceptible to workplace-
related diseases, may present problems for the tested. (a)
__________, the genetic screening tests and technology in
general are in their infancy stages. (b) __________, many
physicians and health professionals doubt their reliability. (c)
___________, once genetic information is recorded on
employees; it cannot always be kept secret. Even though
employers are assured that their medical files are
confidential, clerical staff has access to them. (d)
__________, if they are entered into a computer data base,
they are available to anyone with access. (e) __________,
some argue that such screening procedures are violations of
personal rights. (f) __________, many cite similarities
between genetic screening and drug testing, noting that both
involve a process of obtaining information from unwilling
individuals that might affect them adversely. Opponents of
genetic screening point out that some employees with the
potential for workplace diseases would rather run the risk
than lose their jobs.
4. Make a list of suffixes forming nouns, adjectives and
adverbs.
5. List out fifty words showing the hyphenation.
6. What is hyphenation? Why it is used in language?
7. List out the rules of hyphenation with examples showing the
combination of prefixes.
8. List out the rules of hyphenation with examples showing the
combination of words.
9. List out the rules of hyphenation with examples showing the
combination of phrasal verbs.
10. What do you understand by the word spelling rules in
language?

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14
TRANSCRIBING NUMBERS AND
ABBREVIATING THE TECHNICAL
AND NON TECHNICAL TERMS
Unit Structure
14.0 Objectives
14.1 Transcribing Numbers
14.2 Guidelines for transcribing numbers
14.3 Abbreviations/Acronyms
14.4 Summary
14.0 OBJECTIVES
To know what is transcribing numbers
To learn the strategies of transcribing numbers
To know the techniques of framing abbreviations of Technical
and non technical terms
14.1 TRANSCRIBING NUMBERS
The system of transcribing the numbers refers to the use of
numbers in a sentences and the guidelines one need to keep in mind
about the perfect usage. We could see the numbers forming the part
of the proper nouns in these days. For example, T20, i10, G8
countries etc. In India, we use Arabic numerical and roman numbers
in some limited instances. For example, in names of chapters or the
headings, we use Roman numbers. In addition to this, we also use
the regional number system in our writings. Therefore, a common
guideline can make the uniformity of its use.
14.2 GUIDELINES FOR TRANSCRIBING NUMBERS
There are two types of numerals, Arabic and Roman, which
are used in any transcription. Numbers denote quantities, ages, time
and position in a series.
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Arabic numerals are in all 10, which are 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9.
Roman numerals are made of 7 letters, given below:
I 1
V 5
X 10
L 50
C 100
O 500
K 1000
Roman numerals are used to a lesser extent in transcription
usually in staging of diseases, syndromes or the most common
statement, for example: Cranial nerves II through XII are normal,
Stage I disease.
Arabic numerals are widely used in transcription to denote
ages, units of measure, dosages, vitals, lab values, and
dimensions.
For example: Hemoglobin was 14.4, platelet count was
156,000, a 45-year-old male was seen today.
If a sentence begins with a number, the number has to be
spelled out and/or if needed rephrase the sentence.
For example: "Twenty-two years ago, the patient had her last
menstrual period." Or one can rephrase the sentence as "The
patient had her last menstrual period 34 years ago."
Numbers used to represent position in a series are called
ordinal numbers.
Ordinals from (1st) first to ninth (9th) are spelled out in
report while ordinals greater than 9th are transcribed in figures like
12th, 21st. No periods or space is used with ordinals.
For example: The patient underwent his fourth cesarean
section without any complications.
The obese female met with a severe accident on her 50th birthday.
Use of commas in Arabic numbers:
When a whole number has 5 or more digits, a comma should
be sued to separate a group of 3 numerals, starting from the end of
the number.
For example: White blood cell count was 45,700, platelet
count was 290,000.
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However, if the whole number comprises of 4 digits only, a
comma should not be used.
For example: White count is 6400.
When two sets of interrelated numbers are used next to each
other, generally the one dictated earlier should be spelled out one or
rather any one of them can be spelled out depending on
convenience.
For example: The subjects used for the experiment were
fifteen 7-year-old boys.
The laceration was sutured with two 2-0 Vicryl sutures.
Use of hyphens in numbers:
Always hyphenate compound numbers from 21 through 99.
For example: fifty-five, sixty-six, eleven thousand five hundred forty-
six
Always Hyphenate compound nouns which use numbers are prefix.
For example: 2-D echocardiogram
When numbers are used as compound modifiers with words, they
should be hyphenated when they precede the noun.
For example: An 18-day cycle, a 3-cm incision
Forming Plurals in numbers:
To form plurals, apostrophe "s"is used with single digit
number and lower cased s is used with 2 or more than 2 i.e. multiple
digit number.
For example:
He died in his 50s. The patient was born in 1950s.
He required at least four 6s to reach to his century.
Numbers used in proper nouns are transcribed the way they are
used in the proper noun.
