english literary periods

450 1066 Old English (Anglo-Saxon)

1066 1500 Middle English
1500 1660 The Reneissance (Elizabehan)
1660 1!"0 #eoclassicis$ (Enlighen$en% Age o& Reason)
1!"0 1'(0 Ro$anicis$
1'(1 1"01 )ico*ian Age
1"01 1"45 Mode*nis$
1"45 + ,os$ode*nis$ (-one$.o*a*/ 0ie*a1*e)
Beowulf
S*1c1*e b/ bales (jeeli ktos chce wiecej to jest tez structure by funerals :)
There are two standard interpretations of the poem: one view which suggests a two-part structure
(ie! the poem is divided between "eowulf#s battles with $rendel and with the dragon) and the other!
a three-part structure (this interpretation argues that "eowulf#s battle with $rendel#s mother is
structurally separate from his battle with $rendel)
2eo31l& cha*ace*isics
"eowulf e%emplifies the traits of the perfect hero The poem e%plores his heroism in two separate
phases&youth and age&and through three separate and increasingly difficult conflicts&with
$rendel! $rendel's mother! and the dragon (lthough we can view these three encounters as
e%pressions of the heroic code! there is perhaps a clearer division between "eowulf's youthful
heroism as an unfettered warrior and his mature heroism as a reliable king These two phases of his
life! separated by fifty years! correspond to two different models of virtue! and much of the moral
reflection in the story centers on differentiating these two models and on showing how "eowulf
makes the transition from one to the other
-h*isian ele$ens
There are several similarities between "eowulf and the "ible )irst! similarities between "eowulf and
*esus: both are brave and selfless in overcoming the evils that oppose them! and both are kings that
die to save their people +econdly! a similarity between part of The "ook of ,evelation (-Their place
will be in the lake that burns with fire and sulfur! which is the second death! ,evelation ./:0) and the
home of $rendel and $rendel#s mother Third! he compares the words of *esus in the $ospel of 1uke
(when he pardons those who call for his crucifi%ion) to the portion of the poem when (before plunging
into the perilous lake) "eowulf forgives his enemy! 2nferth
(part from that! $rendel#s mother and $rendel are described as descendants of 3ain
4enning is a circumlocution used instead of an ordinary noun in 4ld 5orse and later 6celandic
poetry )or e%ample! in line /7 of Beowulf the sea is called hronrade (whale road) The term kenning
has been applied by modern scholars to similar figures of speech in other languages too! especially
4ld 8nglish
Allie*aion is the repetition of a leading vowel or consonant sound in a phrase ( common e%ample
in 8nglish is 9:eter :iper :icked a :eck of :ickled :eppers9 (lliteration can take the form of
assonance! the repetition of a vowel! or consonance! the repetition of a consonant
6n oral poetry! a &o*$1la is a repeating se;uence of words used for structure and as a mnemonic by
a poet
5/*d is a concept in (nglo-+a%on and 5ordic culture roughly corresponding to )ate 6t is ancestral to
<odern 8nglish weird! which has ac;uired a very different signification 6n a simple sense! Wyrd
1
refers to how past actions continually affect and condition the future! but also how the future affects
the past
As a he*oic e.ic
"eowulf is considered an epic poem in that the main character is a historic hero who travels great
distances to prove his strength at impossible odds against supernatural demons and beasts The
poet who composed "eowulf! while objective in telling the tale! nonetheless utilizes a certain style to
maintain e%citement and adventure within the story (n elaborate history of characters and their
lineages are spoken of! as well as their interactions with each other! debts owed and repayed! and
deeds of valour
Ohe* he*oic e.ics
Ancien 6
8pic of $ilgamesh (<esopotamian mythology)
6liad! ascribed to =omer ($reek mythology)
4dyssey! ascribed to =omer ($reek mythology)
Medie7al 6
1a 3hanson de ,oland (The +ong of ,oland)
chansons de geste
The chansons de geste! 4ld )rench for 9songs of heroic deeds >or heroic lineages?9! are the epic
poems that appear at the dawn of )rench literature The earliest known e%amples date from the late
eleventh and early twelfth centuries! nearly a hundred years before the emergence of the lyric poetry
of the trouv@res (troubadours) and the earliest verse romances
The traditional subject matter of the chansons de geste became known as the <atter of )rance This
distinguished them from romances concerned with the <atter of "ritain! that is! Aing (rthur and his
