CHAPTER-2 PREDICTING FORMATION PRESSURES

Several methods of pressure prediction is available to the engineer. These methods can be grouped logically as follows: -areal analysis from seismic data, -off-set well correlation log analysis, drilling parameter evaluation, production or test data, -real time evaluation as , a) qualitative, b) quantitative. The real time analysis involves monitoring drilling and logging parameters while the prospect well is drilled.

Origin of Abnormal Pressures By definition, abnormal pressure is any geo-pressure that is different from the established normal trend for the given area and depth. Pressure may be less than normal, called sub-normal or greater than normal pressure which has been termed geo-pressured, super pressured or simply abnormal pressure. Sub-normal pressures present few direct well control problems. However, subnormal pressures do cause many drilling and well planning problems. For clarity, the term abnormal pressure will identify the pressures greater than normal. Formation pressure is the presence of fluids in the pore spaces of the rock matrix. These fluids are typically gas or salt water. The overburden stress

is created by the weight of the overlying rock matrix and the fluid filled pores. The rock matrix stress is the overburden stress minus the formation pressure. For general calculations the overburden stress gradient is often assumed to be 1.0 psi/ft with a density of 19.23 lb/gal, an average weight of fluid-filled rock. Normal formation pressure is equal to the hydrostatic pressure of the native formation fluids. In most cases, the fluids vary from fresh water with density of 8.33 lb/gal (0.433 psi/ft) to salt water with density of 9.0 lb/gal (0.465 psi/ft). However, some field reports indicate instances when the normal formation fluid density was greater than 9.0 lb/gal. Regardless of the fluid density, the normal pressure formation can be considered as an open hydraulic system where pressure can easily be communicated throughout. Formation pressures resulting from under compaction often cab be approximated with some simple calculations. If it is assumed that compaction does not occur below the barrier depth, the formation fluid below the barrier must support overburden, rock matrix and the formation fluids. The pressure can be calculated as: P = 0.465 psi/ft (DB)+ 1.0 psi/ft (Di DB) DI = depth of interest below the barrier, ft DB = depth of barrier, ft P = formation pressure at Di , psi

Figure 1.1 Abnormal pore pressures are generated in the under-compacted region because the shale matrix cant support the overburden stress

Example 1-1: A well is drilled to 15000 ft. The entrance into the abnormal pressures at 10000 ft is caused by under compaction. Calculate the expected formation pressure at 15000 ft. Assume formation fluid and overburden stress gradients are 0.465 psi/ft and 1.0 psi/ft respectively?

Solution:
The formation pressure at 15000 ft: P = 0.465 psi/ft (DB)+ 1.0 psi/ft (Di DB)

P = 0.465 psi/ft (10000)+ 1.0 psi/ft (15000 10000) P = 9650 psi P = (9650 / 0,052 x 15000) P = 12.4 ppg

Log Analysis Log analysis is a common procedure for pore pressure estimation in both off-set wells and the actual well drilling. New measurement while drilling (MWD) tools implement log analysis techniques in real time drilling mode. The resistivity log was originally used for pressure detection. The log response is based on the electrical resistivity of the total sample, which includes the rock matrix and the fluid-filled porosity. If a zone is penetrated that has abnormally high porosities ( at the same time high pressure) the resistivity of the rock will be reduced due to the greater conductivity of water than rock matrix. The expected response can be seen in Figure 1-2. This figure illustrates several important points. Since the high formation pressures were originally developed in shale sections and later equilized the sand zone pressures, only the clean shale sections are used as plotting points. This excludes sand resistivities, silty shale, lime and any other type of rock that may be encountered. As the shale resistivities are selected and plotted, a normal trend line should develop prior to entry into the pressured zone. An actual field case can be seen in Fig. 1-

2. The impermeable .shale section was entered at about 9,500 ft. Although this section contained normal pressure from 9,500-9,800 ft, as evidenced by the increasing resistivity of the normal trend, the reversal can be seen from 9,80010,900 ft. The mud weight was 9.0 lb/gal at 9.500 ft but was increased to 13.5 lb/gal at 10,900 ft.