For example: figure-of-eight suture and not figure of 8 suture.
14.3 ABBREVIATIONS/ACRONYMS
An abbreviation is a shortened form of a word or term. The
shortened form may include letters, numbers, and symbols.
The process of reducing as many words as possible to a
series of acronyms. This practice is often found in organizations
where group think is rampant and human interpersonal skills are
undeveloped.
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To make words into acronyms that doesnt stand for
anything with the sole purpose of emphasizing the word! Especially
as wall posts or status updates on social networking sites.
To reduce a perfectly acceptable title or phrase into an
acronym. Generally thought to be best avoided in most cases,
certainly those not in extensive use, or those whose original
phrasing was selected for it's poetic or prosaic beauty or clarity.
Especially egregious are acronyms that have been "Reverse
Acronymized", or cooked up from acronyms that happen to be
words, but whose constituent words are contrived at best.
Abbreviation Full Term
CFM contamination free manufacturing
COO cost of ownership
CM
3
cubic centimeter
RIE reactive ion etch
An acronym is an abbreviation that can be pronounced and
used as a name.
BMC, BARC, CAD, TCAD
Use the following guidelines for all forms of abbreviation.
14.2.2 When to Use In Text
Define any abbreviation/acronym you use unless its meaning
is clearly understood by everyone in your audience. For example,
the following are some abbreviations and acronyms that are
generally understood by a technical audience.
laser
mm
I/O
PC
CPU
Define an abbreviation/acronym at its first use in text unless
the first reference is in a heading. In this case, either uses the
abbreviation/acronym or the full term in the heading, but define the
abbreviation/acronym in the following paragraph.
In documents that have a lot of abbreviations/acronyms,
include a list defining them. Even if using a list, you still must define
them within the body of the document. When defining an
abbreviation, spell out the term and follow with the abbreviation in
parentheses.
...documents the alpha site developmental activity for the
Automatic Defect Classification (ADC) program. Several key steps,
necessary to provide production-worthy ADC capability...
Unless the abbreviation is more familiar to your reader than
its fully expanded term (for example, BARC or ISRO), do not
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abbreviate a phrase that appears only once or infrequently. The
following term should not have been abbreviated because it is not
used again and is not a familiar abbreviation.
...described model management and reusability, describing the
Hierarchical Intelligent Simulation Environment (HISE) and how it
could be used to facilitate...
14.2.3 When to Use In Graphics
Abbreviate in figures and tables to conserve space. Define
possibly unfamiliar or ambiguous abbreviations in a note or key
even if they have already been defined in textsince a graphic
may be read independently.
14.2.4 Sources
Use the definition of an abbreviation/acronym as it appears
in the SEMATECH Acronym and Abbreviation List. If the
abbreviation is not defined there, look in The New IEEE Dictionary
of Electrical and Electronics Terms, or the McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms. For additional sources, see
REFERENCE WORKS.
14.2.5 How to Use
Articles Preceding Acronyms
The choice of a or an before an abbreviation/acronym
depends on the way the abbreviation is pronounced. If the
abbreviation begins with a consonant sound (including a sounded h
or long u), use , If it begins with a vowel sound, use an.
an ECR
a CIM system
an X-ray
a HBO channel
an RIE
14.2.6 Capitalization
Although the abbreviation or acronym may be all capitalized,
the term it stands for often is not. Capitalize only proper nouns
when defining an abbreviation/acronym.
Mumbai Metropolitan Regional Development Authority (MMRDA)
Secondary ion mass spectroscopy (SIMS)
Gallium arsenide (GaAs)
In an abbreviation of a term that includes proper nouns with
prepositions, do not use lower case for the prepositions.
Cost of Ownership (COO) model
Department of Defense (DOD) contract
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14.2.7 Chemical Abbreviations
Use formulas freely in tables and graphics. In text, spell out
the name at its first reference, followed by the formula in
parentheses. The formula alone may be used subsequently.
Hydrofluoric acid (HF)
boron trichloride (BCl3)
To avoid ambiguity, it is preferable to spell out the word
tungsten. However, if the word is used heavily within the same
document, use of the symbol W saves time and space, and
alleviates repetition.
Isotopes may be written as carbon-14 or 14C.
When written out, names of chemical elements and
compounds are written in lowercase letters. The chemical symbols
are capitalized as they appear in the periodic table of elements
.
14.2.8 Measurements and Symbols
Plural Forms
Many abbreviations use the same form whether plural or singular.
mm
MOS
Uses only for abbreviations that end with periods or lowercase
letters used as nouns.
M.B.A.'s
x's and y's
14.2.9 Punctuation
Most abbreviations do not end with a period. Exceptions
include abbreviations that may be confused with a word, are
personal titles, or traditionally end with periods. Check punctuation
in the SEMATECH Official Dictionary, The Chicago Manual of
Style, or another REFERENCE WORK.
in.
Ph.D.
U.S.
When an abbreviation that normally ends with a period
appears at the end of a sentence, do not add a second period.