knightsB and with the so-called <atter of ,ome! covering the Trojan Car! the con;uests of (le%ander
the $reat! the life of *ulius 3Dsar and some of his 6mperial successors! who were given medieval
makeovers as e%emplars of chivalry
The poems contain a small and unvarying assortment of character typesB the repertoire of valiant
hero! brave traitor! shifty or cowardly traitor! +aracen giant! beautiful +aracen princess! and so forth
is one that is easily e%hausted (s the genre matured! fantasy elements were introduced
Mae*s (c/cles) o& chansons de gesee
- the matter of "ritain (Aing (rthur and his knights)
- the matter of ,ome ((le%ander the $reat)
- the matter of )rance (3harles the $reat! ,oland)
sir gawain and the green knight
+ir $awain and the $reen Anight is a late /Eth-century alliterative chivalric romance outlining an
adventure of +ir $awain! a knight of Aing (rthur#s ,ound Table The poem survives on a single
manuscript! the 3otton 5ero (%! along with three pieces of a religious character! all written by the
8,ea*l .oe8 or 89a3ain .oe%8 an unknown author The four narrative poems are written in a 5orth
Cest <idland dialect of <iddle 8nglish
Si* 9a3ain and he 9*een 4nigh as a chi7al*ic *o$ance
6n this (rthurian tale! +ir $awain accepts a challenge from a mysterious warrior who is completely
green The 9$reen Anight9 offers to allow anyone to strike him with his a%e if the challenger will take
a return blow in a year and a day $awain accepts! and beheads him in one blow! only to have the
Anight stand up! pick up his head! and remind $awain to meet him at the appointed time The story
2
of $awain#s struggle to meet the appointment and his adventures along the way demonstrate chivalry
and loyalty
9a3ain is Aing (rthur#s nephew and a Anight of the ,ound Table who appears very early in the
(rthurian legend#s development =e is one of a select number of ,ound Table members to be
referred to as the greatest knight! most notably in +ir $awain and the $reen Anight =e is almost
always portrayed as the son of (rthur#s sister <orgause (or (nna) and Aing 1ot of 4rkney and
1othian $awain is often portrayed as a formidable but brash warrior! fiercely loyal to his king and
family =e is a friend to young knights! a defender of the poor! and a consummate ladies# man
S*1c1*e
(t the beginning of +ir $awain and the $reen Anight! the poet introduces the s/$bolic .enangle
+cholars believe that the poet uses this symbol of fives not only to give insight into the virtues of
$awain! but also to set the stage for the remainder of the poem )rom the five points of the pentangle
the reader is presented with the five dilemmas of +ir $awain The challenge put forth by the $reen
Anight presents $awain with his first dilemma (1) 4no3n &o* his 7alo* and co1*es/% *e&1sing he
challenge 3o1ld da$age his *e.1aion: "y accepting the challenge of the $reen Anight! $awain
now enters into his second dilemma (;) <e $1s% =esca.e 1nslain% .*o7ided ha his hono* $igh
also e$e*ge 1nscahed8: $awain enters into a bargain with "ertilak leading to his third dilemma!
(()=5hae7e* > 3in in he 3oods > 3ill gi7e /o1 a e7e% and all /o1 ha7e ea*ned /o1 $1s o&&e*
o $e?: Cith a -gift of body9! $awain is tempted by "ertilak#s wife This gift he cannot e%change with
"ertilak! nor can he refuse it as a knight of renowned courtesy (4)9a3ain $1s *e&1se he lad/@s
ae$.s a sed1cion% /e he $1s do so co1*eo1sl/A he dile$$a is his &o1*h (5)9a3ain
ene*s his &i&h dile$$a 3hen he acce.s he gi& o& he gi*dle: =e agrees to hide the girdle from
"ertilak! yet his bargain with the lord re;uires him to e%change it
0ang1age and s/le
(longside its advanced plot and rich language! the poem#s chief interest for literary critics is its
historical symbolism 8verything! from the $reen Anight! to the beheading game! to the girdle given
$awain as a protection from the a%e! is richly symbolic and steeped in 3eltic! $ermanic! and other
cultures and folklores (s a result! critics often compare $awain to similar! older works! such as the
6rish tales of 3Fchulainn! in order to find possible meanings and conte%ts for the symbolism and
themes within the poem
geoffrey chaucer
$eoffrey 3haucer (c /GEG H 4ctober .I! /E77) was an 8nglish author! poet! philosopher!
bureaucrat! courtier and diplomat (lthough he wrote many works! he is best remembered for his
unfinished frame narrative The 3anterbury Tales +ometimes called the father of 8nglish literature!
