1KW 30011 0 NanotechHandbook

Nanotechnology Measurement Handbook
A Guide to Electrical Measurements for Nanoscience Applications

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NanoCov_grn.tiff 12/13/07 10:47 AM Page 1
Nanotechnology Measurement
Handbook
A Guide to Electrical Measurements
for Nanoscience Applications
1st Edition
A G R E A T E R M E A S U R E O F C O N F I D E N C E
ii KEI THLEY I NSTRUMENTS, I NC.
Foreword
Nanotechnology research often demands skills in multiple disciplines, from phys-
ics and materials science to chemistry and measurement system design. Although it
would be impossible to predict all the technical innovations that nano research will
offer, its already clear that nanoscience will be a major driver of the economy of the
future. However, characterizing tomorrows nanoscale components and materials will
be far from trivial because many of their electrical properties lie at the very edge of the
measurement envelope.
To unravel tiny mysteries and turn nanoscale materials and devices into commercial
products, researchers must have tools with the exibility to handle a variety of electrical
measurements, including current vs. voltage (I-V) characterization, resistance, resistivity
and conductivity, differential conductance, transport, and optical spectrum and energy.
They must also gain an in-depth understanding of the principles and pitfalls associated
with low-level electrical measurements.
Nanotechnology Measurement Handbook: A Guide to Electrical Measurements for
Nanoscience Applications offers practical assistance in making precision low-level DC
and pulse measurements on nanomaterials and devices. It is useful both as a reference
and as an aid to understanding low-level phenomena observed in the lab. It provides
an overview of the theoretical and practical considerations involved in measuring low
currents, high resistances, low voltages, and low resistances.
I hope you nd this handbook helpful in your nanoscience research efforts.
Dr. Meyya Meyyappa
Chief Scientist for Exploration at the Center for Nanotechnology
NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, California
IEEE Distinguished Lecturer on Nanotechnology
President of the IEEEs Nanotechnology Council (2006-2007)
NANOTECHNOLOGY MEASUREMENT HANDBOOK iii
Table of Contents
S E C T I ON I
Introduction
Nanotech Innovations Hinge on Measurement
Technology and Close Alliances Between Researchers
and Instrumentation Designers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2
S E C T I ON I I
Nanotechnology Testing Overview
Emerging Challenges of Nanotech Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2
Electrical Measurements on Nanoscale Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-6
S E C T I ON I I I
Low-Level Measurement Techniques
Recognizing the Sources of Measurement Errors:
An Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2
Examples of Low Current Measurements on
Nanoelectronic and Molecular Electronic Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-10
AC versus DC Measurement Methods for Low Power
Nanotech and Other Sensitive Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-14
Achieving Accurate and Reliable Resistance Measurements
in Low Power and Low Voltage Applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-26
Characterizing Nanoscale Devices with
Differential Conductance Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-35
Counting Electrons: How to Measure Currents
in the Attoampere Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-43
A Feel for the Pulse. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-49
S E C T I ON I V
Nanomaterials Research
Electronic Transport Characteristics of Gallium Nitride
Nanowire-based Nanocircuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2
iv KEI THLEY I NSTRUMENTS, I NC.
S E C T I ON V
Nanodevice Measurement Techniques
Tips for Electrical Characterization of Carbon Nanotubes
and Low Power Nanoscale Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-2
A P P E N D I X A
Selector Guides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-1
A P P E N D I X B
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-1
A P P E N D I X C
Safety Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-1
A P P E N D I X D
Troubleshooting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-1
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I-1
N A N OT E C H N OL OG Y ME A S U R E ME N T H A N D B OOK
S E C T I ON I
Introduction
I Introduction
1-2 KEI THLEY I NSTRUMENTS, I NC.
Nanotech Innovations Hinge on Measurement
Technology and Close Alliances Between Researchers
and Instrumentation Designers
Nanotechnology has the potential to improve our quality of life in diverse ways, such
as faster electronics, huge memory/storage capacities for PCs, cheaper energy through
more efcient energy conversion, and improved security through the development of
nanoscale bio- and chemical-detection systems. Before these become commercial re-
alities, researchers must be able to characterize nano material and device properties
quickly and accurately.
Optical and electro-optical characterization techniques, such as scanning electron
microscopy (SEM), emission microscopy, atomic force microscopy, and ultra-violet
micro scopy provide valuable information on nanostructures. However, electrical char-
acterization is essential to gain insight into phenomena that occur beneath the surface
of nanomaterials. For example, gate dielectrics in advanced semiconductors can have a
physical thickness of less than one nanometer; the performance of these dielectrics can
only be predicted by evaluating their equivalent electrical thickness. Similar consider-
ations apply to carbon nanotubes and silicon wires, which are the basis for many nano
innovations.
Alliances Shorten Time to Market
While government funding provides essential support for nano research, it is also
crucial to form alliances between industry and university researchers with complemen-
tary areas of expertise. This is especially true in testing, where complex devices and ma-
terials present unique measurement challenges. Historically, many scientic advances
occurred only after suitable investigative instruments became available. Nanotechnol-
ogy is following the same path. Nano researchers must either rely on instrumentation
companies or take time away from R&D to develop their own measurement systems.
Typically, researchers know the material and device physics intimately, but often lack
measurement expertise. Moreover, the pressure to commercialize research results as
quickly as possible and conserve resources means that researchers cant spare the time
needed to develop in-depth measurement expertise.
However, instrument companies need the insights only researchers can provide in
order to develop measurement technologies that will advance the state of the art. Nano-
technology research spans multiple scientic disciplines, including electrical and elec-
tronic engineering, computer science, biotechnology, materials engineering, chemistry,
and physics. The commercial pressures instrumentation manufacturers face make it all
but impossible for any one company to develop equal levels of expertise in all these
I Introduction I
NANOTECHNOLOGY MEASUREMENT HANDBOOK 1-3
disciplines. Alliances with instrumentation companies allow leveraging the expertise of
individuals and organizations to create better solutions for researchers.
Measurement Complexities
The essence of nanotechnology research is to work at the molecular level, atom
by atom, to create structures with fundamentally new properties. Some of the current
research involves:
Carbon nanotube materials and feld emission devices
Semiconducting nanowires of silicon and other materials
Polymer nanofbers and nanowires
Nano and molecular electronics
Single electron devices
One of the main challenges in electrical characterization of these materials and
structures is dealing with ultra-low signal levels. Another challenge is the wide range
of behavior that these materials and components can exhibit. For example, polymer
materials can have resistances greater than one gigaohm. However, when drawn into
bers less than 100nm in diameter and doped with various nanoparticles, a polymer
may be changed from a superb insulator into a highly conductive wire. The result is an
extremely wide range of test signals. Detecting tiny electrical signals at the low end of
the range requires high sensitivity, high resolution instruments such as electrometers,
picoammeters, and nanovoltmeters. Also using one of these instruments for high level
signals as well demands an instrument with a very wide dynamic range. Instrumenta-
tion designers require insight from researchers to tailor measurement solutions to this
wide range of needs.
In addition to DC measurements, some devices and structures may need to be char-
acterized with RF signals. Testing some nanoscale structures may involve measurements
of multiple RF harmonics far higher than 20GHz. This requires rigorous instrumenta-
tion design with reliable low-loss RF connections in the test head and dedicated elec-
tronic circuitry for each individual signal path. Otherwise, it becomes impossible to
achieve the resolution required for precision measurements that reveal subtleties in
nanometer structures.
Probing and Manipulation Tools Are
Key to Nano Measurements
Still, a sensitive instrument has limited value if it cant be connected to a device un-
der test properly. For nanoscale devices, the instrument must be connected to a probing
system through a high quality signal path that allows rapid, low noise measurements.
Therefore, alliances between instrumentation designers and manufacturers of nano-
I Introduction
manipulation and nanoprobing tools are essential in constructing a complete meas-
urement solution.
By working together closely, nano researchers and instrumentation manufactur-
ers can create innovative and comprehensive measurement solutions that are essential
for developing the next generation of nanostructures, nanomaterials, MEMS (Micro-
Electro-Mechanical Systems), and semiconductor devices. These alliances will also be
instrumental in speeding up the transfer of nanotechnology from the research lab to
the production environment.
I Introduction
S E C T I ON I I
Nanotechnology
Testing Overview
II Nanotechnology Testing Overview
Emerging Challenges of Nanotech Testing
Nanotechnology is an important new area of research that promises signicant ad-
vances in electronics, materials, biotechnology, alternative energy sources, and dozens
of other applications.
Understanding how new building-block materials like nanocrystals, nanotubes,
nanowires, and nanobers will perform in the electronic devices of tomorrow demands
instrumentation that can characterize resistance and conductivity over wide ranges.
Often, this requires the measurement of very small currents and voltages.
Nanotechnology research is advancing rapidly. In fact, many scientists and engineers
nd their existing measurement tools lack the sensitivity or resolution needed to effec-
tively characterize the low-level signals associated with research in nanotech materials.
Meanwhile, others are scrambling to keep up with the rapid changes in measurement
requirements that new discoveries create.
The ability to create accurate and repeatable measurements at the nano-scale level is
critical to engineers seeking to develop these next generation materials.
The Challenges of Nanotech Testing
With nanoelectronic materials, sensitive electrical measurement tools are essential.
They provide the data needed to understand the electrical properties of new materials
fully and the electrical performance of new nanoelectronic devices and components.
Instrument sensitivity must be much higher because electrical currents are much lower
and many nanoscale materials exhibit signicantly improved properties, such as con-
ductivity. The magnitude of measured currents may be in the femtoamp range and resist-
ances as low as micro-ohms. Therefore, measurement techniques and instruments must
minimize noise and other sources of error that might interfere with the signal.
