PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by:-
Neetu Bansal
Navpreet Kaur
Sapna Rana
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to thank CDAC, Mohali

who accepted our letter of training issued
from Department of Physics, PU
Chandigarh, to learn about Medical
Electronics and Instrumentation. We thank
Mr. Munish Ratti who gave us opportunity to
work with one of the most prestigious
institutes and express our gratitude to him
for his constant guidance and co-operation
without which the project would have not
been a success.

Navpreet Kaur
Neetu Bansal
Sapna Rana
ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY (EEG)
Electroencephalography (EEG) is the recording of electrical activity along the scalp
produced by the firing of neurons within the brain. In clinical contexts, EEG refers to the
recording of the brain's spontaneous electrical activity over a short period of time, usually
20–40 minutes, as recorded from multiple electrodes placed on the scalp. In neurology,
the main diagnostic application of EEG is in the case of epilepsy, as epileptic activity can
create clear abnormalities on a standard EEG study. A secondary clinical use of EEG is in
the diagnosis of coma and encephalopathies. EEG used to be a first-line method for the
diagnosis of tumors, stroke and other focal brain disorders, but this use has decreased
with the advent of anatomical imaging techniques such as MRI and CT.

Derivatives of the EEG technique include evoked potentials (EP), which involves
averaging the EEG activity time-locked to the presentation of a stimulus of some sort
(visual, somatosensory, or auditory). Event-related potentials refer to averaged EEG
responses that are time-locked to more complex processing of stimuli; this technique is
used in cognitive science, cognitive psychology, and psychophysiological research.
Epileptic spike and wave discharges monitored with EEG.
Content
• 1 Source of EEG activity
• 2 Clinical use
• 3 Research use
• 4 Method
• 5 Normal activity
o 5.1 Comparison table
o 5.2 Wave patterns
• 6 Artifacts
o 6.1 Biological artifacts
o 6.2 Environmental artifacts
o 6.3 Artifact correction
• 7 Abnormal activity
• 8 Various uses
o 8.1 EEG and Telepathy
o 8.2 Games
• 9 Images
• 10 EEG Machine
 o 10.1 Background
o 10.2 History
o 10.3 Raw Materials
o 10.4 Designs
o 10.5 Manufacturing Process
o 10.6 Quality Control
o 10.7 The Future

1. Source of EEG activity

The electrical activity of the brain can be described in spatial scales from the currents
within a single dendrite spine to the relatively gross potentials that the EEG records from
the scalp, much the same way that the economics can be studied from the level of a single
individual's personal finances to the macro-economics of nations. Neurons, or nerve cells,
are electrically active cells which are primarily responsible for carrying out the brain's
functions. Neurons create action potentials, which are discrete electrical signals that
travel down axons and cause the release of chemical neurotransmitters at the synapse,
which is an area of near contact between two neurons. This neurotransmitter then fits into
a receptor in the dendrite or body of the neuron that is on the other side of the synapse,
the post-synaptic neuron. The neurotransmitter, when combined with the receptor,
typically causes an electrical current within dendrite or body of the post-synaptic neuron.
Thousands of post-synaptic currents from a single neuron's dendrites and body then sum
up to cause the neuron to generate an action potential (or not). This neuron then synapses
on other neurons, and so on.

EEG reflects correlated synaptic activity caused by post-synaptic potentials of cortical

neurons. The ionic currents involved in the generation of fast action potentials may not
contribute greatly to the averaged field potentials representing the EEG. More
specifically, the scalp electrical potentials that produce EEG are generally thought to be
caused by the extracellular ionic currents caused by dendritic electrical activity, whereas
the fields producing magnetoencephalographic signals are associated with intracellular
ionic currents.

The electric potentials generated by single neurons are far too small to be picked by EEG
or MEG. EEG activity therefore always reflects the summation of the synchronous
activity of thousands or millions of neurons that have similar spatial orientation, radial to
the scalp. Currents that are tangential to the scalp are not picked up by the EEG. The
EEG therefore benefits from the parallel, radial arrangement of apical dendrites in the
cortex. Because voltage fields fall off with the fourth power of the radius, activity from
deep sources is more difficult to detect than currents near the skull.
Scalp EEG activity shows oscillations at a variety of frequencies. Several of these
oscillations have characteristic frequency ranges, spatial distributions and are associated
with different states of brain functioning (e.g., waking and the various sleep stages).
These oscillations represent synchronized activity over a network of neurons. The
neuronal networks underlying some of these oscillations are understood (e.g., the
thalamocortical resonance underlying sleep spindles), while many others are not (e.g., the
system that generates the posterior basic rhythm).