3haucer is credited by some scholars as being the first author to demonstrate the artistic legitimacy
of the vernacular 8nglish language! rather than )rench or 1atin
( .e*iods o& lie*a*/ ca*ee*
3haucer#s works are sometimes grouped into! first a )rench period! then an 6talian period and finally
an 8nglish period! with 3haucer being influenced by those countries# literatures in turn
-ane*b1*/ Tales s*1c1*e% &*a$e ale
The tales! some of which are originals and others not! are contained inside a frame tale and told by a
collection of pilgrims on a pilgrimage from +outhwark to 3anterbury to visit the shrine of +aint
Thomas "ecket at 3anterbury 3athedral The 3anterbury Tales are written in <iddle 8nglish
(lthough the tales are considered to be his magnum opus (greatest work)! some believe the structure
of the tales are indebted to the works of The Jecameron! which 3haucer is said to have read on an
earlier visit to 6taly (ohe* exa$.les o& &*a$e ale 6 The 2ooB o& 9ood 0o7e b/ C1an R1iz and
2occaccioDs Eeca$e*on)
-ha*ace*s in 9ene*al ,*olog1e% na**ao*s as *e.*esenai7es o& English socie/
3
The pilgrims include a knight! his son a s;uire! the knight#s yeoman! a prioress accompanied by a
second nun and the nun#s priest! a monk! a friar! a merchant! a clerk! a sergeant of law! a franklin! a
haberdasher! a carpenter! a weaver! a dyer! a tapestry weaver! a cook! a shipman! a doctor of
physic! a wife of "ath! a parson! his brother a plowman! a miller! a manciple! a reeve! a summoner! a
pardoner! the host! and a portrait of 3haucer himself The order the pilgrims are introduced places
them in a social order! describing the nobility in front! the craftsmen in the middle! and the peasants
at the end ( canon and his yeoman later join the pilgrimage and tell one of the tales
The $eneral :rologue is the basis for 3haucer's mirror of society (Cimsatt! /KE)L The idea that there
are so many characters with their own stories to tell is representative of a real society +ocieties
re;uire multiple dimensions in order to be called a society 8ven the corrupt people in some way! are
if not desired! certainly re;uired in a society because it is impossible to have a completely ideal
society where everyone is happy and ethical 6n addition to the numerous characters! 3haucer offers
the reader -addition ranks and segments of society within the various talesM (Cimsatt! /KE) ,ulers
are represented e%tremely well with stories about emperors! kings! popes and bishops
-ha*ace*isaion
the characters in 3haucer are of e%tremely varied stock! including representatives of most of the
branches of the middle classes at that time 5ot only are the participants very different! but they tell
very different types of tales! with their personalities showing through both in their choices of tales and
in the way they tell them
Sense o& h1$o1*
+ome of the tales are serious and others comical ,eligious malpractice is a major theme as well as
focusing on the division of the three estates <ost of the tales are interlinked with similar themes
running through them and some are told in retaliation for other tales in the form of an argument
9en*es% &ablia1x
The themes of the tales vary! and include topics such as courtly love! treachery! and avarice The
genres also vary! and include romance! "reton lai! sermon! beast fable! and fabliau%
The &ablia1 (plural fabliau% or 9#fablieau%#9) is a comic! usually anonymous tale written by jongleurs in
northeast )rance circa the /Gth 3entury They are generally bawdy in nature! and several of them
were reworked by $eoffrey 3haucer for his 3anterbury Tales +ome /I7 )rench fabliau% are e%tant
depending on how narrowly fabliau is defined
Typical fabliau% concern cuckolded husbands! rapacious clergy and foolish peasants The status of
peasants appears to vary based on the audience for which the fabliau was being written :oems that
were presumably written for the nobility portray peasants (vilains in )rench) as stupid and vile!