...in the U.S. Further analyses indicate...
Set off i.e., e.g., and etc., as you would the full phrases they
abbreviate. Both i.e. and e.g. should be immediately followed by
commas. The type of punctuation that precedes them depends on
sentence structure and context.
315
...on a cost-plus basis with no ceiling; i.e., there was no contractual
limit on costs.
...aggressive lithography development in Japan, e.g., in phase-shift
mask, cell projection E-beam direct wafer write, and X-ray
lithography.
...level of automation, wafer size, and fab design capacity (i.e.,
wafer starts per day).
Always precede etc. with a comma. When it appears in the
middle of a sentence, follow etc. with a comma as well. A last-
minute check should confirm that all references to other sections,
figures, etc., remain correct.
14.2.10 State Names
Spell out the state name when used alone. When used with
a city name, use the two-letter postal abbreviation.
Three universities in MH participate...
...workshop held in MH, Mumbai, October 19-20.
Common Technical and Non Technical abbreviations used:
14.2.11 Letters and correspondence
a.s.a.p as soon as possible p.p.
per pro (through
the agency of)
Attn. For the attention of ps postscript
c.c. copies to (carbon copies) PTO please turn over
cf. compare re in the mater of
e.g.
exempli gratia (for
example)
p page
enc./encl. enclosure ref. reference
f.o.a. for the attention of RSVP please reply
fyi for your information u/m undermentioned
hdbk handbook w. ref. with reference to
i.e. id est (that is) x ref. cross reference
inc. including Yrs.
Yours
(sincerely/faithfully
)
n/a not applicable to NB note well
316
14.2.12 In the office
admin. administration h.q. Headquarters
AGM Annual General Meeting kbd keyboard
CEO Chief Executive Officer Man.Dir. Managing Director
a.o.b. any other business plc
public limited
company
assoc. association pt-tm part time
CV curriculum vitae R&D
Research and
Development
dept. department rep. Representative
Dr Doctor/Director swbd switchboard
est. established VDU visual display unit
exec. executive WP word processor
ext. extension (phone number) Xer. Xerox
hdw hardware (computer) HoD
Head of
Department
14.2.13 Finance and banking
a/c current account f.o.t. free of tax
a/cs pay accounts payable GDP
Gross Domestic
Product
a/cs rec accounts receivable n/c no charge
bf brought forward o/d overdraft
b.o.m. bill of materials (goods) o.n.o. or nearest offer
B/P bills payable qr.
Quarterly
(accounts)
B/S bill of sale S/R
sale or return
(goods)
cf carried forward stat. Statistics
c.o.d. cash on delivery t.b.a. to be arranged
D/a deposit account T/O turnover
fin finance/financial VAT Value Added Tax
f.o.c. free of charge xs expenses
317
14.2.14 Deliveries
C&E Customs & Excise mdse merchandise
C/O Certificate of Origin p&p
postage and
packing
d/o delivery order p.p.i.
parcel post
insured
ETA estimate time of arrival gtd guaranteed
ToD Time of delivery JO Job Order
(
2
NOTE: There are some variations regarding full stops. For
example, you will see both a.s.a.p. and asap.)
14.2.15 English punctuation
.
full stop (UK), period (US), dot in computer language
dot.com
, comma
: colon
; semi-colon
quotation marks
single quotes
! exclamation mark
? question mark
@ ampersand, at in computer language
* asterisk
~ tilde
bullet
/ slash
dash
paragraph sign
( ) brackets
{ } curved brackets
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[ ] square brackets
... ellipsis
,,

umlaut = (vowel) mutation

14.2.16 Other
%Percentage
Micron
= is a synonym of
British Pound
C Degree Celsius
2,4-D 2,4-dichlorophenoxy acetic acid
2-iP N6-(2-isopentyo) adenine
AMR Amount of Water Required
APW African Palm Weevil (Rhynchophorus phoenicis F.)
AW Depth of Water
B.C. Before Christ
B Boron
Ca Calcium
CBI Centre for the Promotion of Imports from Developing
Countries
CD Codex Alimentarius
CF Crop Factor
CH
3
Br Methyl Bromide
Cl Chloride
cm Centimetre
Cu Copper
DMSO Dimethylsulfoxide
DNA Desoxyribonucleic Acid
e.g. exempli gratia; for example
EC European Commission
EC Electric Conductivity
et al. and others
ET Evapotranspiration
f.sp. forma specialis
Fam. Family
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations
FDA Food and Drug Administration
Fe Iron
Fig. Figure
FOB Free On Board
g Gram
319
ha Hectare
HACCP Hazardus Analytical Critical Control Point
IAA Indol acetic acid
IBA Indol butyric acid
ISO International Organisation for Standardisation
kg Kilogram
km Kilometre
L Litre
Lb Pound
LN Liquid Nitrogen
LR Leaching Requirement
m Metre
m
2
Square metre
m
3
Cubic metre
mg Milligram
Mg Magnesium
ml Millilitre
Mn Manganese
Mo Molybdium
MRL Minimum Residue Limit
MS Murashige and Skoog medium
MT Metric Ton
N North
NAA Naphtalene acetic acid
NPK Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium
O Order
PCR Polymerase Chain Reaction
pH A measure of acidity or alkalinity
PVC Poliyoritan Vinyl Chloride
RAPD Randomly Amplified Polymorphic DNA
RFLP Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism
RPW Red Palm Weevil (Rhynchophorus ferrugineus Oliv.)