2. Clinical use
A routine clinical EEG recording typically lasts 20–40 minutes (plus preparation time)
and usually involves recording from 25 scalp electrodes. Routine EEG is typically used in
the following clinical circumstances:

• to distinguish epileptic seizures from other types of spells, such as psychogenic

non-epileptic seizures, syncope (fainting), sub-cortical movement disorders and
migraine variants.
• to differentiate "organic" encephalopathy or delirium from primary psychiatric
syndromes such as catatonia
• to serve as an adjunct test of brain death
• to prognosticate, in certain instances, in patients with coma

At times, a routine EEG is not sufficient, particularly when it is necessary to record a

patient while he/she is having a seizure. In this case, the patient may be admitted to the
hospital for days or even weeks, while EEG is constantly being recorded (along with
time-synchronized video and audio recording). A recording of an actual seizure (i.e., an
ictal recording, rather than an inter-ictal recording of a possibly epileptic patient at some
period between seizures) can give significantly better information about whether or not a
spell is an epileptic seizure and the focus in the brain from which the seizure activity
emanates.

Epilepsy monitoring is typically done

• to distinguish epileptic seizures from other types of spells, such as psychogenic

non-epileptic seizures, syncope (fainting), sub-cortical movement disorders and
migraine variants.
• to characterize seizures for the purposes of treatment
• to localize the region of brain from which a seizure originates for work-up of
possible seizure surgery

Additionally, EEG may be used to monitor certain procedures:

• to monitor the depth of anesthesia

• as an indirect indicator of cerebral perfusion in carotid endarterectomy
• to monitor amobarbital effect during the Wada test
EEG can also be used in intensive care units for brain function monitoring:

• to monitor for non-convulsive seizures/non-convulsive status epilepticus

• to monitor the effect of sedative/anesthesia in patients in medically induced coma
(for treatment of refractory seizures or increased intracranial pressure)
• to monitor for secondary brain damage in conditions such as subarachnoid
hemorrhage (currently a research method)

If a patient with epilepsy is being considered for resective surgery, it is often necessary to
localize the focus (source) of the epileptic brain activity with a resolution greater than
what is provided by scalp EEG. This is because the cerebrospinal fluid, skull and scalp
smear the electrical potentials recorded by scalp EEG. In these cases, neurosurgeons
typically implant strips and grids of electrodes (or penetrating depth electrodes) under the
dura mater, through either a craniotomy or a burr hole. The recording of these signals is
referred to as electrocorticography (ECoG), subdural EEG (sdEEG) or intracranial EEG
(icEEG)--all terms for the same thing. The signal recorded from ECoG is on a different
scale of activity than the brain activity recorded from scalp EEG. Low voltage, high
frequency components that cannot be seen easily (or at all) in scalp EEG can be seen
clearly in ECoG. Further, smaller electrodes (which cover a smaller parcel of brain
surface) allow even lower voltage, faster components of brain activity to be seen. Some
clinical sites record from penetrating microelectrodes.

3. Research use

An early EEG recording, obtained by Hans Berger in 1924

The upper tracing is EEG, and the lower is a 10 Hz timing signal.

EEG, and its derivative, ERPs, are used extensively in neuroscience, cognitive science,
cognitive psychology, and psychophysiological research. Many techniques used in
research contexts are not standardized sufficiently to be used in the clinical context.

EEG also has some characteristics that compare favorably with behavioral testing:

• EEG can detect covert processing (i.e., that which does not require a response)
• EEG can be used in subjects who are incapable of making a motor response
• Some ERP components can be detected even when the subject is not attending to
the stimuli
• As compared with other reaction time paradigms, ERPs can elucidate stages of
processing (rather than just the final end result)
4. Method

Computer Electroencephalograph Neurovisor-BMM 40

In conventional scalp EEG, the recording is obtained by placing electrodes on the scalp
with a conductive gel or paste, usually after preparing the scalp area by light abrasion to
reduce impedance due to dead skin cells. Many systems typically use electrodes, each of
which is attached to an individual wire. Some systems use caps or nets into which
electrodes are embedded; this is particularly common when high-density arrays of
electrodes are needed.

10/20 System of electrode

placement

Electrode locations and names are specified by the International 10–20 system for most
clinical and research applications (except when high-density arrays are used). This
system ensures that the naming of electrodes is consistent across laboratories. In most
clinical applications, 19 recording electrodes (plus ground and system reference) are
used. A smaller number of electrodes are typically used when recording EEG from
neonates. Additional electrodes can be added to the standard set-up when a clinical or
research application demands increased spatial resolution for a particular area of the
brain. High-density arrays (typically via cap or net) can contain up to 256 electrodes
more-or-less evenly spaced around the scalp.
Each electrode is connected to one input of a differential amplifier (one amplifier per pair
of electrodes); a common system reference electrode is connected to the other input of
each differential amplifier. These amplifiers amplify the voltage between the active
electrode and the reference (typically 1,000–100,000 times, or 60–100 dB of voltage
gain). In analog EEG, the signal is then filtered (next paragraph), and the EEG signal is
output as the deflection of pens as paper passes underneath. Most EEG systems these
days, however, are digital, and the amplified signal is digitized via an analog-to-digital
converter, after being passed through an anti-aliasing filter. Analog-to-digital sampling
typically occurs at 256-512 Hz in clinical scalp EEG; sampling rates of up to 20 kHz are
used in some research applications.

