Vectors
May 2, 2009
Abstract
Vectors are those mathematical structures that have magnitude and direction associated with them. To master vectors is to think them as coordinates in 3D geometry.
CONTENTS
CONTENTS
Contents
I Theory, Discussion & Formulae
1 Vectors & Scalars 2 Types of Vectors 3 Length of a vector 4 Equality of vectors 5 Collinear vectors 6 Coplanar vectors 7 Addition of two vectors 8 Linear combination of vectors 9 Linear Independence & Dependence. 10 Points in Vector space 11 Product in Vectors
11.1 Scalar Multiplication of a vector 11.2 Scalar Product or Dot product 11.3 Vector Product or Cross product
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4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 6 7 7
7 8 8 8 8 9 9 9
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11.3.1 In cartesian coordinate system
11.3.2 Generalised properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.4 Scalar Triple product or Box product . . . . . . . . . . . 11.5 Vector Triple product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.5.1 How to Derive this?
12 Projection & Component of Vectors 13 Solving Problems-Part I
13.1 Solving Vectors Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10 10
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14 Useful Formulae 15 Area & Volume of geometrical structures 16 Vector Geometry
16.1 Equation of a line in Vector form . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.2 Skew lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.3 Equation of angle bisector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.4 Vector equation of a plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.4.1 Normal form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.4.2 Point-two vector form
11 12 12
12 12 13 13 13 13 13
16.4.3 Three point form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CONTENTS
CONTENTS
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16.5 Section made by a plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17 Reciprocal system of Vectors
14
II Problems
18 Level I Problems 19 Level 2 problems
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15 15
5 COLLINEAR VECTORS
Part I
Theory, Discussion & Formulae
1 Vectors & Scalars 2 Types of Vectors
Any vector AB is a vector in the direction joining the points A & B in the vector space, which can be expressed in form of basic vectors called as position vectors. Position vectors specify the position of a point with respect to origin. Any vector joining two points can be written in terms of position vectors of those two points. Like AB = ba
as (1, 1, 1) and assume Notation : I prefer to denote any vector i+ j +k to have the i,j & k. It saves lot of time and things are clear with this way of writing vectors.
A vector is a de ned as that mathematical structure that has magnitude and direction associated with it. Scalars are those mathematical structures that have only magnitude no direction.
3 Length of a vector
Length of a vector or Modulus of a vector say |a | which is the position vector is distance of the point from origin. Or if for any vector AB , |AB | is distance between the points A & B.
then |a Given position vector a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k | = Given any vector joining A & B points, |AB | = | ba | = (b1 a1 )2 + (b2 a2 )2 + (b3 a3 )2
2 3 a2 1 + a2 + a3
4 Equality of vectors
Two vectors are equal if have same direction and magnitude.
5 Collinear vectors
Two vectors are collinear if they have the same direction. If they turn to have the same magnitude as well then they become equal vectors. 4
8 LINEAR COMBINATION OF VECTORS
6 Coplanar vectors
Two vectors are coplanar if they lie in the same plane. Any two vectors are always coplanar if they have the same starting point.
7 Addition of two vectors
Addition of two vectors is given by Triangle law or Parellogram law.
Vector addition is associative a + ( b+c ) = ( a+ b) + c Vector addition is Cummutative a + b= b+a
8 Linear combination of vectors
If vectors a & b are two position vectors of A & B points. What will be c = a + b? c above is produced by linear combination of two vectors. Now there are two cases to this problem
If a & b are non-collinear vectors then the linear combination will be
guided by the parellogram law.
If a & b are collinear vectors. i.e. they are having the same direction,
then any linear combination is going to give another vector of dierent length in the same direction. produce new vectors. If both the vectors are in line means collinear then the linear combination will produce the new vector in the same line. But here two vectors are not really required. So
to produce a new vector in the same line linear combination is a to produce a new vector in the plane containing two vectors. If these two vectors lie in the same line means are collinear then the linear combination will produce another vector in the same line. But we want to produce another vector in the plane. So we need two non-collinear vectors. Hence a + b will produce the new vector in the plane. And for dierent values of & any vector can be produced. in that plane containing a & to produce a new vector in the 3D space containing three vectors. If these three vectors are coplanar then the linear combination will produce a new vector in the plane containing these three vectors. Hence a + b + c will produce the new vector in the 3D space if all three vectors are non-coplanar.