An equally important, if often overlooked, factor is that research tools and instru-
ments must be easy to use and cost-effective. The importance of these characteristics
will grow as industry employment grows. Some of the present tools are unnecessarily
complex, with too many buttons on front displays that confuse users and make the
learning curve steeper. Also, data transfer mechanisms are often tedious and can re-
quire extensive amounts of storage media, graphical analysis can take too long, and
programming steals time away from research. Department heads and managers who
must make the hard choices about equipment investments should examine these issues
carefully, and compare instrument features before committing funds.
To advance the state-of-the-art rapidly, researchers cant be bogged down with pro-
gramming chores and arcane details of instrument operation. User-friendly instruments
are important, not only to researchers and technicians, but also to design engineers
and manufacturing specialists who must take new discoveries and convert them into
II
practical products. To meet this challenge, todays state-of-the-art electrical character-
ization systems are typically PC-based with the familiar point-and-click, cut-and-paste,
and drag-and-drop features of the Windows
operating system. These system fea-

tures make test setup, execution, and analysis more time efcient by shortening the
learning curve.
There are also many difculties when testing at the nanoscale level. For instance, it
is incredibly complex to probe down to the device level for failure analysis and other
testing. This requires new testing equipment, probers, and new nanotech measurement
standards.
The Need for Standards
With the proliferation of nanotechnology devices comes the need for quality stan-
dards for these devices, specically, when it comes to testing. A new standard was worked
out and approved by the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE). The ap-
proved IEEE 1650-2005 standard, known as Standard Methods for Measurement of
Electrical Properties of Carbon Nanotubes, gives the burgeoning nanotechnology in-
dustry one uniform and common set of recommended testing and data reporting proce-
dures for evaluating the electrical properties of carbon nanotubes. A carbon nanotube is
a tubular structure that has become a major focus of nanomaterials research because it
displays a variety of exciting properties for creating nanoscale, low power consumption
electronic devices. A nanotube can even act as a biological or chemical sensing device in
some applications, or as a carrier for individual atoms.
The new standard contains a variety of testing apparatus recommendations and
measurement practices for making electrical measurements on carbon nanotubes in
order to minimize and/or characterize the effect of measurement artifacts and other
sources of measurement error. The new testing standard should aid in the commer-
cialization of nanotubes by providing uniformity between lab researchers and design
engineers eager to put lab results into commercial use on the production line. Recom-
mended measurement data to report as specied in the new standard include electrical
resistivity, conductivity, carrier mobility, and non-linear behaviors.
The new standard promises to greatly aid in accelerating the commercialization of
nanoscale materials and electronic devices for the semiconductor industry, along with
many other industries. The new standard lets those buying carbon nanotubes speak
the same language as the manufacturers when it comes to the electrical properties and
quality of the products theyre purchasing.
Standards for beyond CMOS nanoelectronics will help create a common communi-
cation platform throughout the industry so we can all speak the same language as well
as create acceptable practices for electrical testing. Testing and measurement standards
can be of added value to researchers who are looking for commonly accepted best prac-
tices and methods of reporting data on nanoelectronic device research.
The Need for Pulse Testing
During device development, structures like single electron transistors (SETs), sen-
sors, and other experimental devices often display unique properties. Characterizing
these properties without damaging one-of-a-kind structures requires systems that pro-
vide tight control over sourcing to prevent device self-heating.
With more devices shrinking in size, the demand for new kinds of test techniques
increases. Namely, as devices get smaller, the method of testing changes. No longer can
you send sizable currents through devices in order to test them. A current too large can
irreversibly damage a component.
What is needed are shorter bursts of energy. This comes in the way of pulse testing.
An instrument that can deliver an extremely short duration pulse, on the order of a
few nanoseconds, with tight control over parameters such as rise time, fall time, pulse
Figure 1. This example of pulses created with the burst output mode shows how a user
can program a series of pulses.
II
width, and voltage and current levels is a great asset to engineers and scientists doing
cutting edge research.
In addition, voltage pulsing can produce much narrower pulse widths than current
pulsing, so its often used in experiments such as thermal transport, in which the time
frame of interest is shorter than a few hundred nanoseconds. High amplitude accuracy
and programmable rise and fall times are necessary to control the amount of energy
delivered to a nanodevice.
Consequently, the need for pulsed sources has been growing over time. This need is
driven, in part, by the higher operating speeds of todays electronic circuits. The higher
operating speed requires test equipment that can produce simulated clock and data
signals at the rate that the circuits will actually perform. Also, analog components used
in these circuits behave differently at higher speeds, so they cant be characterized at DC
using traditional DC methods. See Figure 1.
As components become smaller, the need for pulsed testing techniques becomes
more critical. Smaller devices are more susceptible to self-heating, which can destroy
or damage the part or can change its response to test signals, masking the response the
user is seeking. Pulse testing is commonly used when characterizing nanoelectronic
devices.
Pulse generators are especially helpful for material characterization in nanotechnol-
ogy, which includes transient analysis and stress testing.
Electrical Measurements on Nanoscale Materials
This discussion explains the importance of electrical measurements to the science
of nanotechnology, and presents practical considerations in making these measure-
ments. Topics include material and structural characteristics that can be explored
with electrical measurements and why these measurements are important for even
non-electronic nanoscale materials, such as those used in structural and biological
appli ca tions. The discussion then explains how to perform and evaluate electrical nano-
tech nology measurements, emphasizing the use of source-measure instruments with
nano-manipulators.
Testing for Unique Properties
Like the testing of other engineered materials, measurements made on substances
created with nanotechnology are aimed at discovering useful properties. Generally, the
relevant properties relate to specic applications or products. For bulk materials, the
bulk properties of interest may include tensile strength, phase transition temperature,
weight, hardness, electrical and thermal conductivity, etc. Nanotechnology offers ways
to create new materials that have improved properties for applications such as struc-
tural members, electronic circuit elements, optical devices, and a host of other uses [1].
In some respects, the testing of bulk materials and those created with nanotechnol-
ogy are similar. However, the nature of nanotech materials requires some novel testing
techniques. Since these materials are built at the atomic or molecular level, quantum
mechanics come into play. As a result of small particle sizes, the atoms and molecules of
these new materials may bond differently than they might otherwise in bulk substanc-
es. There may be new electronic structures, crystalline shapes, and material behavior.
Nanoparticles with these new properties can be used individually or as building blocks
for bulk material. While the discovery of bulk properties remains important, measure-
ments also need to uncover the characteristics unique to nanoscale structures.
An excellent example is the carbon nanotube (CNT). CNTs can be manufactured to
consist of a single sheet of carbon atoms oriented in a graphite-like structure, rolled up
into the shape of a tube only a few nanometers in diameter [2]. The smallest diameter
tubes are insulators (i.e., large bandgap materials). As the diameter of the CNT increases,
its bandgap decreases. With a large enough diameter, a CNT can become a semiconduc-
tor. At even larger diameters, CNTs exhibit metallic properties, acting like conductors.
Structure and Behavior of the Very Small
Particle size and structure have a major inuence on the type of measurement tech-
nique used to investigate a material. Macroscopic materials can be viewed with optical
microscopes. For nanoscopic materials with particles smaller than 200 nanometers, a
scanning tunneling microscope (STM) or an Atomic Force Microscope (AFM) can be
II
used. Table 1 outlines the relative sizes of particles considered as nanoscopic, meso-
scopic, and macroscopic.
Table 1. Relative sizes of various particle classications.
Classication Particle Size
Macroscopic >300nm
Mesoscopic Varies with phase coherence length
Nanoscopic 0.5 200nm
Atomic <0.5nm
SEM, STM, and AFM techniques are particularly useful for crystalline nano-particle
structures. Figure 1 illustrates the atomic structures for some typical crystals with well-
known forms, such as simple cubic (SC), body-centered cubic (BCC), or face-centered
cubic (FCC). Knowing the arrangement of atoms in those structures helps predict a
particles properties. However, on a nanoscopic scale, it is the particles size that fun-
damentally alters the physics of its behavior and dictates the use of other measurement
methodologies.
(c) (b) (a)
Figure 1. Common crystalline atomic structures:
(a) Simple Cubic (SC).
(b) Body-Centered Cubic (BCC).
(c) Face-Centered Cubic (FCC). Inorganic metals frequently have the FCC form.
Two important sets of properties change as particle sizes are reduced to nanometer
dimensions, i.e., the materials chemical and electrical characteristics. This even applies
to biological materials. (See examples in Figure 2.) Therefore, most of these materials
require chemical and electrical testing to characterize them for practical product appli-
cations. For many of them, the actual quantity being measured is a low level current or
voltage that was translated from another physical quantity [3]. Direct electrical meas-
urements are possible on many nanoscopic substances with the probing instruments
and nano-manipulators now available.
Electronic Properties
As a substance is reduced to nanoscopic dimensions, both the band gap and the
distance between adjacent energy levels within the materials electron energy bands
are altered. These changes, along with a particles nanoscopic size with respect to
the materials mean free path (average distance an electron travels between scatter-
ing events), directly affect the electrical resistance of a nanoparticle. More generally, a
materials bandgap directly inuences whether a particle is a conductor, an insulator, or
a semiconductor.
These inuential electronic properties allow, for example, a CNT to be used to cre-
ate a transistor switch [4]. One way to do this is by connecting a semi-conducting CNT
between two electrodes that function as a drain and source. A third electrode (the gate)
is placed directly under the entire length of the carbon nanotube channel (Figure 3).
For a semiconducting CNT, the introduction of an electric eld through the channel
(via the insulated gate placed in proximity to the CNT channel) can be used to change
the CNT from its semiconducting state to its insulating state by increasing the gate
voltage. Decreasing the gate voltage will transition the device into a conducting state.