RSA Republic of South Africa
S South
Su Sulphur
sp. Species
TAM Total available soil moisture
TDS Total dissolvable solubles
UAE United Arab Emirates
UK United Kingdom
UN United Nations
UNEP United Nations Environment Program
US$ United States Dollar
USA United States of America
320
WHO World Health Organisation
Zn Zinc
14.5.16 Computer Abbreviations
There are literally thousands of computer abbreviations out
there. Many are concerned with the technical aspects of the
computer while others deal with personal communication. Following
are some more common ones that you may have heard but do not
know exactly what they mean.
Following are 21 of the numerous computer abbreviations in
use today. The first group concerns the computer, its operating
systems, and its storage of data.
BIOS: This is the Basic Input Output System which controls the
computer, telling it what operations to perform. These instructions
are on a chip that connects to the motherboard.
BYTE: A byte is a storage unit for data. K stands for Kilobyte
which is 1024 bytes. MB is Megabyte which is a million bytes, and
GB is a Gigabyte, which equals 1000 Megabytes.
CPU: This stands for the Central Processing Unit of the computer.
This is like the computers brain.
MAC: This is an abbreviation for Macintosh, which is a type of
personal computer made by the Apple Computer company.
OS: This is the Operating System of the computer. It is the main
program that runs on a computer and begins automatically when
the computer is turned on.
PC: This is the abbreviation for personal computer. It refers to
computers that are IBM compatible.
PDF: This represents the Portable Document Format which
displays files in a format that is ready for the web.
RAM: This stands for Random Access Memory which is the space
inside the computer that can be accessed at one time. If you
increase the amount of RAM, then you will increase the computers
speed. This is because more of a particular program is able to be
loaded at one time.
ROM: This is Read Only Memory which is the instruction for the
computer and cannot be altered.
VGA: The Video Graphics Array is a system for displaying
graphics. It was developed by IBM.
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WYSIWYG: This initialism stands for What You See Is What You
Get. It is pronounced wizziwig" and basically means that the
printer will print what you see on your monitor.
Internet and Computer Language Abbreviations
The next group of computer abbreviations deals with the
computer when it is connected to the internet as well as some
abbreviations of languages used by the computer:
FTP: This is a service called File Transport Protocol which moves a
file between computers using the internet.
HTML: Hypertext Markup Language formats information so it can
be transported on the internet.
HTTP: Hypertext Transfer Protocol is a set of instructions for the
software that controls the movement of files on the internet.
IP: This stands for Internet Protocol which is the set of rules that
govern the systems connected to the internet. IP Address is a
digital code specific to each computer that is hooked up to the
internet.
ISP: The Internet Service Provider is the company which provides
internet service so you can connect your computer to the internet.
LAN: This stands for Local Area Network which is the servers that
your computer connects to in your region
PPP: Point-to-Point Protocol is the set of rules that allow your
computer to use the internet protocols using a phone line and
modem.
URL: This is the Universal Resource Locator which is a path to a
certain file on the World Wide Web.
USB: The Universal Serial Bus is used for communications
between certain devices. It can connect keyboards, cameras,
printers, mice, flash drives, and other devices. Its use has
expanded from personal computers to PDAs, smartphones, and
video games, and is used as a power cord to connect devices to a
wall outlet to charge them.
VR: Virtual Reality simulates a three-dimensional scene on the
computer and has the capability of interaction. This is widely used
in gaming. The VRML is the Virtual Reality Mark-up Language
which allows the display of 3D images.
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14.6 SUMMARY
The system of transcribing is an advanced system of the
perfect transcription on numbers in the language. The numbers are
associated with the cardinals, enumerators and noun. The
abbreviating is shortening of a set of words or the phrases forming
the proper nouns or the titles. There are millions of abbreviations
used in these days. The use of abbreviations has become common
these days.




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15
PROOF READING
Unit Structure
15.1 Objectives
15.2 Introduction
15.3 Why is Proofreading important?
15.4 Prewriting/Brainstorming
15.5 Proofreading
15.6 Summary
15.7 Exercise
15.1 OBJECTIVES
To know the mechanics of proof reading
To know the various strategies involved in proof reading
To learn the art of proofreading
15.2 INTRODUCTION
Proofreading means examining your text carefully to find and
correct typographical errors and mistakes in grammar, style, and
spelling.