Figure 1-2 Generalized shale resistivity plot

Hottman and Johnson developed a technique based on empirical

relationships whereby an estimate of formation pressures could be made by noting the ratio between the observed and normal rock resistivities. As they explained, the following steps arc necessary to estimate the formation pressure. 1. The normal trend is established by plotting the logarithm of shale resistivity vs depth. 2. The top of the pressured interval is found by noting the depth at which the plotted points diverge from the trend. 3. The pressure gradient at any depth is found as follows: a) The ratio of the extrapolated normal shale resistivity to the observed shale resistivity is determined. b) The formation pressure corresponding to the calculated ratio is found from Fig. 1-3.

Figure 1-3 Shale resistivity from the log

Figure 1-4 Emprical correlation of formation pressure gradient vs. a ratio of normal to obseerved shale resistivity

Example 1-2: Plot the data given below on a semi-log paper. Where does the entrance into the abnormal pressure occur? Use Hottman and Johnson procedure to compute formation pressure at each 1000 ft interval below the entrance into pressures?
Resistivity, ohm-m Depth, ft Resistivity, ohm-m Depth, ft

0.54 0.64 0.60 0.70 0.76 0.60 0.70 0.74 0.76 0.82 0.90 0.84

4000 4600 5600 6000 6400 7000 7500 8000 8500 9000 9700 10100

0.80 0.76 0.58 0.45 0.36 0.30 0.28 0.29 0.27 0.28 0.29 0.30

10400 10700 10900 11000 11100 11300 11600 11900 12300 12500 12700 12900

Solution:
1- Plot the data. (Figure 1-5) 2- The estimated entrance into abnormal pressure occurs at 9700 ft. 3- Extrapolate the normal trend established between 8000 ft and 9700 ft.

Figure 1-5 Resitivity plot of example 1-2 4- The observed and extrapolated resistivities are at the bottom are 0.30 and 1.60 ohm-m. 5-Compute the ratio of Rnormal (Rn) and Robserved (Rob). R = Rn / Rob

R = 1.60 / 0.30 R = 5.333 6- From Fig. 1-4, the formation pressure associated with a ratio of 5.333 is 18 ppg. Salinity Changes: The Hottman and Johnson procedure, as well as the overlay techniques, assume that formation resistivities are function or the following variables: -lithology -fluid content -salinity -temperature -porosity The procedures make the following assumptions with respect to these variables: -lithology is shale, -shale is water filled. -water salinity is constant. -temperature gradients are constant. -porosity is the only variable affecting the pore pressure. Foster and Whalen developed techniques for predicting formation pressure in regions that have salinity variations. Their techniques have proved 10

successful and can be applied universally, although the complexity associated with their use prevents wide acceptance. New computerized applications help make the technique more useful. The Foster and Whalen method is based on a formation factor, F, and its relationship to the shale resistivity and formation water resistivity: F=Ro / Rw F = formation factor, dimensionless Ro = shale resistivity, ohm-m, Rw= formation water resistivity, ohm-m. The shale resistivity, Ro is read directly from the log. The water

resistivity, Rw is computed from the mud filtrate resistivity, Rmf. The SP deflection is computed from the shale base line. The formation pressures are calculated from a plot of formation factors and the depth equivalent approach, as previously presented. Example 1.3 will illustrate the procedures required to calculate Rw and F. Exampe 1-3: Use the following data to calculate F and Rw. Assume that all the bed thickness corrections are made. Ro = 0.98 ohm-m SP = -87 mv (deflection from shale base line) Temp. = 190 F at 8000 ft

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Depth of interest = 8000 ft Rmf = 0.40 ohm-m at 90 F NaCl=12000 ppm

Solution:
1-From Figure 1-6, a value of -87 mv yields 10.5 for the ratio.