(See Figure 3b and earlier text on CNT bandgap and conducting states.) This conduc-
tion mechanism is analogous to the operation of a silicon MOSFET transistor switch,
which is created by doping silicon with either an electron acceptor or donor to alter the
NH
2
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C
C
CH
CH
NH
O
Cytosine (C)
O
HN
C
C
C
C
N
Guanine (G)
NH
CH
N
NH
2
N
C
C
C
CH
NH
O
Thymine (T)
O
HN
C
C
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C
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Adenine (A)
NH
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Figure 2. Molecular chemical composition of individual bases that form DNA. The linear
sequence of these bases in DNA encode unique amino acid sequences to build all
cellular components.
II
materials electronic conductivity in specic localities. (Additional information on CNTs
is available from the IBM Research Division, Nanoscience Department [5].)
Chemical Properties
The chemical properties of materials are also heavily inuenced by the electronic
structure of the atoms within the molecules (bonding type, bandgaps, etc.) and by the
size and shape of the particles. Just as electronic properties change as particles are
reduced to nanoscopic dimensions, the bandgap and distance between adjacent lev-
els within electron energy bands alter chemical reaction possibilities. In a substance
composed of nanoscopic particles, a larger percentage of the atoms in the mass will be
exposed to the materials surface. This also inuences chemical properties, especially
for those molecules that can act as a catalyst.

Nanotube
Source (Au) Drain (Au)
Gate Oxide (SiO
2
)
Gate (Si)
(a) (b)

(c)
Figure 3. A CNT being used to create a new type of transistor switch:
(a) Microscopic view.
(b) Representation of switch cross-section.
(c) I-V characteristics. As the gate voltage is increased, the channel current is reduced.
Negative gate voltage drives the CNT into a conducting region. (IBM Copyright)
Properties Associated with Electrical Measurements
For macroscopic sized particles, electrons take on discrete quantums of energy that
lie within energy bands, with each band consisting of many energy levels that electrons
can share through their thermal energies. For a conducting material, electrons can be
thermally excited into the conduction band (i.e., electrons are present in the valence
as well as in the conduction band). For an insulator (bandgap > thermal energy of the
electron), enormous energy is required for an electron to transition from the valence to
the conduction band separated by the material bandgap. If a suitable amount of energy
is absorbed (> bandgap), then electrons can jump bands.
As a particles size is reduced to nanoscopic dimensions, the allowable energies
within the continuous bands separate into discrete levels (since there are far fewer
atoms in the mix). This occurs when the separation between energy levels approaches
the thermal energy of the electrons. See Figure 4. With fewer energy levels within the
specic energy band, the density of states of the material changes.
Conduction Band
(a) (b)
Figure 4. As material is reduced from macroscopic dimensions to nanoscopic size, its
continuous energy bands (a) separate into discrete energy levels within the band (b)
and the bandgap increases.
The density of states is a measure of the number of energy options available to an
electron as it falls into a lower energy level by giving up energy or as it ascends to a
higher energy level after absorbing energy. A corollary is that if the density of states is
known, the size of the particle can be deduced.
The density of states can be used to engineer characteristics of a nanoscopic particle,
particularly a metallic or semiconducting particle. For example, these materials take on
color by selectively absorbing and reecting light wavelengths. If the material cannot
absorb photons with certain wavelengths because its density of states has changed (re-
moving critical energy levels associated with absorption), then the color of the material
will change.
II
If a particle becomes small enough, its physical size may approach the wavelength of
the materials electrons. Quantum size effects must be considered whenever a particle
approaches this critical dimension. Because of quantum mechanics, the energy of a
particles electrons cannot be predicted by the bonding normally associated with the
bulk material.
Nevertheless, electron energy effects can be deduced from electrical measurements
when nanoparticles take part in a chemical reaction of the oxidation-reduction (RE-
DOX) type, such as the chemical-electrical conversion that takes place in fuel cells or
batteries. Briey stated, every reaction of this type is associated with the transfer of a
specic number of electrons from one species to another. The number of electrons
transferred depends on the specic reaction(s) taking place and on the frequency of
the reactions (reaction rates). Electrical measurements of the transferred electrons can
be used to determine reaction rates by tracking the current and potential of the cell
with time. Reaction and conduction measurements are then used to track particle size,
density of states, reaction rates, and other nanoscopic properties.
Determining the Density of States
Characterizing the density of states is a fundamental activity in nanoscopic
material research. Density of states (3D dimensionality) as a function of energy can be
expressed as:
This represents the number of electron states per unit volume per unit energy at
energy E, where:
m = the effective mass of the particle,
h = Planks constant, and
E = the energy (electron orbital location) in electron volts.
While the result is independent of volume (can be applied to any size particle), this
equation is of limited value if the particle size/structure is unknown. However, there
are other ways to determine the density of states experimentally from which the par-
ticle size can be found. The 0D and 1D density of states as applied to nanoparticles are
discussed below.
X-Ray Spectroscopy
The density of states can be measured by bombarding a material with electrons. The
energy of the bombarding electrons excites the materials electrons into higher energy
levels. X-ray emission takes place as these electrons return to lower energy levels. The
x-ray emission energy indicates the difference between the energy level harboring the
excited electron and the level that recaptures the electron after the emission. Fewer
energy levels mean fewer electrons are excited, yielding lower radiation intensities as
they return to lower energy states. A spectrographic analysis of the resulting x-ray emis-
sion energies and intensities vs. the bombarding electron energies reveals the density
of states for the material.
Direct Electrical Measurements
Since the density of states can be used to predict the electrical behavior of materials,
it is also possible to use electrical impedance measurements to derive density of states
information. Prior art has used a scanning tunneling microscope (STM) to tunnel a cur-
rent through a nanoscopic device. The density of states is found by plotting differential
conductance vs. applied voltage. Differential conductance is simply (di/dv).
In this technique, the quiescent current vs. voltage characteristics are established
through the STMs high resistance contact with a low level AC modulation on top of the
quiescent operating point to measure the differential conductance, di/dv. When this con-
ductance is plotted against voltage, the graph indicates the materials density of states.
Highly conductive materials possess an abundance of free energy levels in the con-
duction band, i.e., greater density of states (more individual allowed energy levels per
unit energy). Insulating materials have an electronic structure with a dearth of occu-
pied energy levels in the conduction band. Since density of states corresponds to the
density of these energy levels, a plot of conduction vs. voltage provides a direct measure
of the electronic density of states at each energy level (voltage across the device).
(a) (b)
Figure 5. Nano-manipulator probing of nanoscale structures:
(a) Microscopic view of low impedance probe contact to a CNT for direct electrical
measurements.
(b) Photo of a nano-manipulator head assembly.
(Courtesy of Zyvex Corporation)
II
SMU/Nano-manipulator Methodology
An alternate approach to this technique is to replace the STM and its high resistance
contact with a nano-manipulator that makes low resistance contacts to the nanoparticle.
Such an arrangement allows charge transport and density of states measurements with-
out an STM. This works well into the conduction region thanks to the low resistance
direct connections of the nano-probes on the material (particle) being tested.
The nano-manipulator and its probes, along with a source-measure unit (SMU), are
used to apply a current or voltage stimulus directly to the nanoparticle and measure its
corresponding voltage or current response. (See Figure 5.) The advantage of electrical
source-measure testing is rooted in the fact that a specic SMU measurement mode
(source current/measure voltage or vice versa) can be chosen based on the relative
impedance of the material or device under test (DUT). Furthermore, the measurement
mode can change dynamically as the impedance changes, such as occurs in CNTs act-
ing as semiconductor switches. This allows a much wider dynamic range of voltage and
current stimuli and measurements, thereby optimizing parametric test precision and
accuracy. SMU voltage and current sensitivity can be as good as 1 microvolt and 100
atto-amp.
Probing and Connection Issues
Electrical measurements on nanoscopic materials place stringent requirements on
the instrumentation. In order to measure conductivity, impedance, or other electrical
properties, and relate those measurements to the density of states, a galvanic connec-
tion must be made to the nanoscopic DUT [6]. This represents one of the major hurdles
to be overcome in the eld of nanotechnology testing. There are only a few tools avail-
able and few device constructs that facilitate connections of this type.
Often, nanoscopic particles are classied dimensionally in terms of exactly what it
is about them that is small. Quantum wells represent material with nanoscopic meas-
urements in only a single dimension, such as a thin lm. Quantum wires are small
in two dimensions (or diameter), and quantum dots are nanoscopic in all Cartesian
coordinates.
Particle self-assembly can be accomplished from silicon to silicon, where conven-
tional photolithographic techniques are used to make electrical connection pads for
probing. Particles that are long enough to straddle such pads (for example, carbon
nanowires) can be connected to the pads through externally generated electrostatic
elds. Figure 5 illustrates an example of this.
Although the properties of quantum wells, wires, and dots differ, its possible that
information about a particular material in the form of a quantum dot can be inferred
by examining the same material fashioned as a quantum wire or well (nano-lm). Nano-
lms are particularly easy to measure since only one dimension is small. Such a lm
might be deposited on a conductive substrate, allowing measurements through the
volume as well as over the surface, using appropriately placed macroscopic test pads
formed on the material surface. For conductive materials, separate pads for source and
measure can be deposited to create a Kelvin (4-wire) connection [7]. This type of circuit
eliminates test lead resistance from the measurement and improves accuracy. In any
case, a quantum well (nano-lm) can be tested like any other bulk material.
A nano-manipulator and STM can also be used to make direct electrical connections
to nanoparticles. STMs do this by a tunneling current, established by closing the distance
between the STM tip and the nanoparticle to within a single electron wavelength.
Electrical Measurement Considerations
Electrical measurements on passive devices (any device that is not a source of
energy) are made by following a simple procedure: stimulate the sample in some way
and measure its response to the stimulus. This method also works for devices that have
both passive and active properties with linear or non-linear transfer functions. With
appropriate techniques, a source-measure algorithm can be useful for characterizing
sources of energy. Fuel cell and battery impedance spectroscopy are examples of such
measurements.