During the recording, a series of activation procedures may be used. These procedures
may induce normal or abnormal EEG activity that might not otherwise be seen. These
procedures include hyperventilation, photic stimulation (with a strobe light), eye closure,
mental activity, sleep and sleep deprivation. During (in patient) epilepsy monitoring, a
patient's typical seizure medications may be withdrawn.

The digital EEG signal is stored electronically and can be filtered for display. Typical
settings for the high-pass filter and a low-pass filter are 0.5-1 Hz and 35–70 Hz,
respectively. The high-pass filter typically filters out slow artifact, such as electro
galvanic signals and movement artifact, whereas the low-pass filter filters out high-
frequency artifacts, such as electromyographic signals. An additional notch filter is
typically used to remove artifact caused by electrical power lines (60 Hz in the United
States and 50 Hz in many other countries).

As part of an evaluation for epilepsy surgery, it may be necessary to insert electrodes near
the surface of the brain, under the surface of the dura mater. This is accomplished via
burr hole or craniotomy. This is referred to variously as "electrocorticography (ECoG)",
"intracranial EEG (I-EEG)" or "subdural EEG (SD-EEG)". Depth electrodes may also be
placed into brain structures, such as the amygdala or hippocampus, structures which are
common epileptic foci and may not be "seen" clearly by scalp EEG. The
electrocorticographic signal is processed in the same manner as digital scalp EEG
(above), with a couple of caveats. ECoG is typically recorded at higher sampling rates
than scalp EEG because of the requirements of Nyquist theorem—the subdural signal is
composed of a higher predominance of higher frequency components. Also, many of the
artifacts which affect scalp EEG do not impact ECoG, and therefore display filtering is
often not needed.

A typical adult human EEG signal is about 10µV to 100 µV in amplitude when measured
from the scalp and is about 10–20 mV when measured from subdural electrodes.

Since an EEG voltage signal represents a difference between the voltages at two
electrodes, the display of the EEG for the reading encephalographer may be set up in one
of several ways. The representation of the EEG channels is referred to as a montage.

Bipolar montage
 Each channel (i.e., waveform) represents the difference between two adjacent
electrodes. The entire montage consists of a series of these channels. For example,
the channel "Fp1-F3" represents the difference in voltage between the Fp1
electrode and the F3 electrode. The next channel in the montage, "F3-C3,"
represents the voltage difference between F3 and C3, and so on through the entire
array of electrodes.

Referential montage

Each channel represents the difference between a certain electrode and a

designated reference electrode. There is no standard position at which this
reference is always placed; it is, however, at a different position than the
"recording" electrodes. Midline positions are often used because they do not
amplify the signal in one hemisphere vs. the other. Another popular reference is
"linked ears," which is a physical or mathematical average of electrodes attached
to both earlobes or mastoids.
Average reference montage
 The outputs of all of the amplifiers are summed and averaged, and this averaged
signal is used as the common reference for each channel.

Laplacian montage
Each channel represents the difference between an electrode and a weighted
average of the surrounding electrodes.

When analog (paper) EEGs are used, the technologist switches between montages during
the recording in order to highlight or better characterize certain features of the EEG. With
digital EEG, all signals are typically digitized and stored in a particular (usually
referential) montage; since any montage can be constructed mathematically from any
other, the EEG can be viewed by the electroencephalographer in any display montage
that is desired.

The EEG is read by a neurologist, optimally one who has specific training in the
interpretation of EEGs. This is done by visual inspection of the waveforms. The use of
computer signal processing of the EEG—so-called quantitative EEG—is somewhat
controversial when used for clinical purposes (although there are many research uses).

5. Normal activity

One second of EEG signal

The EEG is typically described in terms of (1) rhythmic activity and (2) transients. The
rhythmic activity is divided into bands by frequency. To some degree, these frequency
bands are a matter of nomenclature (i.e., any rhythmic activity between 8–12 Hz can be
described as "alpha"), but these designations arose because rhythmic activity within a
certain frequency range was noted to have a certain distribution over the scalp or a certain
biological significance.

Most of the cerebral signal observed in the scalp EEG falls in the range of 1–20 Hz
(activity below or above this range is likely to be artifactual, under standard clinical
recording techniques).

5.1 Comparison table

Comparison of EEG bands

Frequency
Type Location Normally Pathologically
(Hz)
• subcortical lesions
frontally in
• diffuse lesions
adults,
• adults slow wave • metabolic
posteriorly
sleep encephalopathy
Delta up to 4 in children;
hydrocephalus
high
• in babies
amplitude
• Deep midline
waves
lesions.
• focal subcortical
lesions
• young children
• metabolic
• drowsiness or
encephalopathy
arousal in older
Theta 4 – 7 Hz • deep midline
children and adults
disorders
• idling
• some instances of
hydrocephalus
Posterior
regions of
head, both
sides,
higher in
• relaxed/reflecting
amplitude
Alpha 8 – 12 Hz • coma
on
• closing the eyes
dominant
side.
Central sites
(c3-c4) at
rest.
Beta 12 – 30 Hz both sides, • alert/working • benzodiazepines
symmetrical
distribution, • active, busy or
most anxious thinking,
evident active concentration
 frontally;
low
amplitude
waves
• certain cognitive or
Gamma 30 – 100 +
motor functions

5.2 Wave patterns

Delta waves.