This analysis above shows that linear combination has the power to
9 LINEAR INDEPENDENCE & DEPENDENCE.
Linear combination is the method by which we produce new vectors.
9 Linear Independence & Dependence.
The idea of linearly independent vectors is generalized way of speaking about collinearity or coplanarity of two or three vectors respectively.
In 1 dimensional space (i.e. line), how many vectors are su cient to
produce a new vector using linear combination?
Only one vector is enough to produce any other vector in 1D space (i.e. line) using linear combination a
In 2 dimensional space (i.e. plane), how many vectors are su cient
to produce a new vector using linear combination & what condition should they satisfy?
Only two vectors are su cient to produce a new vector in 2D space provided these two are non-collinear. Since if they are collinear they will again produce a new vector in 1D space. i.e. line containing both the lines.
In 3 dimensional space (i.e. space), how many vectors are su cient
to produce a new vector using linear combination & what condition should they satisfy?
Only 3 vectors are su cient to produce a new vector in 3D space provided these vectors are non-coplanar. Since if they are coplanar then their linear combination will produce a new vector in the plane and not in 3D space.
NOTE: Number of vectors under some condition required for producing new vectors is always equal to the dimension of the space.
Now we come to the point of de nining what is linear independence?
Linear-Independence - Given vectors are linearly independent if one cannot be produced from the other. Linear-Dependence - Given Vectors are said to be linearly dependent if one can be produced from the other.
So this de nition is nothing but in
1 dimensional space (i.e. line) we require only one linearly independent
vector to produce a new vector.
11 PRODUCT IN VECTORS
2 dimensional space (i.e plane) we require two linearly independent vec-
tors to produce a new vector. So two vectors are linearly independent in 2D space means they are non-collinear vectors to produce a new vector. So three vectors are linearly independent in 3D space means they are non-coplanar.
3 dimensional space (i.e. space) we require three linearly independent
So now you should know why the idea of linear independence is constructed ? or why we study that ? Purely since we want to know what is that condition that is required to produce new vectors in n-dimensional space! And how we can extend the idea of non-collinear & non-coplanar into higher dimension. So ultimately is nothing but non-collinearity & non-coplanarity.
10 Points in Vector space
Any point in vector space can be uniquely represented by its position vector. 1. Three points B,C & D are collinear i (a) there exists x,y,z not all zero such that i. xu + yv + zw =0 ii. x + y + z = 0 ( this is directly evident from section formula) (b) BC = CD 2. Four points A,B,C & D are coplanar i (a) there exists x,y,z & w not all zero such that = 0 i. xa + y b + zc + wd ii. x + y + z + w = 0 (b) There exists , not both zero such that AB + AC = AD is true.
11 Product in Vectors
11.1 Scalar Multiplication of a vector
Any vector multiplied by a scalar (a real number) is de ned as scalar multiplied to a vector. Geometrically, the length of the vector is increased scalar times. i.e. a = b tells |a | = | b| and another crucial info of they both pointing in the same direction. Whenver we have vectors thinking of them in terms of lines containing those vectors helps. So two vectors are collinear means lines containing these two vectors is parellel. 7
11.2 Scalar Product or Dot product
11 PRODUCT IN VECTORS
11.2 Scalar Product or Dot product
De ned as a b = |a || b| cos
So a b = 0 |a | = 0 or | b| = 0 or cos = 0 a b is a scalar quantity a a =a 2 = |a |2 ; this is a very important identity that allows movement
from vectors to real numbers.
a b= ba ; dot product is commutative We cant talk about associativity since three vectors having dot product
doesnt make sense. Why??
11.3 Vector Product or Cross product
De ned as a b = |a || b| sin n , where n : is perpendicular both a & b
11.3.1 In cartesian coordinate system
, = 1. i j=k ik j Note: if in alphabetic (cyclic) order then positive else negative. k =0 2. i i= j j=k then a 3. When a & b when represented in terms of i, j, k b = i j k a1 a2 a3 b1 b2 b3
11.3.2 Generalised properties
a b is perpendicular to both a & b a & b are parallel to each other a b=0 a b = ba |a b|2 + ( a b)2 = |a |2 | b|2 Lagrange's identity. Relation between cross
and dot product.