For nanoscopic particles, this general method takes the form of source-measure
testing to quantify impedance, conductance, and resistance, which reveal critical mate-
rial properties. This test methodology is useful even if the end application is not an
electronic circuit.
General Considerations
Important considerations in the characterization of nanoscopic particles include the
following:
1. Nanoscopic particles will not support the magnitude of currents that macro-
scopic device can carry (unless they are super-conducting). This means that
when a device is interrogated, the magnitude of a current stimulus must be
carefully controlled.
2. Nanoscopic particles will not hold off as much voltage from adjacent devices
as a conventional electronic component or material (such as a transistor).
This is due to the fact that smaller devices can be and are placed closer to-
gether. Smaller devices have less mass and they may be affected by the forces
associated with large elds. In addition, internal electric elds associated
with nanoscopic particles can be very high, requiring careful attention to
applied voltages.
3. Since nanoscopic devices are small, they typically have lower parasitic (stray)
inductance and capacitance. This is especially useful when they are used in
II
an electronic circuit, enabling faster switching speeds and lower power con-
sumption than comparable macroscopic devices. However, this also means
that instrumentation for characterizing their I-V curves must measure low
currents while tracking the short reaction time.
Speed, Sensitivity, and Accuracy
Since nanoscopic test applications often require low current sourcing and meas-
urement, appropriate instrument selection and use is critical for accurate electrical
characterization. Besides being highly sensitive, the instrumentation must have a short
response time (sometimes referred to as high bandwidth), which is related to a DUTs
low capacitance and ability to change state rapidly at low currents. This was illustrated
earlier in Figure 3c (I-V characteristics of a carbon nanotube used as a switch).
Measurement Topology
Its important to recognize that the switching speed of a source-measure test circuit
may be limited by the instrumentation used to follow the state of the device. This is es-
pecially true if a non-optimal measurement topology is used to observe the device. The
two possible topologies are source current/measure voltage or source voltage/measure
current.
When considering the measurement of low impedance devices (less than 1000),
the source current/measure voltage technique will generally yield the best results. Cur-
rent sources are stable when applied to lower impedances, and a good signal to noise
ratio can be achieved without great difculty. This allows accurate low voltage response
measurements.
The alternative, source voltage/measure current, is not as well suited for low impe-
dances. Exceptionally low values of applied voltage are required to keep device currents
low and avoid destructive heating. At such low voltages, the source tends to contribute
excessive noise to the measured current (response). In other words, the sources noise
voltage is a signicant percentage of the total applied voltage. Additionally, voltage
sources are less stable with low impedance loads. There may also be current meas-
urement problems related to an instruments voltage burden (the voltage that develops
across the input of an ammeter circuit), which introduces additional error.
When measuring high impedance devices (impedance greater than 10,000), the
source voltage/measure current technique is best. Stable voltage sources to drive high
impedances are easily constructed. When a well-designed voltage source is placed
across a high impedance, it will quickly charge the stray capacitance of the DUT and
test cables and rapidly settle to its nal output value. The small current response of the
DUT can be accurately measured with an appropriate ammeter.
The alternative, source current/measure voltage, creates problems in high impe-
dance measurements. To keep the voltage response low enough for practical measure-
ments, this technique requires a low current value. This means that it will take a great
deal of time to charge the device and cable capacitances. In addition, the high voltage
measurement circuits will draw some of the source current from the DUT. Since the
current is sourced, not measured, through the device, this current draw represents an
error in the measurement.
Electrical Noise
Measurement topology also has an impact on electrical noise, which is the ultimate
limitation on measurement sensitivity and accuracy. For low impedance voltage meas-
ure ments with a current source, the measurement circuits will be sensitive to DUT volt-
age noise and impedance.
For macroscopic devices, such as a resistor, the Johnson noise voltage at room tem-
perature (270K) is expressed as:
where k = Boltzmanns constant
T = Absolute temperature of the source in degrees Kelvin
B = Noise bandwidth in Hertz
R = Resistance of the source in ohms
which can be further simplied to:
Device (DUT)
Source
Voltage
+
Current
Measurement
Circuit
DUT
+
Ammeter
Measurement
Resistor
Noise Gain = 1 +
R
DUT Impedance
(a) (b)
Figure 6.
(a) Circuit model for the source voltage/measure current technique.
(b) Modied model illustrating the noise gain (op-amp noise gained up) when the
DUT impedance is low compared to the measurement impedance.
II
This equation shows that as DUT resistance, R, decreases, the Johnson voltage noise
generated by the DUT also goes down. Conversely, high impedance devices stimulated
with a voltage source are limited by current measurement noise. The Johnson current
noise of a resistor at 270K is:
indicating that the noise goes down as DUT resistance increases.
For all particle sizes, in addition to Johnson noise, there could be a noise gain associ-
ated with the measurement topology chosen. Noise gain is a parasitic amplication of
the noise of the measurement system that is not present when the correct measurement
topology is chosen. For example, consider a source voltage/measure current topology.
An operational amplier is used in many current measurement (ammeter) circuits, as
shown in Figure 6. To minimize noise gain, the ammeter circuit must operate at a low
gain with respect to its non-inverting input terminal.
Source-Measure Instruments
A commercial DC source-measure unit (SMU) is a convenient test tool for many
nanoscopic material and device measurements. SMUs change measurement topology
automatically (i.e., rapidly switch between source voltage/measure current and vice
versa). This makes it easier to minimize measurement noise while maximizing meas-
urement speed and accuracy.
As described earlier for a carbon nanotube, some nanoparticles can change state
with the application of an external eld. When investigating such materials, an SMU
can be congured to source voltage and measure current for a nanoparticle in its high
impedance state. When the material is in its low impedance state, more accurate results
are achieved by sourcing current and measuring voltage. Furthermore, the SMU has a
current compliance function that can automatically limit the DC current level to prevent
damage to the material or device under test (DUT). Similarly, there is a voltage compli-
ance function when current is being sourced.
When using the compliance function, an SMU will satisfy the source value unless the
users compliance value is exceeded. For example, when an SMU is congured to source
voltage with a preset current compliance, if that compliance value is exceeded, the SMU
automatically starts acting as a constant current source. Its output level then will be the
compliance current value. Alternately, if the SMU is set to source current with a compli-
ance voltage, it will automatically switch to sourcing voltage (the compliance voltage) if
the DUT impedance and the current it draws begin to drive the voltage higher than the
compliance value.
While a nanoscopic device, such as a CNT switch, can change states rapidly, the
change in instrument state is not instantaneous. Depending on the SMU model, the
switching time can range from 100ns to 100s. Although such switching speeds are
not fast enough to track a nanoparticle as it changes state, the time is short enough to
allow accurate measurements of both states while limiting DUT power dissipation to
acceptable levels.
Pulsing Techniques
Choosing the correct measurement topology to improve measurement speed and
minimize noise may still fall short of the test needs for some nanoscopic materials. For
example, it appears that some CNTs can switch 1000 times faster than conventional
CMOS transistor switches. This is too fast for the nano-amp ranges of commercial pico-
ammeters. Demanding devices such as these may require other techniques to improve
the speed of impedance measurements.
Low power pulsing techniques may offer a partial solution to this problem, and are
available in some SMU designs. The idea is to use a much higher test current or test
voltage and apply this large stimulus for a short sourcing cycle. The larger stimulus will
lower the sourcing noise (by improving the signal-to-noise ratio) and improve the rise
or settle time for a voltage pulse or current pulse, respectively. Quieter sources require
less ltering and permit a shorter sourcing cycle time (narrower pulse width). A larger
source stimulus also increases the response current or voltage so that higher instru-
ment ranges can be used, further minimizing the effects of noise. Since there is less
noise, the measurement acquisition time (integration period) can be shortened, thereby
speeding up measurements.
Avoiding Self-Heating Problems
A possible source of error is self-heating due to excessive electrical current through
the DUT. Such currents may even lead to catastrophic failure of the sample. There-
fore, instrumentation must automatically limit source current during device testing.
Programmable current and voltage compliance circuits are a standard feature of most
SMU-based test systems with pulsed current capabilities, and may be required to avoid
self-heating of some low resistance structures.
When an elevated test current is required, it must be sufciently brief so that it does
not introduce enough energy to heat the DUT to destructive temperatures. (Nanoscopic
devices tolerate very little heat, so the total energy dissipated in them must be main-
tained at low levels.) In addition, care must be taken that the magnitude of the test cur-
rent is low enough that the DUTs nanoscopic channel does not become saturated. (For
instance, a current channel 1.5nm in diameter severely limits the number of electrons
that can pass per unit of time.) Some nanoscopic devices can support only a few hun-
II
dred nano-amps of current in their conductive state. Thus, a devices saturation current
may dene the maximum test current even in pulsed applications.
The equation below illustrates how duty cycle and measurement time in pulse mode
effect DUT power dissipation. To calculate power dissipation in pulse mode, multiply
the apparent power dissipation (VI ) by the test stimulus time and divide by the test
repetition rate:
where: P
p
= Pulse power dissipation
P
a
= Apparent power (i.e., VI )
T
t
= Test time
T
r
= Test repetition rate
Pulse mode is also useful for density of state measurements using a low impedance
connection, such as through a nanomanipulator. Pulsing allows measurements at previ-
ously forbidden I/V locations due to particle self-heating.
Other Instrument Alternatives
Advanced AC+DC current sources, such as the Keithley Model 6221, also offer a
pulse mode. This waveform generator permits the user to optimize pulse current ampli-
tude, pulse intervals, pulse width, and trigger synchronization with a measuring instru-
ment, such as a nanovoltmeter [8]. With built-in synchronization, the nanovoltmeter can
take a reading within microseconds after a pulse is applied. This greatly facilitates dif-
ferential conductance measurements and allows resistance measurements from 10n
to 100M. Such an instrument combination is a high performance alternative to AC
resistance bridges and lock-in ampliers.