"Proofreading is a special kind of reading: a slow and
methodical search for misspellings, typographical mistakes, and
omitted words or word endings. Such errors can be difficult to spot
in your own work because you may read what you intended to
write, not what is actually on the page. To fight this tendency, try
proofreading out loud, articulating each word as it is actually
written. You might also try proofreading your sentences in reverse
order, a strategy that takes you away from the meanings you
intended and forces you to think about small surface features
instead.
"Although proofreading may be dull, it is crucial. Errors
strewn throughout an essay are distracting and annoying. If the
writer doesn't care about this piece of writing, thinks the reader,
why should I? A carefully proofread essay, however, sends a
positive message: It shows that you value your writing and respect
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your readers." (Diana Hacker, The Bedford Handbook. Bedford/St.
Martin's, 2002)
"Avoid doing your final proofreading on a computer screen.
Ideally, you should do a preliminary editing and proofreading job
while you are working on the computer. After printing out a copy,
edit and proofread once more, before making final corrections on
the computer and printing out your final copy."
(Robert DiYanni and Pat C. Hoy II, The Scribner Handbook
for Writers. Allyn and Bacon, 2001)
"In traditional proofreading, the proofreader checks the
proofs (live copy) against the manuscript (dead copy) to ensure that
proof copy corresponds word for word with the edited manuscript.
With the advent of computer typesetting, however, it is not always
possible to provide the proofreader with an accurate manuscript
against which to check the typeset copy. In this case the
proofreader must read the proofs without reference to an
authoritative manuscript. This entails checking the accuracy of
spelling against the dictionary, and checking for correct style
against the publisher's accepted manual of style and any other
references provided by the publisher. The proofreader is
responsible to see that all typographical specifications (specs)
called for by the editor are carried out correctly." (Robert Hudson,
The Christian Writer's Manual of Style. Zondervan, 2004)
15.3 WHY IS PROOFREADING IMPORTANT?
Proofreading is an essential final stage of the essay writing
process which should not be overlooked as a poorly presented
piece of work can lose marks. After the effort of finding information
and writing the essay, dont lose marks by submitting a work
spoiled by spelling and grammatical errors, or that does not adhere
to your modules requirements. A well-presented essay indicates to
your tutor that you care about your work.
15.4 PREWRITING/BRAINSTORMING
First, it is important to figure out what you know about a
topic. Since many ideas come to mind when you begin to think
about a topic, take time to write them down. First thoughts are
easily forgotten if they are not committed to paper. You can do this
with a prewriting technique such as brainstorming, clustering,
mapping, or listing. You can use graphic organizers like charts,
story maps, diagrams, or a cluster like the example on the next
page.
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Prewriting can take place in all sorts of inconvenient
locations, and you may only have a napkin, a piece of scrap paper,
or an envelope on which to write. Just dont think a napkin with
scribbles on it is the final draft. You still have much work to do.
15.4.1 Drafting
The next step is turning those thoughts into a first draft.
Those of you who skip the prewriting step and jump right into a first
draft will find that the editing stage takes more time than it should.
You may even find that you have changed your mind from the
beginning to the end of a piece, or that the first paragraph is spent
getting ready to say something.
Thats fine, but be prepared to reorganize your entire draft.
Writing with a plan makes the entire writing process easier. Imagine
you are a famous writer of mystery novels. If you dont know
whodunit, how can you write the chapters that lead up to the part
where the detective reveals the culprit? It is the same with your
writing. Without an organizational plan, the paper you write may not
take the right shape and may not say all you intended to say.
15.4.2 Revising As You Go
Most writers revise as they write. Thats why pencils with
erasers were invented. If you are a writer who uses pen and paper,
feel free to fill your first drafts with arrows and crossed-out words.
You may continue a sentence down the margin or on the back of
the page, or use asterisks to remind you of where you want to go
back and add an idea or edit a sentence.
If you use a computer to compose, use symbols to remind
you of changes that need to be made. Put a questionable sentence
in boldface or a different color so you can remember to return to it
later. A short string of unusual marks like #@$*%! will also catch
your eye and remind you to return to a trouble spot. Typing them
may even relieve some of the tension youre feeling as you struggle
with your draft. Just remember that if youre planning to show your
draft to someone, like a teacher or coworker, you may want to
clean it up a little first.
Computers also make it easier to make changes as you go,
but remember that a computers grammar check or spell check is
not foolproof. Computers do not understand the subtle nuances of
our living language. A well-trained proofreader or editor can.
15.5 PROOFREADING
Proofreading is simply careful reading. As you review every
word, sentence, and paragraph, you will find errors. When you
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locate them, you can use proofreading symbols to shorten the
amount of time you spend editing. It is an excellent idea to become
familiar with these symbols. At the bottom of this page are a few
examples of the most common ones, but be sure to check
Appendix A for a complete list.
Of course, in order to find errors, you must know what they
are. Read on to discover the culprits that can sabotage a good
piece of writing.