Area of a parellogram = |a b| Area of a Triangle =
|a b| 2
11 PRODUCT IN VECTORS11.4 Scalar Triple product or Box product
11.4 Scalar Triple product or Box product
De ned as a ( bc )
a ( bc ) = a bc - bracket doesn't makes sense since the output is
a scalar (hence called scalar triple product).
then a If a , b, c are represented using i, j, k bc =
a1 a2 a3 b1 b2 b3 c1 c2 c3
a bc = a bc -interchange the & values remains same. [ a bc ] = a bc [ a bc ] = [ bc a ] = [ ca b] = [ ac b] change them cyclically and they
all have same value, the order is changed and the sign changes.
Geometrically [ a b c ] represents volume of a parellopiped with edges a , b & c So 0 = [ a ba ] represents area of a parellopiped with edges which are
complanar making volume zero.
For any four coplanar points (note this are points and not vectors) we have [ a c given by position vector a, b, c & d a bc ] = [d b] + [d bc ] + [d a ] (can be proved by the fact that vectors AB, AC, & AD are coplanar.
11.5 Vector Triple product
De ned as a ( bc ) = ( ac ) b ( a b) c Also ( a b) c = ( ac ) b ( bc ) a
Way to remember : in the bracket.
Let r = a ( bc ).
a ( bc )
lies in the plane of vectors
11.5.1 How to Derive this?
r a &r bc i.e. r lies in the plane of b&c i.e. r = b + c i.e. a r = 0 = ( a b) + ( ac ) a = k (assume) c = a b r = k ( ac ) b + k (a b) c = k (( ac ) b ( a b) c) Value of k can be found out by trying values of a = i, b= j&c = i r = a (b c ) = i ( j i) = i (k ) = j r = k (( i i) j ( i j ) i) = k ( j 0) = k j Equating r we get k = 1
13 SOLVING PROBLEMS-PART I
12 Projection & Component of Vectors
We have two vectors a & b, each non-zero then
Projection of a along b= Projection of a b=
a b | b|
|a b| | b| ( a b) b | b|2
Component of a along b= Component of a b=
b( a b) | b |2
=a
( a b) b | b|2
13 Solving Problems-Part I
13.1 Solving Vectors Equations
1. (IITJEE-2009) Angle between the vectors a & b where a , b and c are unit vectors satisfying a + b + 3 c=0
Solution : We need to nd the angle between a & b, So we need to arrange the given info such that we are able to produce just that and rest others is given to us.
a + b = 3 c |a + b| =| 3 c| 2 2 |a + b| =| 3 c| ( a + b) ( a + b) =3 cc 2 2 2 |a | + |b| + 2 a b =3|c | 2 + 2 a b =3 1 |a || b| cos = 2 = 3
Alternate-Solution : Another way to look this problem is by sym c= 0 terms a & b are very symmetric. Given metry. In a + b + 3 |a | = |b| = 1 So the problem is problem of statics. The forces are all balanced hence Therefore we get, along one component. |a| cos + |b| cos = 3|c| 2 cos = 3 = 6 . Therefore angle between a & b is 2 = 3
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14 USEFUL FORMULAE
14 Useful Formulae
1. |a b|2 + ( a b)2 = |a |2 | b|2
LHS = |a b|2 +( a b)2 = |a |2 | b|2 sin2 + |a |2 | b|2 cos2 = |a |2 | b|2 =RHS
2. |a b| |a || b|
Solution : |a b| = |a || b| | sin ||n | |a || b|
3. |a b| |a || b|
Solution : |a b| = |a || b|| cos | |a || b|
) = 4. ( a b) ( cd bd bd Solution :Let n =c d LHS = a bn =a bn ) =a b ( cd ) } =a {( bd c ( bc )d )( ) = ( bd ac ) ( bc )( ad = RHS a c a d
5.