These advanced instruments can measure differential conductance up to ten times
faster and with lower noise than earlier solutions. This is accomplished in a single
sweep, rather than averaging the results of multiple sweeps, which take more time and
are prone to error. In addition, these instruments can be used in delta mode, which
further improves measurement accuracy. Taken together, these techniques can improve
measurement accuracy by as much as three orders of magnitude compared to some test
solutions.
Electrical Impedance Spectroscopy
Electrical impedance spectroscopy is relevant to many devices that use nanoscopic
materials. One example is an electrochemical cell that uses a nanoscopic material as a
catalyst on a membrane electrode assembly (MEA). The reactive component of the cells
complex impedance provides a direct measure of the chemical reaction rate at the ter-
minals of the anode and cathode of the cell which is a direct reection of the catalyst
operation. In other applications, the reactive component can describe the dielectric
charge distribution of a material and the ease or difculty that an external eld would
have in re-orienting the material dielectric.
This technique goes beyond the simple measurement of impedance magnitude with
a DC voltage or current. Complex impedance is an AC (or pulsed DC) property that
can be described as a vector with a magnitude and a phase. The phase describes the
relationship, in time, between the voltage or current stimulus (zero phase reference)
and the resultant current or voltage response. At any frequency, the impedance can
be described in this manner as a magnitude with an associated phase angle. Complex
impedances must be computed at a specic excitation frequency; phase angle changes
with frequency for any device that can be modeled as a resistance in series or parallel
with capacitance or inductance.
By measuring complex voltage and current, the vector impedance can be calculated
by dividing the complex voltage by the complex current. This requires only that the
relative time is logged with each voltage and current measurement. The nal results are
found by computing the complex Fourier transform, which expands time domain data
into the frequency domain.
The complex impedance phase angle describes exactly the time lead or lag between
the stimulus and resulting DUT response, since any phase angle can be transformed
into a time by the following relationship:
This is the shift in time between the stimulus and the response, regardless of wheth-
er each is a voltage or a current. So, if we record time along with voltage and current
measurements, we can, through an appropriate mathematical transform, compute the
complex impedance.
We have already discussed the importance of selecting the correct measurement to-
pology to minimize noise and maximize system speed. In addition, to accurately charac-
terize complex impedance, the instrument and measurement technique must allow an
appropriate sample rate. Furthermore, the instrument must have a stable time base in
order to compute the impedance mathematically. The required sample rate, acquisition
time, and mathematical transform will depend on the required accuracy and nature of
the DUTs complex impedance. A discussion of these criteria can be quite lengthy and
is beyond the scope of this discussion. More information on digital signal processing is
available from Analog Devices Corporation [9].
Application Example: CNT Field Emission Display
Typically, when CNTs are made, both conducting and semiconducting forms occur.
When the two forms are separated, the conducting nanotubes can be used as emitters
II
for eld emission displays, and the semiconducting nanotubes can be used to make
electronic switches as discussed earlier. (See Figure 3.)
CNT eld emitters play a role similar to that of the electron gun used in a cathode
ray tube. However, each pixel in a eld emission display has its own electron gun, a
CNT eld emitter. Each emitter must be smaller than the display pixel and able to emit
electrons without dissipating too much heat. Since the CNT acts as a cathode, and this
is a cold cathode emission process, a very high electric eld intensity is required. This is
possible because of the CNTs nanoscopic dimensions [10].
The CNT eld emitters must have other properties that make this application practi-
cal. They must not erode away in the presence of the pixel currents owing through
them. This means that the emitter materials molecular bonding must be stronger than
the energies associated with the emission current. The physical characteristics of the
emitter must be such that a gate structure can be placed between it (the cathode) and
the phosphor-coated screen of the display (the anode). This gate is used to switch the
pixel on and off.
A eld emitter display is a capacitive device, so the appropriate measurement topol-
ogy is the source current/measure voltage type. This data is used to calculate the eld
emitters impedance, and measurements are taken for emitter conductance over the en-
tire operating frequency range. Emitter voltage is measured from the common cathode
to the common anode, with one or many emitters enabled via their addressable gates.
AC impedance can be measured from DC up to the maximum required refresh rate of
the display. Since emitters are electrical conductors, a low impedance with acceptable
capacitive and inductive components indicates a good display. Naturally, a conductor
such as this should have adequate densities of states in the conduction band to support
the required conduction current.
Even though nanoscopic devices tend to have low capacitance due to their small size,
additional mechanisms must be considered when they are combined with other materi-
als and structures, such as those in a eld emission display. The macroscopic design of
such a display predicts a very high capacitance between the anodes, gates, and cathodes.
Nevertheless, due to the dimensions required for cold electron emission, each cathode
current must be in the range of nA to A and must turn on or off quickly if the display is
to be used (and tested) as a raster device. This calls for measuring low currents at a high
bandwidth with the proper measurement topology and techniques discussed earlier.
Conclusions
The electronic structure of nanoscopic particles is a reection of the atomic electron
energies and the distribution of orbitals for both molecularly shared and free electrons.
This kind of information can be used to describe how such materials will interact in the
presence of energy and other materials. The density of states in a material is directly
related to its electronic structure and is useful in predicting or manipulating its proper-
ties. It can be found through direct electrical measurements of differential conductance.
Thus, the density of states can predict a materials electrical impedance and vice versa.
Still, there is a right way and a wrong way to electrically interrogate a nanoscopic
material, depending on its impedance. For a low impedance material, the source cur-
rent/measure voltage method will result in the least electrical noise and allow the most
accurate response measurement with the widest bandwidth. For a high impedance
material, the source voltage/measure current method is more appropriate for similar
reasons. At times, the appropriate measurement mode must be used in unison with yet
another voltage or current source to activate or stimulate the device, such as is the case
with the eld emission display.
References
1. Introduction to Nanotechnology, Charles P. Poole Jr. and Frank J. Owens, Wiley 2003.
2. Nanotube Nanodevice, Philip G. Collins, Science Vol. 278, 3 October 1997.
3. Bioimpedance Bioelectricity Basics, Wiley 2003.
4. Applied Physics Letters, Single and Multiwalled Carbon Nanotube Field Effect Transistors,
volume 17, number 73, October 26, 1998, IBM Research Division.
5. IBM Research Division, Nanoscience Department, online nanoscience publications, http://
www.research.ibm.com/nanoscience/publications.html.
6. I-V Measurements of Nanoscale Wires and Tubes with the Model 4200-SCS and Zyvex S100
Nanomanipulator, Application Note #2481, Keithley Instruments, 2004.
7. Four-Probe Resistivity and Hall Voltage Measurements with the Model 4200-SCS, Application
Note #2475, Keithley Instruments, 2004.
8. Low-Level Pulsed Electrical Characterization with the Model 6221/2182A Combination, Appli-
cation Note 2611, Keithley Instruments, 2004.
9. The Scientists and Engineers Guide to Digital Signal Processing, Steven W. Smith, California
Technical Publishing, 1999, published for Analog Devices Corp. (www.DSPguide.com).
10. High-Field Electrical Transport in Single-Wall Carbon Nanotubes, Physical Review Letters,
Volume 84, Number 13, Zhen Yao, Charles L. Kane, Cees Dekker.
S E C T I ON I I I
Low-Level Measurement
Techniques
III Low-Level Measurement Techniques
Recognizing the Sources of Measurement Errors:
An Introduction
As good as semiconductor characterization systems are, making ultra-low current
measurements on nanoelectronic and molecular scale devices is not trivial. Potential
sources of measurement error must be understood and steps taken to reduce or elimi-
nate them. Otherwise, a researcher will lack condence in the characterization of mate-
rials and devices under test (DUTs). Typically, nanoscale devices are characterized with
semiconductor test instruments and probe station systems, such as the one shown in
Figure 1 and Figure 2. The following examples and techniques can improve low-level
current meas ure ments.
External Leakage Currents
Currents in the nanoamp to picoamp range are typically measured on nanoelectron-
ic devices. External leakage current error sources must be minimized and instrument
system leakage quantied. External leakage currents typically are generated between
the measurement circuit and nearby voltage sources. These currents signicantly de-
grade the accuracy of low current measurements. One technique for minimizing leak-
age currents in a test circuit is the use of high quality insulators (Teon, polyethylene,
and sapphire), and reduce the humidity of the test environment.
Figure 1. Example of a Windows
-based semiconductor characterization solution, the

Keithley Model 4200-SCS.
III
Insulators absorb water vapor from the air, with the amount absorbed dependant
on the insulator material and humidity level. When the insulator contains ionic con-
taminants, spurious current generation can be especially troublesome in high humidity
environments. The best insulator choice is one on which water vapor does not readily
form a continuous lm. However, this may be unavoidable if the DUT absorbs water
easily. In that case, its best to make the measurements in an environmentally controlled,
low- humidity room.
The use of guarding is a principal method of reducing leakage currents in a test
circuit. A guard is a conductor connected to a low impedance point in the circuit that
is at nearly the same potential as the high impedance lead being guarded (for exam-
ple, In/Out HI in Figure 3). Guarding can isolate the high impedance input lead of an
electrometer, picoammeter, or source- measure unit (SMU) from leakage current due
to voltage sources. Guarding can also reduce the effect of shunt capacitance in the
measurement circuit.
Grounding and Shielding
It is important to distinguish between an instruments common and chassis grounds.
The common is the ground for the complete measurement circuit; it will affect the
systems low-level measurement performance. In contrast, the chassis ground is con-
nected to the power line ground and is mainly used for safety reasons. Usually, there are
Figure 2. Example of a powerful, dedicated system for electrical characterization
of nano and semiconductor devices and advanced materials. (Graphic courtesy of
Kleindiek Nanotechnik.)
no problems associated with connecting these grounds together. Sometimes, however,
the power line ground can be noisy. In other cases, a test xture and probe station
connected to the instrument may create a ground loop that generates additional noise.