• Delta is the frequency range up to 3 Hz. It tends to be the highest in amplitude and
the slowest waves. It is seen normally in adults in slow wave sleep. It is also seen
normally in babies. It may occur focally with subcortical lesions and in general
distribution with diffuse lesions, metabolic encephalopathy hydrocephalus or deep
midline lesions. It is usually most prominent frontally in adults (e.g. FIRDA -
Frontal Intermittent Rhythmic Delta) and posteriorly in children (e.g. OIRDA -
Occipital Intermittent Rhythmic Delta).

Theta waves.

• Theta is the frequency range from 4 Hz to 7 Hz. Theta is seen normally in young
children. It may be seen in drowsiness or arousal in older children and adults; it
can also be seen in meditation. Excess theta for age represents abnormal activity.
It can be seen as a focal disturbance in focal subcortical lesions; it can be seen in
generalized distribution in diffuse disorder or metabolic encephalopathy or deep
midline disorders or some instances of hydrocephalus. On the contrary this range
has been associated with reports of relaxed, meditative, and creative states.

Alpha waves.
 • Alpha is the frequency range from 8 Hz to 12 Hz. Hans Berger named the first
rhythmic EEG activity he saw, the "alpha wave." This is activity in the 8–12 Hz
range seen in the posterior regions of the head on both sides, being higher in
amplitude on the dominant side. It is brought out by closing the eyes and by
relaxation. It was noted to attenuate with eye opening or mental exertion. This
activity is now referred to as "posterior basic rhythm," the "posterior dominant
rhythm" or the "posterior alpha rhythm." The posterior basic rhythm is actually
slower than 8 Hz in young children (therefore technically in the theta range). In
addition to the posterior basic rhythm, there are two other normal alpha rhythms
that are typically discussed: the mu rhythm and a temporal "third rhythm". Alpha
can be abnormal; for example, an EEG that has diffuse alpha occurring in coma
and is not responsive to external stimuli is referred to as "alpha coma".

sensorimotor rhythm aka mu rhythm.

• Mu rhythm is alpha-range activity that is seen over the sensorimotor cortex. It

characteristically attenuates with movement of the contralateral arm (or mental
imagery of movement of the contralateral arm).

Beta waves.

• Beta is the frequency range from 12 Hz to about 30 Hz. It is seen usually on both
sides in symmetrical distribution and is most evident frontally. Low amplitude
beta with multiple and varying frequencies is often associated with active, busy or
anxious thinking and active concentration. Rhythmic beta with a dominant set of
frequencies is associated with various pathologies and drug effects, especially
benzodiazepines. Activity over about 25 Hz seen in the scalp EEG is rarely
cerebral (i.e., it is most often artifactual). It may be absent or reduced in areas of
cortical damage. It is the dominant rhythm in patients who are alert or anxious or
who have their eyes open.

Gamma waves.
 • Gamma is the frequency range approximately 26–100 Hz. Because of the filtering
properties of the skull and scalp, gamma rhythms can only be recorded from
electrocorticography or possibly with magnetoencephalography. Gamma rhythms
are thought to represent binding of different populations of neurons together into a
network for the purpose of carrying out a certain cognitive or motor function.

"Ultra-slow" or "near-DC" activity is recorded using DC amplifiers in some research

contexts. It is not typically recorded in a clinical context because the signal at these
frequencies is susceptible to a number of artifacts.

Some features of the EEG are transient rather than rhythmic. Spikes and sharp waves
may represent seizure activity or interictal activity in individuals with epilepsy or a
predisposition toward epilepsy. Other transient features are normal: vertex waves and
sleep spindles are transient events which are seen in normal sleep.

It should also be noted that there are types of activity which are statistically uncommon
but are not associated with dysfunction or disease. These are often referred to as "normal
variants." The mu rhythm is an example of a normal variant.

The normal EEG varies by age. The neonatal EEG is quite different from the adult EEG.
The EEG in childhood generally has slower frequency oscillations than the adult EEG.