15.5.1 Capitalization and Punctuation
Capitalization and punctuation are like auto mechanics for
your writing. They tune up your sentences and make them start,
stop, and run smoothly.
Example
the russian Ballet travels. all over the world, Performing to
amazed Audiences. in each new city;
This sentence jerks along like an old car driven by someone
who doesnt know how to use the brakes.
Edited Example
The Russian Ballet travels all over the world, performing to
amazed audiences in each new city.
Every sentence begins with a capital letter. Thats the easy
part. Many other words are capitalized, too, however, and those
rules can be harder to remember. While every sentence begins with
a capital letter, every sentence ends with some sort of punctuation.
The proper use of end marks like periods, exclamation
points, and question marks and other punctuation like commas,
colons, semicolons, apostrophes, and quotation marks will help
your reader make sense of your words. Punctuation is often the
difference between a complete sentence and a sentence fragment
or run-on.
Other punctuation marks like hyphens, dashes, and ellipses
give flare to your writing and should be used for function as well as
style.
15.5.2 Spelling
Correct spelling gives your work credibility. Not only will your
reader know that you are educated, but also that you are careful
about your work. You should have a dictionary handy to confirm
that you have correctly spelled all unfamiliar words, especially if
they are key words in the piece. In the workplace, a memo with a
repeatedly misspelled word can be embarrassing. An essay with a
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misspelled word in the title, or a word that is spelled incorrectly
throughout the piece, can affect your final grade.
Avoid embarrassing situations like these by checking your
spelling. Even if you know all the spelling rules by heart, you will
come across exceptions to the rules. Words that come from other
languages (bourgeois, psyche), have silent letters (dumb, knack),
or are technical terms (cryogenics, chimerical) can present
problems. In addition, the spelling can change when the word is
made plural (puppies, octopi).
Homonyms like bear/bare or course/coarse can be easily
confused, as can words that have unusual vowel combinations
(beauty, archaeology).When in doubt, check it out by consulting a
dictionary.
15.5.3 Spell Check Programs
If you use a computer, most word processing programs
contain a spell check and a dictionary, so use them. Just be aware
that spell check doesnt always provide the right answer, so double-
check your choices. If your spell check gives three suggestions,
you will have to consult a dictionary for the right one.
Example
He read thru the entire paper looking for a story on the
protest march. Spell check suggests replacing thru with through,
threw, or thorough. The dictionary will tell you that the correct
spelling is through.
Choosing a suggested spelling from spell check that is
incorrect in the context of your sentence can affect an entire piece.
As teachers and employers become more familiar with spell check
programs, they learn to recognize when a writer has relied on spell
check. For example, homonyms such as pane and pain and
commonly confused words, such as where, wear, and were
present a problem for spell check, just as they do for many writers.
Ultimately, there is no substitute for a dictionary and a set of trained
eyes and ears.
15.5.4 Grammar
Unfortunately, there is no grammar dictionary, but there are
thousands of reliable grammar handbooks. In order to
communicate in standard written English, you have to pay attention
to the rules. You need to understand the parts of speech when you
write, and you have to combine them properly.
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Example
The dance team felt that they had performed bad.
Bad in this form is an adjective, and adjectives modify
nouns. The word bad must be replaced by an adverb to modify
the verb had performed.
To turn bad into an adverb, you must add the ending -ly.
Edited Example
The dance team felt that they had performed badly.
One of the best ways to check for grammatical errors is to
read your writing aloud. When you read silently, your eyes make
automatic corrections, or may skip over mistakes. Your ears arent
as easily fooled, however, and will catch many of your mistakes.
If you are in a situation where you cant read aloud, try
whispering or mouthing the words as you read. If something doesnt
sound right, check the grammar.
15.5.5 Grammar Check
Computers that use grammar check programs cannot find
every error. Grammar check will highlight any sentence that has a
potential error, and you should examine it. The program is helpful
for correcting some basic grammatical issues, but it also functions
in other ways. Many grammar check programs flag sentences in
the passive voice, which is a style choice. While the passive voice
is not wrong, it can lead to some very flat and sometimes confusing
writing. It may be a good idea to change some of the passive verbs
to active ones.
Many programs also highlight sentence fragments and
sentences that are over 50 words long. Sentence fragments are
never correct grammatically, although they may be used
intentionally in certain informal situations.
It is important to remember that not only does grammar
check programs sometimes point out sentences that are correct,
but they also do not always catch sentences that are incorrect.
Example
I have one pairs of pants.
Edited Example
I have one pair of pants.
There is no substitute for understanding the rules governing
grammar and careful proofreading.
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15.5.6 Editing
Once you are finished proofreading, you will probably need
to cut words out of your piece in some places and add more
material in other places. Repetitive words or phrases and awkward
or wordy sentences can be edited. If you begin to write without an
organizational plan, you may have to cut some good-sized chunks
from your writing because they wander from the main idea. You
may also need to expand ideas that you did not explain fully in your
first draft. Editing is about streamlining your piece. Good writing is
clear, concise, and to the point.