2-The resistivity of the mud filtrate, Rmf, is 0.40 ohm-m at 90 F. It must be converted to an equivalent value of Rmfe. (Fig. 1-8). 3- From Fig. 1-8, Rmfe = 0.195 ohm-m.

Figure 1-6 Rwe determination

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4-Combining step 1 & 2. SP = Rmfe / Rwe 10.5 = 0.98 / Rwe Rwe = 0.0185 ohm-m 5- Fig. 1-7 is used to convert Rwe to Rw, or 0.028 ohm-m F = Ro / Rw F = 0.98 / 0.028 F = 35

Figure 1-7 Rwe conversion to Rw

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Formation pressure calculations are made at defining the depth, in the normal pressure region that has a formation factor of equivalent to the deeper depth of interest. The upper depth is defined as the equivalent depth, De. DG = 0.465 psi/ft (De) + (D - De) (1.0 psi/ft) D = depth of interest, ft De = equivalent depth, ft G = formation pressure gradient, psi/ft at D 1.0 psi/ft = assumed overburden stress gradient If the depths D and De are known, the formation pressure gradient, G, is computed as

G = [ (1 psi/ft) D - 0.535 De ] / D

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Figure 1-8 Temperature correction for Rw and Rmf

Example 1-4: The following log data were taken from a well that is suspected to have significant salinity variations in the formation fluids. Use Foster-Whalen method

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to calculate formation pressures at each of the given depths. Assume that all appropriate bed thickness corrections have been made to log values. Logging Depths:

Depth, ft 10300 11400

Rmf- ohm-m 0.65 at 90 F 0.89 at 80 F

Depth, ft 3900 5400 6900 7700 8900 9700 10300 10700 10850 11400 12000 12600 12800

Temp., F 114 135 162 170 191 201 211 218 221 239 250 261 270

Robs, ohm-m 0.76 0.76 0.84 0.96 0.99 1.23 1.02 0.93 0.73 1.30 1.70 2.08 1.03

SP mv

Deflection, -70 -76 -78 -85 -90 -87 -90 -94 -90 -60 -57 -38 -55

Solution:
The actual calculations will shown at a depth of 12800 ft. 1-The SP deflection from the shale baseline at 12800 ft is 55. From Fig. 1-6 a 55 mv value at 270 F correlates as: Rmf(e) / Rw(e) = 3.77

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2-The resistivity of the mud filtrate (Rmf) at 12800 ft is 1.03. From Fig. 1-8, this value is corrected from 90 F to the bottom hole temperature of 270 F. 3- The results from the above steps: Rmf(e) / Rw(e) = 3.77 0.34 / Rw(e) = 3.77 Rw(e) = 0.090 4- Convert Rw(e) to Rw ( Fig. 1-8) 5- The formation factor, F is computed as : F = Ro / Rw F = 1.03 / 0.086 F = 12

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Figure 1-9 Rwo,Ro, and F for Example 1.4

6-The values for Ro and Rw are plotted on Figure. 1-9. 7- A vertical line is constructed from the formation factor, F, at 12800 ft. (F = 12) until it intersects the normal trend line in the shallow sections. The points of intersection are defined as the equivalent depth, or, 4800 ft.

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8-The formation pressure at 12800 ft is computed as.

G = [ (1 psi/ft) D - 0.535 De ] / D G = [ (1 psi/ft) 12800 - 0.535 . 4800 ] / 12800 G = 0.799 psi/ft G = 0.799 / 0.052 G = 15.4 ppg

Example 1-5: The following sonic log was taken from a well in Oklahama. Plot the data on semi-log paper. Use Hottman and Johnson technique to calculate the formation pressure at 11900 ft.
Travel sec/ft Time, Depth, ft Travel sec/ft Time, Depth, ft

190 160 140 120 122 105 110 99 99 98 100

3400 5000 6600 7300 7900 8200 8600 9000 9200 9400 9600

100 110 100 110 101 101 105 100 110 100 -

9800 10000 10200 10400 10600 10800 11100 11400 11600 11900 -

Solution:
1-Plot the data on semi-log paper (Figure 1-10).