The normal EEG also varies depending on state. The EEG is used along with other
measurements (EOG, EMG) to define sleep stages in polysomnography. Stage I sleep
(equivalent to drowsiness in some systems) appears on the EEG as drop-out of the
posterior basic rhythm. There can be an increase in theta frequencies. Santamaria and
Chiappa cataloged a number of the variety of patterns associated with drowsiness. Stage
II sleep is characterized by sleep spindles—transient runs of rhythmic activity in the 12–
14 Hz range (sometimes referred to as the "sigma" band) that has a frontal-central
maximum. Most of the activity in Stage II is in the 3–6 Hz range. Stage III and IV sleep
are defined by the presence of delta frequencies and are often referred to collectively as
"slow-wave sleep." Stages I-IV comprise non-REM (or "NREM") sleep. The EEG in
REM (rapid eye movement) sleep appears somewhat similar to the awake EEG.

EEG under general anesthesia depends on the type of anesthetic employed. With
halogenated anesthetics, such as halothane or intravenous agents, such as propofol, a
rapid (alpha or low beta), nonreactive EEG pattern is seen over most of the scalp,
especially anteriorly; in some older terminology this was known as a WAR (widespread
anterior rapid) pattern, contrasted with a WAIS (widespread slow) pattern associated with
high doses of opiates. Anesthetic effects on EEG signals are beginning to be understood
at the level of drug actions on different kinds of synapses and the circuits that allow
synchronized neuronal activity

6. Artifacts
6.1 Biological artifacts
Electrical signals detected along the scalp by an EEG, but that originate from non-
cerebral origin are called artifacts. EEG data is almost always contaminated by such
artifacts. The amplitude of artifacts can be quite large relative to the size of amplitude of
the cortical signals of interest. This is one of the reasons why it takes considerable
experience to correctly interpret EEGs clinically. Some of the most common types of
biological artifacts include:

• Eye-induced artifacts (includes eye blinks and eye movements)

• EKG (cardiac) artifacts
• EMG (muscle activation)-induced artifacts
• Gloss kinetic artifacts

Eye-induced artifacts are caused by the potential difference between the cornea and
retina, which is quite large compared to cerebral potentials. When the eye is completely
still, this does not affect EEG. But there are nearly always small or large reflexive eye
movements, which generates a potential which is picked up in the frontopolar and frontal
leads. Involuntary eye movements, known as saccades, are caused by ocular muscles,
which also generate electromyographic potentials. Purposeful or reflexive eye blinking
also generates electromyographic potentials, but more importantly there is reflexive
movement of the eyeball during blinking which gives a characteristic artifactual
appearance of the EEG.

Eyelid fluttering artifacts of a characteristic type were previously called Kappa rhythm
(or Kappa waves). It is usually seen in the prefrontal leads, that is, just over the eyes.
Sometimes they are seen with mental activity. They are usually in the Theta (4–7 Hz) or
Alpha (8–13 Hz) range. They were named because they were believed to originate from
the brain. Later study revealed they were generated by rapid fluttering of the eyelids,
sometimes so minute that it was difficult to see. They are in fact noise in the EEG
reading, and should not technically be called a rhythm or wave. Therefore, current usage
in electroencephalography refers to the phenomenon as an eyelid fluttering artifact, rather
than a Kappa rhythm (or wave).

Some of these artifacts are useful. Eye movements are very important in
polysomnography, and are also useful in conventional EEG for assessing possible
changes in alertness, drowsiness or sleep.

EKG artifacts are quite common and can be mistaken for spike activity. Because of this,
modern EEG acquisition commonly includes a one-channel EKG from the extremities.
This also allows the EEG to identify cardiac arrhythmias that are an important differential
diagnosis to syncope or other episodic/attack disorders.

Glossokinetic artifacts are caused by the potential difference between the base and the tip
of the tongue. Minor tongue movements can contaminate the EEG, especially in
parkinsonian and tremor disorders.

6.2 Environmental artifacts

In addition to artifacts generated by the body, many artifacts originate from outside the
body. Movement by the patient, or even just settling of the electrodes, may cause
electrode pops, spikes originating from a momentary change in the impedance of a given
electrode. Poor grounding of the EEG electrodes can cause significant 50 or 60 Hz
artifact, depending on the local power system's frequency. A third source of possible
interference can be the presence of an IV drip; such devices can cause rhythmic, fast,
low-voltage bursts, which may be confused for spikes.

6.3 Artifact correction

Recently, source decomposition techniques have been used to correct or remove EEG
contaminates. These techniques attempt to "unmix" the EEG signals into some number of
underlying components. There are many source separation algorithms, often assuming
various behaviors or natures of EEG. Regardless, the principle behind any particular
method usually allow "remixing" only those components that would result in "clean"
EEG by nullifying (zeroing) the weight of unwanted components.

7. Abnormal activity
Abnormal activity can broadly be separated into epileptiform and non-epileptiform
activity. It can also be separated into focal or diffuse.

Focal epileptiform discharges represent fast, synchronous potentials in a large number of

neurons in a somewhat discrete area of the brain. These can occur as interictal activity,
between seizures, and represent an area of cortical irritability that may be predisposed to
producing epileptic seizures. Interictal discharges are not wholly reliable for determining
whether a patient has epilepsy nor where his/her seizure might originate. (See focal
epilepsy.)