whereas those written for the lower classes often tell of peasants getting the better of the clergy
shakespeares sonnets
Sonne
The term 9sonnet9 derives from the :rovenNal word 9sonet9 and the 6talian word 9sonetto!9 both
meaning 9little song9 "y the thirteenth century! it had come to signify a poem of fourteen lines that
follows a strict rhyme scheme and logical structure The conventions associated with the sonnet have
evolved over its history
>alian and English sonne
The 6talian sonnet comprises two parts )irst! the octave (two ;uatrains)! which describe a problem!
followed by a sestet (two tercets)! which gives the resolution to it Typically! the ninth line creates a
9turn9 or volta which signals the move from proposition to resolution 8ven in sonnets that don#t
4
strictly follow the problemOresolution structure! the ninth line still often marks a 9turn9 by signalling a
change in the tone! mood! or stance of the poem
6n the sonnets of $iacomo da 1entini! the octave rhymed a-b-a-b! a-b-a-bB later! the a-b-b-a! a-b-b-a
pattern became the standard for 6talian +onnets )or the sestet there were two different possibilities!
c-d-e-c-d-e and c-d-c-c-d-c 6n time! other variants on this rhyming scheme were introduced such as
c-d-c-d-c-d
The first known sonnets in 8nglish! written by +ir Thomas Cyatt and =enry =oward! 8arl of +urrey!
used this 6talian scheme Chile Cyatt introduced the sonnet into 8nglish! it was +urrey who gave
them the rhyme scheme! meter! and division into ;uatrains that now characterizes the 8nglish
sonnet +ir :hilip +idney#s se;uence (strophil and +tella (/IP/) started a tremendous vogue for
sonnet se;uences: the ne%t two decades saw sonnet se;uences by Cilliam +hakespeare! 8dmund
+penser! <ichael Jrayton! +amuel Janiel! )ulke $reville! Cilliam Jrummond of =awthornden! and
many othersThese sonnets were all essentially inspired by the :etrarchan tradition! and generally
treat of the poet#s love for some womanB the e%ception is +hakespeare#s se;uence
S*1c1*e o& sonnes
The sonnets are each constructed from three four-line stanzas (called ;uatrains) and a final couplet
composed in iambic pentameter a meter used e%tensively in +hakespeare#s plays) with the rhyme
scheme abab cdcd efef gg (this form is now known as the +hakespearean sonnet) The only
e%ceptions are +onnets PP! /.Q! and /EI 5umber PP has fifteen lines 5umber /.Q consists of si%
couplets! and two blank lines marked with italic bracketsB /EI is in iambic tetrameters! not
pentameters 4ften! the beginning of the third ;uatrain marks the 9turn9! or the line in which the mood
of the poem shifts! and the poet e%presses a revelation or epiphany This is sometimes known as the
volta
-ha*ace*s
The first /K sonnets are written to a young man! urging him to marry and have children! thereby
passing down his beauty to the ne%t generation These are called the .*oc*eaion sonnets <ost of
them! however! /0-/.Q! are addressed to a young man e%pressing the poet#s love for him +onnets
/.K-/I. are written to the poet#s mistress e%pressing his love for her The final two sonnets! /IG-/IE!
are allegorical The final thirty or so sonnets are written about a number of issues! such as the young
man#s infidelity with the poet#s mistress! self-resolution to control his own lust! beleaguered criticism
of the world! etc
<ost of the sonnets are addressed to a beautiful young man! a rival poet! and a dark-haired lady
,eaders of the sonnets today commonly refer to these characters as the )air Routh! the ,ival :oet!