15.5.7 Revision
Reading your writing a few times allows you to work on
different aspects of your piece. Some revision takes place as you
write, and some takes place after you have read the whole piece
and are able to see if it works. Most writers revise more than once,
and many writers proofread and edit each draft.
If your draft has errors that make it difficult to understand,
you should start by proofreading. Print out your paper, mark it with
proofreading symbols, and make any necessary corrections in
grammar or mechanics. Proofreading and editing can help make
your meaning clear, and clarity makes your piece easier to
understand.
If your draft is cohesive, you can concentrate more on the
big picture. Are your paragraphs in the right order? Do they make
sense and work together? Are your transitions smooth and your
conclusions strong? Have you avoided sounding wishy-washy or
too aggressive? Is the voice too passive? Some writers prefer to
think about these issues during the first reading. Others proofread,
edit, and rearrange while they read the draft. It doesnt matter which
approach you use, but plan to read each draft at least twice. Read it
once focusing on the big picture, and once focusing on the smaller
details of the piece.
Real revision is the process of transforming a piece; the
results of your revisions may not look much like your first draft at
all. Even if you start with an organizational plan, it is possible that
you will decide that the piece needs to be reorganized only after
you have written an entire draft. If the piece is research-based,
discovering new information can require a completely new
treatment of the subject. If your piece is supposed to be persuasive,
maybe you will discover it is not persuasive enough.
Thinking of your writing as a work in progress is the ideal
approach. Writing and revising several drafts takes time, however,
and time is a luxury many writers do not have. Perhaps you have a
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pressing due date or an important meeting. You can still improve
your writing in a short period of time.
One strategy for revising is to create an outline from your
draft. This may sound like you are working backward because
usually the outline precedes the draft, but even if you originally
worked from an outline, this second outline can be helpful. Read
your writing and summarize each paragraph with a word or short
phrase. Write this summary in the margin of your draft. When you
have done this for the entire piece, list the summary words or
phrases on a separate sheet. If you originally worked from an
outline, how do the list and outline compare? If you did not work
from an outline, can you see places where re-ordering paragraphs
might help? You may want to move three or four paragraphs and
see if this improves the piece.
Cut and paste editing like this is easy to do on a computer.
In a word processing program, you can highlight, cut, and paste
sentences and whole paragraphs. If you are uneasy or afraid you
may destroy your draft, you may want to choose select all and
copy your work into a new blank document just so your original
draft is safe and accessible.
Now, you can experiment a little with moving and changing
your text. If you are working with a handwritten draft, making a
photocopy is a good way to revise without destroying the original.
Remember to double space or skip lines on the first draft to give
yourself room to revise. To move paragraphs, simply number them
and read them in your new order. If you are working from a copy,
take out your scissors and literally cut the paragraphs into pieces.
Instead of using glue or paste, use tape, or thumbtack the pieces to
a bulletin board. That way you can continue to move the pieces
around until they are in an order that works best for you. No matter
how you approach revising, it is a valuable part of the writing
process. Dont be afraid to rearrange whole paragraphs and fine-
tune your tone, voice, and style as you revise.
15.5.8 Tone
The tone of the piece is the way in which the writer conveys
his or her attitude or purpose. The tone is the sound of your
writing, and the words you choose affect the way your writing
sounds. If you use qualifying words (Lesson 3) like I believe and
to a certain extent, your piece has a less confident tone. If you
use imperative words like must and absolutely, your piece
sounds assertive. Just like the tone of your speaking voice, your
tone when you write can be angry, joyful, commanding, or
indifferent. If you are writing about a topic in which you are
emotionally invested, the tone of your first draft may be too strong.
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Be sure to consider your audience and purpose and adjust the tone
through revision.
For example, if you bought a CD player and it broke the next
day, you would probably be upset. If the salesperson refused to
refund your money, you would definitely be upset. A first draft of a
letter to the store manager might help you sort out your complaint,
but if your purpose is to receive a refund, your first draft might be
too angry and accusatory. It is a business letter, after all. A second
draft, in which you keep your audience (the store manager) and
your purpose (to get a refund) in mind, should clearly state the
situation and the service you expect to receive.
15.5.9 Slang
The words you choose make a big difference. If your piece
of writing is an assignment for school, it should use language that is
appropriate for an educational setting. If it is for work, it should use
language that is professional. The secret is to know your audience.
Slang is not appropriate in an academic piece, but it can give a
creative short story a more realistic tone.
Slang is language that is specific to a group of people. When
we think of slang, we usually think of young people, but every
generation has its slang.
Have you heard the terms 23 Skidoo or Top Drawer or
The Cats Pajamas? These words are American slang from the
1920sthe ones that youre my grandfather may have used when
he was young. If these old-fashioned phrases were used in your
favorite magazine, you probably would not understand them. On
the other hand, Grandpa is probably not going to read the
magazine that discusses New Jacks gettin real. Slang has a use,
but it tends to alienate people who do not understand it.