Generalized epileptiform discharges often have an anterior maximum, but these are seen
synchronously throughout the entire brain. They are strongly suggestive of a generalized
epilepsy.

Focal non-epileptiform abnormal activity may occur over areas of the brain where there
is focal damage of the cortex or white matter. It often consists of an increase in slow
frequency rhythms and/or a loss of normal higher frequency rhythms. It may also appear
as focal or unilateral decrease in amplitude of the EEG signal.

Diffuse non-epileptiform abnormal activity may manifest as diffuse abnormally slow

rhythms or bilateral slowing of normal rhythms, such as the PBR.

8. Various uses
The EEG has been used for many purposes besides the conventional uses of clinical
diagnosis and conventional cognitive neuroscience. Neurofeedback remains an important
extension, and in its most advanced form is also attempted as the basis of brain computer
interfaces. The EEG is also used quite extensively in the field of neuromarketing. There
are many commercial products substantially based on the EEG.

Honda is attempting to develop a system to move its Asimo robot using EEG, a
technology which it eventually hopes to incorporate into its automobiles.

EEGs have been used as evidence in trials in the Indian state of Maharastra.

8.1 EEG and Telepathy

DARPA has budgeted $4 million in 2009 to investigate technology to enable soldiers on

the battlefield to communicate via computer-mediated telepathy. The aim is to analyze
neural signals that exist in the brain before words are spoken.

8.2 Games

• In March 24 2007 a US company called Emotiv launched a pointing device for

video games based on electroencephalography.

• Announced at the turn of 2008/2009 were two one-player tabletop gadgets, based
on the EEG technology of the company Neurosky. MindFlex by Mattel consists of
a ball on a small obstacle course, Force Trainer by Uncle Milton Industries of a
ball in a transparent tube. Both feature a headset and a motor to levitate the ball.

9. Images

EEG electroencephalophone used

Portable recording during a music performance in which
Girl wearingPerson wearingdevice for EEG bathers from around the world were
electrodes forelectrodes for networked together as part of a
EEG EEG collective musical performance, using
their brainwaves to control sound,
lighting, and the bath environment
 **********************************************************

10. EEG Machine

10.1 Background
An electroencephalogram (EEG) machine is a device used to create a picture of the
electrical activity of the brain. It has been used for both medical diagnosis and
neurobiological research. The essential components of an EEG machine include
electrodes, amplifiers, a computer control module, and a display device. Manufacturing
typically involves separate production of the various components, assembly, and final
packaging. First developed during the early twentieth century, the EEG machine
continues to be improved. It is thought that this machine will lead to a wide range of
important discoveries both in basic brain function and cures for various neurological
diseases.

The function of an EEG machine depends on the fact that the nerve cells in the brain are
constantly producing tiny electrical signals. Nerve cells, or neurons, transmit information
throughout the body electrically. They create electrical impulses by the diffusion of
calcium, sodium, and potassium ions across the cell membranes. When a person is
thinking, reading, or watching television different parts of the brain are stimulated. This
creates different electrical signals that can be monitored by an EEG.

The electrodes on the EEG machine are affixed to the scalp so they can pick up the small
electrical brainwaves produced by the nerves. As the signals travel through the machine,
they run through amplifiers that make them big enough to be displayed. The amplifiers
work just as amplifiers in a home stereo system. One pair of electrodes makes up a
channel. EEG machines have anywhere from eight to 40 channels. Depending on the
design, the EEG machine then either prints out the wave activity on paper (by a
galvanometer) or stores it on a computer hard drive for display on a monitor.

It has long been known that different mind states lead to different EEG displays. Four
mind states—alertness, rest, sleep, and dreaming—have associated brain waves named
alpha, beta, theta, and delta. Each of these brain wave patterns has different frequencies
and amplitudes of waves.

EEG machines are used for a variety of purposes. In medicine, they are used to diagnose
such things as seizure disorders, head injuries, and brain tumors. A trained technician in a
specially designed room performs an EEG test. The patient lies on his or her back and 16-
25 electrodes are applied on the scalp. The output from the electrodes are recorded on a
computer screen or drawn on a moving piece of graph paper. The patient is sometimes
asked to do certain tasks such as breathing deeply or looking at a bright flickering light.
The data collected from this machine can be interpreted by a computer and provides a
geometrical picture of the brain's activity. This can show doctors exactly where brain
activity problems are.

10.2 History
The EEG machine was first introduced to the world by Hans Berger in 1929. Berger, who
was a neuropsychiatrist from the University of Jena in Germany, used the German term
elektrenkephalogramm to describe the graphical representation of the electric currents
generated in the brain. He suggested that brain currents changed based on the functional
status of the brain such as sleep, anesthesia, and epilepsy. These were revolutionary ideas
that helped create a new branch of medical science called neurophysiology.