and the Jark 1ady The narrator e%presses admiration for the )air Routh#s beauty! and later has an
affair with the Jark 1ady 6t is not known whether the poems and their characters are fiction or
autobiographical 6f they are autobiographical! the identities of the characters are open to debate
The$es
+hakespeare#s sonnets are fre;uently more earthy and se%ual than contemporary sonnet se;uences
by other poets 4ne interpretation is that +hakespeare#s +onnets are in part a pastiche or parody of
the three centuries-long tradition of :etrarchan love sonnetsB in them! +hakespeare consciously
inverts conventional gender roles as delineated in :etrarchan sonnets to create a more comple% and
potentially troubling depiction of human love +hakespeare also violated many sonnet rules which
had been strictly obeyed by his fellow poets: he speaks on human evils that do not have to do with
love (QQ)! he comments on political events (/.E)! he makes fun of love (/.0)! he parodies beauty
(/G7)! he plays with gender roles (.7)! he speaks openly about se% (/.P) and even introduces witty
pornography (/I/)
elizabethan theatre
5
8nglish ,enaissance theatre derived from several medieval theatre traditions! such as the $/se*/
.la/s that formed a part of religious festivals in 8ngland and other parts of 8urope during the <iddle
(ges The mystery plays were comple% retellings of legends based on biblical themes! originally
performed in churches but later becoming more linked to the secular celebrations that grew up
around religious festivals 4ther sources include the $o*ali/ .la/s that evolved out of the
mysteries! and the 92niversity drama9 that attempted to recreate $reek tragedy The 6talian tradition
of 3ommedia dell#arte as well as the elaborate mas;ues fre;uently presented at court came to play
roles in the shaping of public theatre
Thea*es
The crucial initiating development was the building of The Theatre by *ames "urbage! in +horeditch
in /IKQ The Thea*e was rapidly followed by the nearby -1*ain Thea*e (15!!)% he Rose (15'!)%
he S3an (15"5)% he 9lobe (15"")% he Fo*1ne (1600)% and he Red 21ll (1604):
(rchaeological e%cavations on the foundations of the ,ose and the $lobe in the late twentieth
century showed that all the 1ondon theatres had individual differencesB yet their common function
necessitated a similar general plan The public theatres were three stories high! and built around an
open space at the centre 2sually polygonal in plan to give an overall rounded effect (though the ,ed
"ull and the first )ortune were s;uare)! the three levels of inward-facing galleries overlooked the
open center! into which jutted the stage&essentially a platform surrounded on three sides by the
audience! only the rear being restricted for the entrances and e%its of the actors and seating for the
musicians The upper level behind the stage could be used as a balcony! as in ,omeo and *uliet or
(ntony and 3leopatra! or as a position from which an actor could harangue a crowd! as in *ulius
3aesar
2sually built of timber! lath and plaster and with thatched roofs! the early theatres were vulnerable to
fire! and were replaced (when necessary) with stronger structures Chen the $lobe burned down in
*une /Q/G! it was rebuilt with a tile roofB when the )ortune burned down in Jecember /Q./! it was
rebuilt in brick (and apparently was no longer s;uare)
Acing
The acting companies functioned on a repertory systemB unlike modern productions that can run for
months or years on end! the troupes of this era rarely acted the same play two days in a row
3onsider the /IP. season of 1ord +trange#s <en at the ,ose Theatre as far more representative:
between )eb /P and *une .G the company played si% days a week! minus $ood )riday and two
other days They performed .G different plays! some only once! and their most popular play of the
season, The First Part of Hieronimo! (based on Ayd#s The Spanish Tragedy)! /I times They never
played the same play two days in a row! and rarely the same play twice in a weekThe workload on
the actors! especially the leading performers like 8dward (lleyn! must have been tremendous
4ne distinctive feature of the companies was that they included only males 2ntil the reign of 3harles
66! female parts were played by adolescent boy players in women#s costume
shakespeares works
<iso*/ .la/s
Aing *ohn
,ichard 66
=enry 6S! part /
=enry 6S! part .
=enry S
=enry S6! part /T
=enry S6! part .