Colloquialisms and dialect are inappropriate for certain types
of writing as well. The stock market predictions that you write for
your brokerage firm should not declare, I am so not gonna
recommend blue chip stocks to every Tom, Dick, and Harry. It
should say, Blue chip stocks are not recommended for everyone.
In an academic or work related piece, it is safest to write in proper
English in order to appeal to the largest audience.
15.5.10 Voice
Voice can be active or passive, depending on your choice of
verbs (see Lesson 8). Most pieces work better using the active
voice. Like a well-made action movie, an active voice grabs the
audiences attention. The subject of the sentence becomes a hero
who performs courageous feats and death defying acts with action
verbs like flying, running, and capturing.
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The passive voice has a purpose, also. It is used to express
a state of being. Where would we be without the passive verb to
be? The appropriate verb in a sentence could very well be am, are,
or have been.
The passive voice should also be used when the writer
doesnt know or doesnt want to state who performed the action.
Example
The purse was stolen.
In this case, no one knows who stole the purse, so the active voice
would not work.
15.5.11 Style
Style is the particular way in which you express yourself in
writing. It is the craft of your writing, and is the product of careful
revision. It is the combination of voice, tone, and word choice, in
which all the parts of writinglanguage, rhythm, even grammar
come together to make your writing unique.
Style should be your goal when you revise. Find changes
that will make each sentence an important part of the whole. Tinker
with your words until your language becomes accurate and clear.
As in fashion, one little accessory can be the difference between
an average outfit and a real eye catcher.
Style is always recognizable, and good style will make
others take note of what you have to say.
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15.5.12 Proofreaders Symbols and Marks
The following list contains the common symbols and marks used in
roofreading:
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15.6 SUMMARY
Following the advice in this chapter will help you learn to
proofread, edit, and revise your writing. As a writer, you should
remember to keep important tools handy. A dictionary, a grammar
handbook, and a thesaurus are essential. Remember: Write often,
proofread carefully, edit judiciously, and revise until you are
satisfied. Successful writing means putting sentences together
precisely. It can be compared to baking.
If you dont follow the recipe or if you leave out a key
ingredient, the cake will not turn out right. To ensure baking
success, it is important to follow a recipe. To ensure writing
success, it is important to know that sentences have recipes too. As
you proofread, edit, and revise your work, remember that the basic
recipe is very simple: Combine one subject with one predicate to
yield one complete thought.
15.7 EXERCISE
Proofread the following paragraphs:
1. Dear New Customer
We would like too thank you for taking the time to allowing
us to possible be your next home repair company. We are
new to the area but service many other states as
MahrasHtra and karntka. We want to assure you that we wil
do every we can to help restore and save your valued
possession afters a bad fire or flodd. We are a franchise the
world largest clearning company. Service Master Clean.
We are all service professionals wit over 50 year of
experience in teh cleaning and restoration business. Our
goal is to make a crisis time as carefree and relaxing as we
possible can for you you and your loved ones. Please take
the time to read hour brochure and call our offices if we can
be of any assistnac to your damage home needs.
2. Nitrifying bacteria are sensitive organism and extremely
sensitive to a wide variety of inhibitor. A variety of organic
and inorganic agent can inhibit the growth and action of
these organisms. High concentration of ammonia and nitrous
acid can be inhibitory. The effect of PH is also significant. A
narrow optimal range between PH 7.5 to 8.6 exist, but
system acclimated to lower PH condition have successfully
nitrified. Temperature also exerts a tremendous influence on
the growth of nitrifying bacteria. However, quantification of
this effect has been difficult. Dissolved oxygen concentration
above 1 mg/L are essential for nitrification to occur. If DO
levels drop below this value, oxygen become the limiting
nutrient and nitrification slows or cease.
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3. Clearly he wasn't an academic with a preface like this one. I
do not give the name of the play, act or scene, in head or
foot lines, in my numerous quotations from Shakspere,
designedly leaving the reader to trace and find for himself a
liberal education by studying the wisdom of the Divine Bard.
There are many things in this volume that the ordinary
mind will not understand, yet I only contract with the
present and future generations to give rare and rich food
for thought, and cannot undertake to furnish the reader
brains with each book!
4. The holiday of halloween is a fun time for people of all ages.
It is a time for children to use their imaginations. All children
have to use their imaginations to come up with creative
costumes. The good costumes always win prizes.
Kids dont want bad costumes. There are many other things
that make Halloween a special time of the year for kids.
They can get candy from their neighbors. They like staying
out late at night. On the other hand, teenagers tend to use
halloween as a time to cause trouble and play tricks on
others in their neighborhood. They can get in trouble for
doing many things. Even adults have parties on halloween
to celebrate with their friends. It is a holiday that easily lends
itself to fun gatherings with friends, no matter how old you
are. halloween is a good holiday because of the many
different things you can do to have fun.