For the most part, the scientific community of Berger's time did not believe his
conclusions. It took another five years until his conclusions could be verified through
experimentation by Edgar Douglas Adrian and B. C. H. Matthews. After these
experiments, other scientists began studying the field. In 1936, W. Gray Walter
demonstrated that this technology could be used to pinpoint a brain tumor. Walter used a
large number of small electrodes that he pasted to the scalp and found that brain tumors
caused areas of abnormal electrical activity.

Over the years the EEG electrodes, amplifiers, and output devices were improved.
Scientists learned the best places to put the electrodes and how to diagnose conditions.
They also discovered how to create electrical maps of the brain. In 1957, Walter
developed a device called the toposcope. This machine used EEG activity to produce a
map of the brain's surface. It had 22 cathode ray tubes that were connected to a pair of
electrodes on the skull. The electrodes were arranged such that each tube could show the
intensity of activity in different brain sections. By using this machine Walter
demonstrated that the resting state brain waves were different than brain waves generated
during a mental task that required concentration. While this device was useful, it never
achieved commercial success because it was complex and expensive. Today, EEG
machines have multiple channels, computer storage memories, and specialized software
that can create an electrical map of the brain.

10.3 Raw Materials

Numerous raw materials are used in the construction of an EEG machine. The internal
printed circuit boards are flat, resin-coated sheets. Connected to them are electronic
components such as resistors, capacitors, and integrated circuits made from various types
of metals, plastic, and silicon.

The electrodes are generally constructed from German silver. German silver is an alloy
made up of copper, nickel, and zinc. It is particularly useful because it is soft enough to
grind and polish easily. Stainless steel (which has a higher concentration of nickel) can
also be used. It tends to be more corrosion resistant but is harder to drill and machine.
 An adhesive tape is used to attach surface electrodes to the patient. Since the electric
signals are weakly transmitted through the skin to the electrodes, an electrolyte paste or
gel is typically needed. This material is applied directly to the skin. It may be composed
of a cosmetic ingredient like lanolin and chloride ions that help form a conductive bridge
between the skin and the electrode allowing better signal transmission.
Polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon) is used as a coating for the wires and various kinds of
electrodes.

10.4 Design
The basic systems of an EEG machine include data collection, storage, and display. The
components of these systems include electrodes, connecting wires, amplifiers, a computer
control module, and a display device. In the United States, the FDA (Food and Drug
Administration) has proposed production suggestions for manufacturers of EEG
machines.

The electrodes, or leads, used in an EEG machine can be divided into two types including
surface and needle electrodes. In general, needle electrodes provide greater signal clarity
because they are injected directly into the body. This eliminates signal muffling caused
by the skin. For surface electrodes, there are disposable models such as the tab, ring, and
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measuring relatively low-level signals. In some designs, the amplifiers are set up as
follows. A pair of electrodes detects the electrical signal from the body. Wires connected
to the electrodes transfer the signal to the first section of the amplifier, the buffer
amplifier. Here the signal is electronically stabilized and amplified by a factor of five to
10. A differential pre-amplifier is next in line that filters and amplifies the signal by a
factor of 10-100. After going through these amplifiers, the signals are multiplied by
hundreds or thousands of times.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

This section of the amplifiers, which receive direct signals from the patient, use optical
isolators to separate the main power circuitry from the patient. The separation prevents
the possibility of accidental electric shock. The primary amplifier is found in the main
power circuitry. In this powered amplifier the analog signal is converted to a digital
signal, which is more suitable for output.

Since the brain produces different signals at different points on the skull, multiple
electrodes are used. The number of channels that an EEG machine has is related to the
number of electrodes used. The more channels, the more detailed the brainwave picture.
For each amplifier on the EEG machine two electrodes are attached. The amplifier is able
to translate the different incoming signals and cancels ones that are identical. This means
that the output from the machine is actually the difference in electrical activity picked up
by the two electrodes. Therefore, the placement for each electrode is critical because the
closer they are to each other, the less differences in the brainwaves that will be recorded.
A variety of output printers and monitors are available for EEG machines. One common
device is a galvanometer or paper-strip recorder. This device prints a hard copy of the
EEG signals over time. Other types of devices are also used including computer printers,
optical discs, recordable compact discs (CDs), and magnetic tape units. Since the data
collected is analog, it must be converted to a digital signal so electronic output devices
can be used. Therefore, the primary circuitry of the EEG typically has a built-in analog to
digital converter section. The software provided with some EEG machines can be used to
create a map of the brain.

Various other accessories are used with an EEG machine. These include electrolytic
pastes or gels, mounting clips, various sensors, and thermal papers. EEG machines used
in sleep studies are equipped with snoring and respiration sensors. Other uses require
sensory stimulation devices such as headphones and LED goggles. Still other EEG
machines are equipped with electrical stimulators.

10.5 The Manufacturing Process

The different parts of an EEG machine are produced separately and then assembled by
the primary manufacturer prior to packaging. These components, including the
electrodes, the amplifier, and the storage and output devices, can be supplied by outside
manufacturers or made in-house.