6
=enry S6! part G
,ichard 666
=enry S666T
-o$edies
(ll#s Cell That 8nds Cell
(s Rou 1ike 6t
The 3omedy of 8rrors
1ove#s 1abour#s 1ost
<easure for <easure
The <erchant of Senice
The <erry Cives of Cindsor
( <idsummer 5ight#s Jream
<uch (do (bout 5othing
The Taming of the +hrew
Twelfth 5ight! or Chat Rou Cill
The Two $entlemen of Serona
The Two 5oble Ainsmen
T*agedies
,omeo and *uliet
3oriolanus
Titus (ndronicus
Timon of (thens
*ulius 3aesar
<acbeth
=amlet
Troilus and 3ressida
Aing 1ear
4thello
(ntony and 3leopatra
Ro$ances
:ericles! :rince of Tyre
3ymbeline
The Tempest
The Cinter's Tale
0os .la/s
3ardenio
1ove#s 1abour#s Con
Fi*s Folio
The )irst )olio is the term applied by modern scholars to the first published collection of Cilliam
+hakespeare#s playsB its actual title is Mr. William Shakespeares Comedies, Histories, Tragedies
:rinted in folio format and containing GQ plays! it was prepared by +hakespeare#s colleagues *ohn
=eminges and =enry 3ondell in /Q.G! about seven years after +hakespeare#s death (lthough
eighteen of +hakespeare#s plays had been published in ;uarto prior to /Q.G! the )irst )olio is the
only reliable te%t for about twenty of the plays! and a valuable source te%t even for many of those
previously published The )olio includes all of the plays generally accepted to be +hakespeare#s! with
the e%ception of :ericles! :rince of Tyre and The Two 5oble Ainsmen 6t does not include his poems
Comedy Merchant of venice
7
ShaBes.ea*ean co$ed/
93omedy9 in its 8lizabethan usage had a very different meaning from modern comedy (
+hakespearean comedy is one that has a happy ending! usually involving marriage for all the
unmarried characters! and a tone and style that is more lighthearted than +hakespeare#s other plays
+hakespearean comedies also tend to have :
U ( struggle of young lovers to overcome difficulty that is often presented by elders
U +eparation and unification
U <istaken identities
U ( clever servant
U =eightened tensions! often within a family
U <ultiple! intertwining plots
U )re;uent use of puns (phrase that deliberately e%ploits confusion between similar-sounding
words for humorous or rhetorical effect)
Ani-se$iis$ 6 3ritics still argue over whether the play is itself anti-semitic! or that it is merely a play
about anti-+emitism! or whether the foreign setting! including +hylock#s ethnicity! is a literary device
used to couch uncomfortable truths
The ani-Se$iic *eading
8nglish society in the 8lizabethan era has been described as anti-+emitic 8nglish *ews had been
e%pelled in the <iddle (ges and were not permitted to return until the rule of 4liver 3romwell *ews
were often presented on the 8lizabethan stage in hideous caricature! with hooked noses and bright
red wigs! and were usually depicted as avaricious usurersB an e%ample is 3hristopher <arlowe#s play
The *ew of <alta! which features a comically wicked *ewish villain called "arabas They were usually
characterized as evil! deceptive! and greedy
Juring the /Q77s in Senice and in some other places! *ews were re;uired to wear a red hat at all
times in public to make sure that they were easily identified 6f they did not comply with this rule they
could face the death penalty *ews also had to live in a ghetto protected by 3hristians! supposedly for
their own safety The *ews were e%pected to pay their guards
,eaders may see +hakespeare#s play as a continuation of this anti-+emitic tradition The title page of
the Vuarto indicates that the play was sometimes known as The *ew of Senice in its day! which
suggests that it was seen as similar to <arlowe#s The *ew of <alta 4ne interpretation of the play#s
structure is that +hakespeare meant to contrast the mercy of the main 3hristian characters with the
vengefulness of a *ew! who lacks the religious grace to comprehend mercy +imilarly! it is possible
that +hakespeare meant +hylock#s forced conversion to 3hristianity to be a 9happy ending9 for the
character! as it #redeems# +hylock both from his unbelief and his specific sin of wanting to kill (ntonio
This reading of the play would certainly fit with the anti-+emitic trends present in 8lizabethan
8ngland
The s/$.aheic *eading
<any modern readers and theatregoers have read the play as a plea for tolerance as +hylock is a
sympathetic character +hylock#s #trial# at the end of the play is a mockery of justice! with :ortia acting
as a judge when she has no real right to do so Thus! +hakespeare is not calling into ;uestion
+hylock#s intentions! but the fact that the very people who berated +hylock for being dishonest have
had to resort to trickery in order to win
Shakespeare Tragedies
+hakespeare wrote tragedies from the beginning of his career 4ne of his earliest plays was the
,oman tragedy Titus (ndronicus! which he followed a few years later with ,omeo and *uliet
=owever! his most admired tragedies were written in a seven-year period between /Q7/ and /Q70
These include his four major tragedies =amlet! 4thello! Aing 1ear and <acbeth! along with (ntony W
3leopatra and the lesser-known Timon of (thens and Troilus and 3ressida
8
<e*o 6 <any have linked these plays to (ristotle#s precept about tragedy: that the protagonist must
be an admirable but flawed character! with the audience able to understand and sympathize with the
character 3ertainly! all of +hakespeare#s tragic protagonists are capable of both good and evil The
playwright always insists on the operation of the doctrine of free willB the (anti)hero is always able to
back out! to redeem himself "ut! the author dictates! they must move unheedingly to their doom
0o7e *agedies 6 ,omeo and *uliet! (ntony W 3leopatra! and 4thello could all be considered love
tragedies These tragedies differ from the other tragedies in that the lovers are not doomed through
any fault of their own! but because of some barrier in the world around them 6n these tragedies!