) = [ ] ( a b) ( cd a bd c [ a bc ]d ] ] = [ ac d b [ bc d a
Solution :Let n =a b
) LHS = n ( cd ) = ( nd c ( nc )d ] = [ a bd c [ a bc ]d
6. Let r be any vector & a , b&c be non-zero, non-coplanar vectors then
r =
[ r b c ] a [ a b c ]
[ r c a ] r a b] b + [ c [ a b c ] [ a b c ]
(a) Solution: Let r = 1 a + 2 b + 3 c as a , b&c are non-coplanar. Now take dot product with b c and nd 1 similarly nd the other constants by taking dot product with other symmetric cross products. 7. [ a b bc c a ] = [ a bc ]2 11
16 VECTOR GEOMETRY
15 Area & Volume of geometrical structures
Area of a parellogram with adjacent sides given by a & b = |a b|
1 with diagonals d 1 & d2 = 2 |d1 d2 |
Area of a Triangle :
a & b are the edges of the triangle then Area = 1 2 |a b| If a , b & c are the position vectors of the vertices A,B & C then Area = 1 | b+ bc + c a | 2 a
Volume of a parellopiped : [ a bc ] Volume of a tetrahedron :
1 a 6 [
bc ]
1 a 2 [
Volume of a triangular prism :
bc ]
16 Vector Geometry
is derived as
16.1 Equation of a line in Vector form
Two point form : Equation of line passing through the points A( a) & B ( b) r = a + AB = a + ( ba ) = (1 ) a + b Slope point form : Equation of a line passing through the point A( a) and parellel to the vector b r = a + b
16.2 Skew lines
Any two lines which are neither intersecting nor parellel are called skew lines. This will happen in 3D space. Note: Two lines that are parallel never intersect and if they are not parallel then they always intersect- this happens only in a 2D space. If we expand this property to hold true in 3D space it is not true in form of skew lines. But if u take this analogy to 3D space you have to increase the property by one dimension. Like - Two planes if they are parallel then they never interesect and if they are not parallel then they always intersect in a line.
. If L1 , L2 are skew lines So if line L1 : r =a + c & L2 : r = b + d ] a b c d then shortest distance between the lines is p = [ | |c d
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16 VECTOR GEOMETRY
16.3 Equation of angle bisector
16.3 Equation of angle bisector
Equation of angle bisector of angle shown by sides parallel to b & c and passing through point A(a )
r = a + c b | |b| |c
to specify the internal and external bisector of the angle.
16.4 Vector equation of a plane
16.4.1 Normal form1
Vector equation of a plane at a distance of p units from origin and n being normal to it is given as
r n = p
16.4.2 Point-two vector form
Equation of plane passing through point A( a) and containing b&c on it is
( ra ) bc = 0
or
[ r bc ] = [ a bc ]
16.4.3 Three point form
Equation of a plane containing 3 points A(a ), B( b) & C(c ) is
[ ra b] + [ r bc ] + [ rc a ] = [ a bc ]
or
r ( a b+ bc + c a ) = a bc
1
Any equation of the form
r n = p
(Note here p is not the distance between the
p
plane from origin since dividing by
is not the unit normal) can be converted to have unit normal by
on both sides to get the vector equation. So |n represent the distance of | this plane from origin.
|n |
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16.5 Section made by a plane 17 RECIPROCAL SYSTEM OF VECTORS
16.5 Section made by a plane
Let A( a) & B ( b) are two points outside a plane r n = p. We will use basic proportionality theorem used in schools to nd the ratio in which plane divides line joining AB. Plane parallel to r n = p and passing through point A & B are given by r n = a n & r n = bn . Let us see the transverse section of these three planes passing through the point of section and points A & B.
So here the section made by the plane r n = p is geometry we know using basic proportionality theorem,
AZ AY p1 p0 a n p0 = = = ZB AX p0 p2 bn p0
AZ ZB .
Using school
17 Reciprocal system of Vectors
p , q & r are reciprocal system of three non-coplanar vectors a , b&c if p = bc c a a b , q = & r = [ a bc ] [ a bc ] [ a bc ]
Properties we get out of these system are
p a =q b=r c = 1 p b=p c = q a =q c = r a =r b=0 p a +q b+r c = 3 [ a bc ][ pq r ] = 1 Any vector v = ( va ) p + ( v b) q + ( vc ) r = ( vp ) a + ( vq ) b + ( vr ) c
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19 LEVEL 2 PROBLEMS
Part II
Problems
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (a) (b) (c) (d) (a) (b) (c) (d)
18 Level I Problems
1. Which of the following makes sense?
( a b) c a bc a (b c ) ( a b) c ( a b) c ) e ( a b) ( cd
2. Given r = a b which of the statements makes sense
r a &r b r a or r b r &a b are collinear vectors
none of these 1
abc
3. Maximum value of [ a bc ] where a , b, c are non-coplanar vectors is
0 none of these
19 Level 2 problems
1. Derive following in triangles using vectors (a) a cos B + b cos A = c (b) a2 = b2 + c2 2bc cos A a b c (c) sin A = sin B = sin C (d) = 1 2 bc sin A 2. Prove pythogoras theorem
2 2 2 (a) i.e. prove if angle A is 2 then b + c = a (b) and also prove the converse of the theorem.
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