Accurate low-level measurements require a comprehensive system-grounding plan.
Although grounding and shielding are closely related, they are actually two different
issues. In a test xture or probe station, the DUT and probe typically are enclosed in
soft metal shielding. The metal enclosure helps eliminate interference from power lines
and high frequency radiation (RF or microwave) and reduces magnetic interference.
The metal normally is grounded for safety reasons. However, when an instrument is
connected to a probe station through triaxial cables (the type used for guarded connec-
tions), physical grounding points are very important.
The conguration in Figure 4a illustrates a common grounding error. Note that the
instrument common and the chassis ground are connected. The probe station is also
grounded to the power line locally. Even more signicant, the measurement instrument
and the probe station are connected to different power outlets. The power line grounds
of these two outlets may not be at the same electrical potential all the time. Therefore, a
Guard
Local
Remote
Local
Remote
In/Out HI
Sense HI
Sense LO
V Source
In/Out LO
I Meter
Guard Sense
+
Sense
Output
Adjust
V Source
(Feedback)
V Meter
x1
Figure 3. Simplied block diagram of a source-measure unit (SMU) congured to source
voltage and measure current, showing guard connections.
III
SMU
Model 4200-SCS
Mainframe
Prober
GND
Probe
Station
Dark Box
GND
Figure 4a. Grounding connections that create ground loops.
SMU
Model 4200-SCS
Mainframe
Prober
GND
Probe
Station
Dark Box
GND
Figure 4b. Grounding connections that avoid ground loops.
uctuating current may ow between the instrument and the probe station. This creates
what is known as a ground loop. To avoid ground loops, a single point ground must be
used. Figure 4b illustrates a better grounding scheme for use with a probe station.
Noise
Even if a characterization system is properly shielded and grounded, its still possible
for noise to corrupt measurement results. Typically, instruments contribute very little
to the total noise error in the measurements. (For example, a good characterization
system has a noise specication of about 0.2% of range, meaning the p-p noise on the
lowest current range is just a few femtoamps.) Noise can be reduced with proper signal
averaging through ltering and/or increasing the measurement integration period (i.e.,
integrating over a larger number of power line cycles).
The most likely sources of noise are other test system components, such as long
cables or switching hardware inappropriate for the application. Therefore, it is advis-
able to use the best switch matrix available, designed specically for ultra-low current
measurements. Then, keep all connecting cables as short as possible.
Generally, system noise has the greatest impact on measurement integrity when the
DUT signal is very small (i.e., low signal-to-noise ratio). This leads to the classic problem
of amplifying noise along with the signal. Clearly then, increasing the signal-to-noise
ratio is key to low-level measurement accuracy.
Some characterization systems offer a low noise pre-amplier option that allows
measurements down to the sub-femptoamp level. To get that level of sensitivity, it is best
to mount the pre-amps remotely on a probe station platen. With this arrangement, the
signal travels only a very short distance (just the length of the probe needle) before it
is amplied. Then, the amplied signal is routed through the cables and switch matrix
into the measurement hardware.
Settling Time
Fast, accurate, low current measurements depend a great deal on the way system
elements work together. Measurement instruments must be properly synchronized
with the prober and switching matrix, if one is used. Improper synchronization and
source-measure delay may lead to a collection of signals unrelated to the real device
parameters.
Settling time can vary widely for different systems, equipment, and cabling. It results
mainly from capacitance inherent in switch relays, cables, etc., but may also be affected
by dielectric absorption in the insulating materials of system components. High dielec-
tric absorption can cause settling time to be quite long.
In most test situations, it is desirable to shorten test time to the minimum required
for acceptable accuracy. This requires using the optimum source-measure delay, which is
III
a function of the instrumentation source and measurement time, along with the system
settling time. The latter usually is the dominant portion of source-measure delay time.
A step voltage test is typically used to characterize system settling time. A 10V step is
applied across two open-circuit probe tips, and then current is monitored continuously
for a period of time. The resulting current vs. time (I-t) curve (Figure 5) illustrates the
transient segment and the steady current segment. Immediately after the voltage step,
the transient current will gradually decay to a steady value. The time it takes to reach
the steady value is the system settling time. Typically, the time needed to reach 1/e of
the initial value is dened as the system time constant.
With the system leakage I-t curve in hand, the next step is to establish the accept-
able measurement sensitivity or error. Suppose the task requires accurate DUT leak-
age measurements only at the picoamp level. Then, source-measure delay time can be
established by a point on the transient portion of the system settling curve (Figure 5)
where the leakage current is at a sub-picoamp level. If the expected DUT current is in
the femtoamp range, then the delay time must be extended so that the transient current
reaches a value lower than the expected reading before a measurement is taken.
System Leakage Current
Once the transient current has settled to its steady value, it corresponds to the sys-
tem leakage current. Typically, system leakage current is expressed as amperes per volt.
1e10
1e11
1e12
1e13
1e14
1e15
1e16
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
m
p
s
)
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Time (seconds)
Step voltage
applied
Figure 5. Use instrument settling time to set source-measure delays. Leakage current
(in this case, 10
15
A) establishes the limit on basic instrument sensitivity.
To determine its magnitude, simply measure the steady-state current and divide by the
voltage step value. The magnitude of the system leakage current establishes the noise
oor and overall sensitivity of the system. Usually, the largest leakage current contribu-
tors are the probe card and switching relays.
Extraneous Current
Errors in current measuring instruments arise from extraneous currents owing
through various circuit elements. In the current measurement model of Figure 6, the
current indicated on the meter (M) is equal to the actual current through the meter (I
1
),
plus or minus the inherent meter uncertainty. I
1
is the signal current (I
S
), less the shunt
current (I
SH
) and the sum of all generated error currents (I
E
).
Error Current Model
Figure 6 identies the various noise and error currents generated during typical
current measurements, which contribute to the error sum (I
E
). The I
SE
current genera-
tor represents noise currents produced within the DUT and its voltage source. These
currents could arise due to the aforementioned leakage and dielectric absorption, or
due to electrochemical, piezoelectric, and triboelectric effects. I
CE
represents currents
generated in the interconnection between the meter and the source/DUT circuit. I
IE
rep-
resents the error current arising from all internal measuring instrument sources. I
RE
is
generated by the thermal activity of the shunt resistance. The rms value of this thermal
noise current is given by:
I
RE
= (4kTf/R
SH
)
1/2
where: k = Boltzmans constant (1.38 10
23
J/K)
T = Absolute temperature in K
f = Noise bandwidth in Hz
R
SH
= Resistance in ohms
Making the Most of Instrumentation
Making accurate low current measurements on nanoelectronic, moletronic (molecu-
lar electronic), and other nanoscale devices demands a thorough analysis of potential
error sources, plus steps to reduce possible errors. These steps include selection of ap-
propriate grounding and shielding techniques, cables, probe cards, switching matrices,
etc. These efforts allow nanotechnology researchers to make the most of the capabili-
ties inherent in modern device characterization systems.
Properly applied, these systems can speed up development of CNT and molecular
electronic structures, which may ultimately redene the processes used to fabricate
semiconductor devices. By providing a means for economical, massive integration, such
technology could pave the way for new computing architectures, 100 speed increases,
signicant reduction in power consumption, and other breakthroughs in performance.
III
R
SH
V I
SE
I
SE
I
CE
I
RE
I
IE
I
1
I
1
= I
S
I
SH
I
E
I
E
= I
SE
+ I
CE
+ I
RE
+ I
IE
Current Source
I
S
I
S
I
SE
I
CE
=
=
=
Source current
Source noise current
Interconnection noise current
R
SH
I
RE
I
IE
=
=
=
Shunt resistance
Shunt resistance noise
Instrument error current
I
SH
M
Figure 6. Source of current error in a Shunt Type Ammeter.
Examples of Low Current Measurements on
Nanoelectronic and Molecular Electronic Devices
Nanotech Development
Moores Law states that circuit density will double every 18 months. However, in
order to maintain this rate of increase, there must be fundamental changes in the way
circuits are formed. Over the past few years, there have been signicant and exciting
developments in nanotechnology, particularly in the areas of nanoelectronics and mo-
lecular electronic (also called moletronic) devices.
As is well known, Moores Law within the semiconductor industry is being chal-
lenged even further as devices continue to shrink down to molecular levels. These new
nanoelectronic devices require careful characterization and well thought out manu-
facturing processes in order for commercialization to take place. Thus, professional
organizations such as IEEE and SEMI (Semiconductor Equipment and Materials Interna-
tional) are collaborating to develop the next generation of measurement and metrology
standards for the industry.
Below a semiconductor scale of 100nm, the principles, fabrication methods, and
ways to integrate silicon devices into systems are quite different, but apparently not
impossible. Still, the increasing precision and quality control required for silicon devices
smaller than 100nm will presumably require new fabrication equipment and facilities
that may not be justied due to high cost. Even if cost were not a factor, silicon devices
have physical size limitations that affect their performance. That means the race is on to
develop nano dimen sional devices and associated production methods.
Carbon Nanotube and Organic Chain Devices
Two types of molecules that are being used as current carrying, nano-scale elec-
tronic devices are carbon nanotubes and polyphenylene-based chains. Researchers have
already demonstrated carbon nanotube based FETs, nanotube based logic inverters,
and organic-chain diodes, switches, and memory cells. All of these can lead to early
stage logic devices for future computer architectures.
Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have unique properties that make them good candidates
for a variety of electronic devices. They can have either the electrical conductivity of
metals or act as a semiconductor. (Controlling CNT production processes to achieve the
desired property is a major area of research.) CNT current carrying densities are as high
as 10
9
A/cm
2
, whereas copper wire is limited to about 10
6
A/cm
2
. Besides acting as current
conductors to interconnect other small-scale devices, CNTs can be used to construct a
number of circuit devices. Researchers have experimented with CNTs in the fabrication
of FETs, FET voltage inverters, low temperature single-electron transistors, intramolecu-
lar metal-semiconductor diodes, and intermolecular-crossed NT-NT diodes [1].
III
The CNT FET uses a nanotube that is laid across two gold contacts that serve as the
source and drain, as shown in Figure 1a. The nanotube essentially becomes the current
carrying channel for the FET. DC characterization of this type of device is carried out
just as with any other FET. An example is shown in Figure 1b.
Figure 1b shows that the amount of current (I
SD
) owing through a nanotube chan-
nel can be changed by varying the voltage applied to the gate (V
G
) [2]. Other tests typi-
cally performed on such devices include a transconductance curve (upper right corner
of Figure 1b), gate leakage, leakage current vs. temperature, substrate to drain leakage,
and sub-threshold current. Measurements that provide insight into fundamental proper-
ties of conduction, such as transport mechanisms and I-V vs. temperature are critical.
Gate Oxide
Gate
Nanotube
Source Drain
Silicon Dioxide
Silicon Wafer
IBM
Figure 1a. Schematic cross-section of IBMs CNFET (carbon nanotube eld effect
transistor).
Figure 1b. I
SD
versus V
G
for an IBM nanotube FET [2]. The different plots represent
different source-drain voltages. IBM Copyright
Polyphenylene molecules are another approach to developing active electronic com-
ponents. The nanopore test structure shown in Figure 2 is based on polyphenylene
molecules deposited between two gold electrodes on a silicon wafer. This structure
serves as a probe pad, allowing a researcher to make probe connections for I-V charac-
terization of nanoscale devices, such as molecular diodes (see Figure 3).
With such I-V curves, researchers have determined that molecules can conduct small
amounts of electrical current. Although I-V measurement methods are typical for device
characterization, the levels of current measured are lower than those of many semicon-
ductor devices fabricated today.
NO
2
NO
2
NO
2
NO
2
NO
2
NO
2
NO
2
NO
2
Au
Au
Au
Si
Courtesy of Mark Reed Research Group, Yale University
Figure 2. Nanopore structure [3].
800
600
400
200
0
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
n
A
)
0.4 _0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4
Bias Voltage (V)
Courtesy of Mark Reed Research Group, Yale University
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0
Voltage (V)
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
n
A
)
Figure 3. I-V curve for a molecular diode at room temperature [3].
III
I-V characterization of moletronic devices requires low level current measurements
in the nanoamp to femtoamp range. To complicate matters, these measurements are
quite often made at cryogenic temperatures. Therefore, highly sensitive instruments are
required, and appropriate measurement and connection techniques must be employed
to avoid errors. Typically, nanoelectronic and moletronic devices are characterized with
semiconductor test instruments and probe station systems, such as the one shown in
Figure 4.
References
[1] Yi Cui, Charles Lieber, Functional Nanoscale Electronic Devices Assembled Using Silicon
Building Blocks, Science, vol. 291, pp. 851-853, Jan. 2, 2002.
[2] Nanoscale Science Department. (2001, October 1). Nanotube eld-effect transistor. IBM T. J.
Watson Research Center, Yorktown Heights, NY. [Online]. Available: http://www.research.
ibm.com/nanoscience/fet.html
[3] Mark A. Reed Research Group. (2002, April 18). Molecular Electronic Devices. Yale Univer-
sity. New Haven, CT. Available at: http://www.eng.yale.edu/reedlab/research/device/
mol_devices.html
Figure 4. Example of a Windows
-based semiconductor characterization system, the

Keithley Model 4200-SCS.
AC versus DC Measurement Methods for Low Power
Nanotech and Other Sensitive Devices
Sensitive Measurement Needs
Researchers today must measure material and device characteristics that involve
very small currents and voltages. Examples include the measurement of resistance and
I-V characteristics of nanowires, nanotubes, semiconductors, metals, superconductors,
and insulating materials. In many of these applications, the applied power must be kept
low in order to avoid heating the device under test (DUT), because (1) the DUT is very
small and its temperature can be raised signicantly by small amounts of applied power,
or (2) the DUT is being tested at temperatures near absolute zero where even a milli-
degree of heating is not acceptable. Even if applied power is not an issue, the measured
voltage or current may be quite small due to extremely low or high resistance.
Measurement Techniques and Error Sources
The key to making accurate low power measurements is minimizing the noise. In
many low power measurements, a common technique is to use a lock-in amplier to
apply a low level AC current to the DUT and measure its voltage drop. An alternative is
to use a DC current reversal technique. In either case, a number of error sources must
be considered and controlled.
Johnson noise places a fundamental limit on resistance measurements. In any re-
sistance, thermal energy produces the motion of charged particles. This charge move-
ment results in Johnson noise. It has a white noise spectrum and is determined by the
temperature, resistance, and frequency bandwidth values. The formula for the voltage
noise generated is:
V
Johnson
(rms) = 4kTRB
where: k = Boltzmanns constant (1.38 10
23
J/K)
T = Absolute temperature in degrees Kelvin
R = DUT resistance in
B = Noise bandwidth (measurement bandwidth) in Hz
Johnson noise may be reduced by:
Reducing bandwidth with digital fltering (averaging readings) or analog
ltering
Reducing the temperature of the device
Reducing the source resistance
External noise sources are interferences created by motors, computer screens, or
other electrical equipment. They can be controlled by shielding and ltering or by
III
removing or turning off the noise source. Because these noise sources are often at the
power line frequency, it is common practice to avoid test frequencies that are exact
multiples or fractions of 60Hz (or 50Hz) when making lock-in measurements. With the
DC reversal technique, the same result is achieved by integrating each measurement for
an integer number of power line cycles.
Thermoelectric voltages are generated when different parts of a circuit are at differ-
ent temperatures and when conductors made of dissimilar metals are joined together.
Reducing thermoelectric voltages can be accomplished by keeping all connections at
the same temperature and using crimped copper-to-copper connections wherever pos-
sible. Given that it is rarely possible to use copper everywhere in the circuit (DUTs are
rarely copper themselves), a measurement technique, such as the lock-in technique or
the DC reversal method, is required to eliminate noise due to thermal effects.
Test lead resistance can also create an additive error in the resistance being meas-
ured. To prevent lead resistance from affecting measurement accuracy, the four-wire
(Kelvin) measurement conguration should be used.
1/f noise is a term used to describe any noise that has increasing magnitude at lower
frequencies. Noise with this characteristic can be seen in components, test circuits, and
instruments. It can be caused by environmental factors, such as temperature or humid-
ity, or by chemical processes within components, which are often given the label aging,
burn-in, or drift. 1/f noise can be observed as a current, voltage, temperature, or
resistance uctuation.
For this discussion we are focusing on the 1/f voltage noise in a measurement system.
Material characteristics of a DUT or a test circuit component greatly inuence this type
of noise. For example, carbon composite resistors typically exhibit a resistance noise
of 0.01% to 0.3%. The noise value for metal lm and wirewound resistors is about one-
tenth that of composite resistors. Semiconductors fall somewhere in between these two
material types.
Measurement Systems
In sensitive I-V and resistance measurements, there are two parts to the instrumenta-
tion: the current source and the voltage measurement instrument. For lock-in amplier
measurements, the researcher traditionally constructed the source, because precision
AC current sources simply were not previously available. For the DC reversal method, a
current source with reversible polarity is used, and the DUT response is measured with
a nanovoltmeter.
Lock-in Amplier Method
Lock-in ampliers can measure small AC signals, some down to a few nanovolts.
With this type of instrument, accurate measurements can be made even when noise
sources are higher than the signal of interest. The lock-in amplier uses a technique
called phase sensitive detection to single out the signal at a specic test frequency. Noise
signals at other frequencies are largely ignored. Because the lock-in amplier only mea-
sures AC signals at or near the test frequency, the effects of thermoelectric voltages
(both DC and AC) are also reduced.
Figure 1 is a simplied block diagram of a lock-in amplier setup to measure the
voltage of a DUT at low power. Current is forced through the DUT by applying a sinu-
soidal voltage (Asin[2 f
o
t]) across the series combination of R
REF
and the DUT. Usually,
R
REF
is chosen to be much larger than the DUT resistance, thereby creating an approxi-
mate current source driving the DUT.
R
REF
+
D
U
T
Asin(2 f
o
t)
Low
Pass
Filter
Low
Pass
Filter
cos(2 f
o
t)
sin(2 f
o
t)
Voltage
(Real)
Voltage
(Imaginary)
Figure 1. Simplied block diagram of a lock-in amplier measurement setup.
The amplied voltage from the DUT is multiplied by both a sine and a cosine wave
with the same frequency and phase as the applied source and then put through a low
pass lter. This multiplication and ltering can be done with analog circuits, but to-
day they are more commonly performed digitally within the lock-in amplier after the
DUTs response signal is digitized.
The outputs of the low pass lters are the real (in phase) and imaginary (out of
phase) content of the voltage at the frequency f
o
. DUT resistance values must be calcu-
lated separately by the researcher based on the assumed current and measured voltage
levels.
Researchers using lock-in ampliers often choose to operate the instrument at a rela-
tively low frequency, i.e., less than 50Hz. A low frequency is chosen for many reasons.
These include (1) getting far enough below the frequency roll-off of the DUT and inter-
connects for an accurate measurement, (2) avoiding noise at the power line frequency,
and (3) getting below the frequency cutoff of in-line electromagnetic interference (EMI)
lters added to keep environmental noise from reaching the DUT.