death is almost a kind of consummation of their love -- as if love can not properly succeed in a tragic
world
Senecan *aged/ 6 body of nine closet dramas (ie! plays intended to be read rather than
performed)! written in blank verse by the ,oman +toic philosopher +eneca in the /st century (J
,ediscovered by 6talian humanists in the mid-/Qth century! they became the models for the revival of
tragedy on the ,enaissance stage The 8lizabethan dramatists found +eneca#s themes of
bloodthirsty revenge more congenial to 8nglish taste than they did his form The first 8nglish tragedy!
$orboduc (/IQ/)! by Thomas +ackville and Thomas 5orton! is a chain of slaughter and revenge
written in direct imitation of +eneca +enecan influence is also evident in Thomas Ayd#s The +panish
Tragedy and +hakespeare#s =amlet: both share a revenge theme! a corpse-strewn clima%! and
ghosts among the cast! which can all be traced back to the +enecan model
<1b*is 6 according to its modern usage! is e%aggerated self pride or self-confidence (overbearing
pride)! often resulting in fatal retribution 6n (ncient $reece! 9hubris9 referred to actions taken in order
to shame the victim! thereby making oneself seem superior=ubris against the gods is often attributed
as a character flaw of the heroes in $reek tragedy! and the cause of the 9nemesis9! or destruction!
which befalls these characters
<a$a*ia 6 6n $reek tragedy! the concept of hamartia as an error in judgment or unwitting mistake is
applied to the actions of the hero )or e%ample! the hero might attempt to achieve a certain objective
XB by making an error in judgment! however! the hero instead achieves the opposite of X! with
disastrous conse;uences Chether (ristotle regards the -flawM as intellectual or moral has been hotly
discussed 6t may cover both senses The hero must not deserve his misfortune! but he must cause it
by making a fatal mistake! an error of judgement! which may well involve some imperfection of
character but not such as to make us regard him as -morally responsibleM for the disasters although
they are nevertheless the conse;uences of the flaw in him! and his wrong decision at a crisis is the
inevitable outcome of his character
-aha*sis 6 2sing the term #catharsis# to refer to a form of emotional cleansing was first done by the
$reek philosopher (ristotle in his work :oetics 6t refers to the sensation! or literary effect! that would
ideally overcome an audience upon finishing watching a tragedy (a release of pent-up emotion or
energy)
SoliloG1/ 6 :laywrights such as +hakespeare and $oethe used the solilo;uy to great effect in order
to reveal their characters# personal thoughts! emotions! and motives without resorting to third-person
narration =amlet#s 9To be or not to be9 speech may be the most famous solilo;uy There is a
dramatic convention that solilo;uies! like 9asides9 to the audience! cannot necessarily be heard or
noticed by the other characters! even if they are clearly delivered within earshot
ther !lizabethan dramatists
T*agedies
Thomas Ayd HThe Spanish Tragedy! possible author of pre-+hakespeare Hamlet
3hristopher 9Ait9 <arlowe H Tam!urlaine, The "ew of Malta, The Tragi#al History of $o#tor Faustus
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*ohn Cebster - The White $e%il, The $u#hess of Malfi
-o$edies
*ohn 1yly H &ndymion, Campaspe, Sapho and Phao, 'allathea, Midas, (o%e)s Metamorphosis
"en *ohnson - *olpone, the +l#hemist
Thomas Jekker - The Honest Whore, The Whore of Ba!ylon
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