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Figure 1-10 Sonic data plot

2-The divergence from the normal trend at 9500 ft denotes the entry into the pressured zone. 3-At 12000 ft, the difference between the extrapolated normal trend and observed value is 32 sec/ft.

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4- Enter Figure 1-11 with a value of 32 sec/ft and read the formation pressure as 17 ppg.

Figure 1-11 Emprical correlation of formation pressure gradients vs. a difference observed and normal travel times (Hottman & Johnson)

Bulk Density When drilling in normally pressured zone bulk density of the drilled rock should increase due to compaction, or porosity reduction. As high formation pressures are encountered. the associated high porosities, will cause a deviation in the expected bulk density trend. A typical plot of bulk densities is seen in Fig. 1-12. The transition from normal to abnormal pressures occurs at the depth where divergence from the normal trend is observed. The resistivity plot shows transition zones at 10,700 and 12,500 ft. The density log detected the lower

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transition zone but was unable to define the upper transition zone due to the lack of an established trend line. Drilling Equations Many mathematical models have been proposed in an effort to describe the relationship of several drilling variables on penetration rate. Most depend on the combination of several controllable variables and one combined formation property.

Figure 1-12 Generalized shale density plot

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Several of the models are designed for easy application in the field, while others require computerization. When conscientiously applied, most of the available models can accurately detect and quantify abnormal formation pressures. An attempt to quantify differential pressure is the basis of most drilling models. If this value is known, the formation pressure can readily be calculated. Gamier and van Lingen showed that differential pressure has a definite effect on penetration. In field studies, Benit and Vidrine found evidence that the range in differential pressure of 0-500 psi has the greatest effect in reducing penetration. Perhaps the most common model used by the industry is the de-exponent. The basis of the model is found in Gingham's equation to define the drilling process:

(R / 60N) = a (12W / dB)b R = bit penetration rate, ft/hr N = rotary speed, rpm W= bit weight, l000 lb de = bit diameter, in. b = bit weight exponent, dimensionless a = formation drillability, constant, dimensionless Jordan and Shirley modified Bingham's equation to the following form: d = [ log (R / 60N) ] / [log (12W / 1000 dB)]

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where; d replaces the b and a is assumed as unity. d depends more on differential pressure than on operating parameters. In field applications the d-exponent should respond to the effect of differential pressure. Rehm and McClendon brought the equation to its final form by realizing that mud weight increases would mask the difference between normal and actual formation pressures. They proposed the normalization ratio to account for the effect of mud weight increase: dc = d (normal form. pressure ) / (actual mud weight) dc = corrected d-exponent d = original value, normal form. pressure = ppg actual mud weight = ppg

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Figure 1-13 Typical d exponent plot

Example 1-6: Geological and bit records from a control well were used with the deexponent principle to determine formation pressures. Compute the form. pressures. Prepare a plot of formation pressure vs. depth.

Solution:
1-Calculate d-exponent; d = [log (R / 60N)] / [log (12W / 1000 dB)] at 500 ft;

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d = [log (95 / 60 (120))] / [log (12 (70) / 1000 (17.5))] d= 1.425 2-The de-exponent is calculated as: dc = d (9 /MW) dc = 1.425 (9 / 9.2) dc = 1.394 3-Plot dc-exponent.

Figure 1-14 dc exponent plot

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4-The formation pressure is computed as; FP = (9d / dc) -0.3 where; 0.3 represents the trip margin. At 16000 ft, the FP is equivalent to 15.7 ppg. 5-The formation pressure plot is also prepared (Figure 1-15).

Figure 1-15 Formation pressure plot

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