Electrodes

• 1 The EEG electrodes are typically received from outside suppliers and checked
to see if they conform to set specifications. One type of electrode commonly used
for the EEG machine is a needle electrode. These can be made from a bar of
stainless steel. The bar is heated until it becomes soft and then extruded to form a
seamless tube.
• 2 The tube is then drawn out to produce a fine hollow tube. These tubes are cut to
the desired length, and then conically sharpened to produce a point.
• 3 To ensure easy insertion, the tube is passed through a bath of
polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon) to provide a slick, chemical resistant coating. As
the tube exits the bath it is warmed to evaporate the solvent and allow the coating
to adhere.
• 4 The tube is then mechanically placed in a plastic adapter piece that is made with
an injection molding machine. This piece allows the disposable, individually
packaged needles to hook up to the lead wire.
• 5 The shielded lead wire is fitted with an adapter that can be hooked up to the
primary unit.

Internal electronics

• 6 The amplifiers and computer control module are assembled just like other
electronic equipment. The electronic configurations are first printed on circuit
boards. The boards can be fitted with chips, capacitors, diodes, fuses, and other
 electronic parts by hand or passed through an automated machine. This machine
works like a labeling machine. It is loaded with numerous spools of electronic
components and placing heads. A computer controls the motion of the board
through the machine. When a board is moved under one of the component spools,
a placing head stamps the electronic piece on the board in the appropriate
positions. When completed the boards are sent to the next step for wave soldering.
• 7 In the next step, a wave-soldering machine affixes the electronic components to
the board. As the boards enter this machine, they are washed with flux to remove
contaminants that might cause short circuits.
• 8 Boards are then heated using infrared heat. The underside of the board is passed
over a vat of molten solder. The solder fills into the needed areas through
capillary action.
• 9 As the boards cool, the solder hardens and the electronics are held into place.
Visual inspection is typically done at this point to ensure that defective boards get
rejected.

Amplifier

• 10 The electronic boards for the amplifier are pieced together and affixed to a
housing. This is typically done by line operators who physically place the pieces
on pre-fabricated boards.
• 11 The housing is made of a sturdy plastic that is constructed through typical
injection molding processes. In this process, a two-piece mold is created that has
the inverse shape of the desired part. Molten plastic is injected into the mold and
when it cools, the part is formed. For some EEG models, the amplifier is a
separate box about the size of a textbook. The outer sides of the box have
connectors where the electrodes and the computer connection lines are plugged in.

Computer control box

• 12 An EEG station consists of the amplifier and a computer control station. This
control station typically has a desktop computer, a keyboard and mouse, a color
printer, and a video monitor. These devices are all produced by outside
manufacturers and assembled by the EEG manufacturer.

Final assembly

• 13 Each of the components of the EEG O machine are brought together and
placed into an appropriate metal frame. This process is done by line operators
working in extremely clean conditions. When the components are assembled they
are typically put on a sturdy, steel cart to make the device portable.
• 14 The finished devices are then put into final packaging along with accessories
such as electrodes, computer software, printout paper, and manuals.

10.6 Quality Control

At each step in the manufacturing process, visual and electrical inspections occur to
ensure the quality of each EEG device being produced. Since circuit fabrication is
sensitive to contamination, assembly work is done by line operators in air-flow
controlled, clean rooms. Operators must also wear lint-free clothing to reduce the chance
of contamination. The functional performance of each completed EEG device is also
tested to make sure it works. This is done by powering up the device, turning it on, and
running a series of standard tests. To simulate real-life use, these tests are done under
different levels of heat and humidity.

In general, manufacturers set their own quality specifications for their EEG machines.
However, in the United States the Food & Drug Administration (FDA) provides
production recommendations that are usually adapted by the industry. Various other
medical and governmental organizations also propose standards and performance
suggestions. Some factors considered important are standardized input signal ranges,
accuracy of calibration signal, frequency responses, and recording duration.

10.7 The Future

In the future, EEG machines will be improved in their manufacture and their applications.
From a manufacturing standpoint, the components that makeup the internal electronics of
the device will likely get smaller. This will allow for smaller, more portable machines. It
will also make the devices less expensive. This will be important because some experts
suggest that future applications will make it desirable for individual consumers to have
EEG machines.

While manufacturing improvements will come from research done in the general field of
electronic manufacturing, specific research on EEG machines has focused on new uses
and applications. For example, a device has recently been introduced that may make it
possible to screen for Alzheimer's disease. This machine contains a cap that is fitted with
electrodes. When worn it provides an electronic picture of a patient's brain activity. This
picture is compared to the brain activity of healthy people and differences are noted.

A similar machine has been developed which can use information received from EEG
electrodes to control computers. With this device the user wears an electrode-containing
cap and looks at a computer screen. After a training session with the computer, users
have been able to control the movement of a cursor on the screen just by using their
thoughts. If fully developed, this technology could be a revolutionary development for
paraplegics. Individual consumers may also benefit using such a device to control
household lights, computers, and appliances just by thinking.