DC Reversal Measurement Method
An alternative to lock-in ampliers uses DC polarity reversals in the applied current
signal to nullify noise. This is a well-established technique for removing offsets and low
frequency noise. Todays DC sources and nanovoltmeters offer signicant advantages
III
over lock-in ampliers in reducing the impact of error sources and reduce the time
required to achieve a low noise measurement.
As shown in Figure 2, one simply applies a current to the DUT and measures the
DUT voltage, then reverses the current and remeasures the voltage. The difference of
the two measurements divided by two is the voltage response of the DUT to the applied
current level. Repeating the process and using averaging reduces the noise bandwidth
and therefore the noise. These are called Delta measurements by some researchers.
I
HI
LO
Cable
DUT
V
HI LO
6220
2182A
Figure 2. DC reversal measurement circuit using a four-wire lead arrangement.
In the past, this was a manual technique with most instruments, which limited the
reversal speed to less than 1Hz. Modern instruments now allow the technique to be
automated and the reversal speed increased. The reversal speed sets the frequency that
dominates the noise. Higher reversal speed removes low frequency noise and thermal
drift better, because these noise sources have lower power at higher frequencies.
To truly compensate for thermal drift, the delta method consists of alternating the
current source polarity and using a moving average of three voltage readings to calcu-
late resistance (Figure 3). The three measurements are:
V
M1
= V
DUT
+ V
EMF
V
M2
= V
DUT
+ V
EMF
+ V
V
M3
= V
DUT
+ V
EMF
+ 2V,
where: V
M1
, V
M2
, and V
M3
are voltage measurements
V
DUT
= The voltage drop of the DUT due to the applied current
V
EMF
= The constant thermoelectric voltage offset at the time V
M1
is taken
V = Linearly changing thermoelectric voltage
Cancellation of both the thermoelectric voltage offset (V
EMF
) and the thermoelectric
voltage change (V) term is possible through a mathematical computation using the
three voltage measurements. First, take one-half the difference of the rst two voltage
measurements and call this V
A
:
V
A
= (V
M1
V
M2
) / 2 = [(V
DUT
+ V
EMF
) (V
DUT
+ V
EMF
+ V)] / 2 = V
DUT
V / 2
Likewise, take one-half the difference of the second (V
M2
) and third (V
M3
) voltage
measurements and call this term V
B
:
V
B
= (V
M3
V
M2
) / 2 = [(V
DUT
+ V
EMF
+ 2V) (V
DUT
+ V
EMF
+ V)] / 2 = V
DUT
+ V/2
Each of these results has eliminated the constant offset, V
EMF
, but still has errors
from the drift term, V. The average of V
A
and V
B
, however, is simply V
DUT
.
V
nal
= (V
A
+ V
B
) / 2 = (V
M1
2
VM2
+ V
M3
) / 4 = V
DUT
Successive readings can then be averaged to reduce the measurement bandwidth to
reach desired noise levels.
Upon examination, the preceding mathematics is really the multiplication of a string
of V
M
readings by a sequence of weightings +1, 1, +1, etc. It is exactly analogous to
the way a lock-in amplier multiplies its acquired signals by the sine functions, which
are used as the stimulus. The commercially available current source and nanovoltmeter
DUT
Voltage
Test
Current
Time
V
EMF
V
M1
V
M3
V
M2
V = linearly changing
thermoelectric
voltages
Figure 3. Test signals and thermoelectric error voltages during DC reversal (Delta)
measurements.
III
described in the endnote of this discussion automate the entire procedure; resistance
values are calculated and displayed by the instrumentation.
Same Technique, Improved Measurement Hardware
As weve seen, the lock-in amplier method and DC reversal method are both AC
measurements. In both methods, DC noise and the noise at higher frequencies are
rejected. However, the nanovoltmeter/current source combination can provide superior
measurement capabilities over the entire range of device resistances, as explained in the
following paragraphs.
Measurements on Low Resistance DUTs
A typical low resistance measurement application is shown in Figure 4. Instrument
voltage noise is generally the dominant error in low resistance measurements, but be-
low a certain level of device resistance, common mode noise becomes a problem.
HI
LO
R
DUT
R
LEAD
R
LEAD
Circuit Node A
V
M
HI
LO
I
TEST
I
TEST
Figure 4. Block diagram of a typical low resistance measurement.
The four lead resistances shown in Figure 4 vary from 0.1 to 100, depending
on the experiment. They are important to note, because with low resistance devices,
even the impedance of copper connection wires can become large compared to the
DUT resistance. Further, in the case of many low impedance experiments carried out
at low temperatures, there are often RF lters (e.g., Pi lters) in each of the four device
connection leads, typically having 100 of resistance.
Regardless of the instruments used to carry out the AC measurements, the test cur-
rent ows through the source connection leads and develops a voltage drop from the
circuit ground to the connection to the DUT, denoted as Circuit Node A. Thus, the volt-
age at circuit node A moves up and down with an amplitude of I
TEST
R
LEAD
volts, while
the V
MEASURE
input is trying to detect a much smaller AC voltage of I
TEST
R
DUT
.
With the connections in this type of measurement circuit, common mode rejection
ratio (CMRR) becomes an issue. CMRR species how well an instrument can reject
variations in the measurement LO potential. The CMRR specication for a typical lock-
in amplier is 100dB (a factor of 10
5
rejection). In actual measurement practice, this is
more likely to fall in the range of 8590dB. By comparison, nanovoltmeters are avail-
able with CMRR specications of 140dB. Combined with a modern current source op-
erating in delta mode, it is possible to achieve a CMRR of better than 200dB in actual
measurements.
To understand the impact of CMRR, consider the example described previously.
With only 100dB rejection, the measurement of V
DUT
(which should be I
TEST
R
DUT
) is
in fact I
TEST
R
DUT
I
TEST
R
LEAD
/10
5
. Thus, there is a 1% error when R
LEAD
is 10
3
R
DUT
.
With 100 lead resistance, it is impossible to make a measurement within 1% error
bounds when R
DUT
is less than 0.1. On the other hand, a modern DC current source
and nanovoltmeter, with their combined CMRR of greater than 200dB, can measure
resistances as low as 1 within 1% error bounds, even with a 100 lead resistance.
V
M
HI
LO
Cable
DUT
V
S
HI
LO
Cable
R = user supplied resistor
Lock-In
Figure 5. Making a current source from a lock-in amplier.
It is also worth noting that in the case of the lock-in amplier, the current source
shown in Figure 4 would likely be a homemade source constructed from the V
OUTPUT

and a hand-selected (and thoroughly characterized) resistor (R), as shown in Figure
5. Every time a different test current is desired, a new resistor must be characterized,
inserted in the circuit, temperature stabilized, and shielded. Even with this effort, it
does not deliver constant current, but instead varies as the DUT resistance varies. Now,
commercial reversible DC current sources provide stable outputs that are far more pre-
dictable without manual circuit adjustments to control current magnitude.
High Resistance Measurements
Values of DUT resistance greater than 10k present challenges of current noise
and input loading errors. Current noise becomes visible as a measured voltage noise
III
that scales with the DUT resistance. In both the lock-in amplier and the DC reversal
systems, current noise comes from the measurement circuit and creates additional AC
and DC voltage as it ows through the DUT and/or lead resistance.
For both types of systems, noise values can be of a similar magnitude. A typical value
is 50pA DC with 80fA/Hz noise for the reversible current source/nanovolt meter combi-
nation. For a lock-in amplier, it would be around 50pA DC with 180fA/Hz noise. While
the 50pA DC does not interfere with the AC measurements, it does add power to the
DUT and must be counted in the total power applied to the DUT by the measurement
system. This presents a much smaller problem for the DC reversal measurement system,
because a programmable current source can easily be made to add a DC component to
the sourced current to cancel out the DC current emanating from the nanovoltmeter.
The lock-in amplier does not have this capability.
The second limitation in measuring higher DUT resistances is the input impedance of
the voltage measuring circuit, which causes loading errors. Consider the measurement
of a DUT with 10M of resistance. A typical lock-in amplier has an input impedance
of about the same magnitude10M. This means that half of the current intended for
the DUT will instead ow through the instrument input, and the measured voltage will
be in error by 50%. Even with careful subtraction schemes, it is not practical to achieve
1% accuracy when measuring a DUT with a resistance greater than 1M when using
a lock-in amplier.
By contrast, a nanovoltmeter has 1000 times higher input impedance (i.e., 10G),
so it can measure up to 1G with 1% accuracy. (Subtracting the loading effect of the
10G only requires knowing the input resistance to 10% accuracy, which is readily
measured by performing the DC reversal measurement using an open circuit as the
DUT.) Moreover, some current sources provides a guard amplier, so the nanovolt-
meter can measure the guard voltage instead of the DUT voltage directly (Figure 6).
This reduces the current noise transmitted to the DUT down to the noise of the cur-
rent source (below 20fA/Hz). This conguration reduces the loading error, noise, and
power in situations where the lead resistance is negligible and a two-wire connection
to the DUT is acceptable.
Mid-range Resistance Measurements
Traditionally, lock-in ampliers have been used for measurements in the range of
100m to 1M due to the signicant limitations outside this range. Even when R
DUT

falls in this range, using the DC reversal method with newer instruments may provide an
advantage. For example, a lock-in amplier has two times (or higher) white noise than
a modern DC reversal system, and its 1/f voltage noise is ten times higher. (See Figure
7.) For example, when working at 13Hz (a typical frequency in lock-in measurements),
1E7
1E8
1E9
1 10 100 1000
Frequency (Hz)
Lock-in amplifier
Model 6221/2182A
Figure 7. Noise comparison of a typical lock-in amplier and DC reversal measurement
system. (See endnote on instruments used for comparisons.)
1
I
HI
LO
Cable
DUT
V
HI
LO
6221
2182A
GUARD
LO
Figure 6. Test arrangement for a two-wire DC reversal measurement using a current
source with a guard buffer circuit. (Guarded source connections provide a way around
the problems associated with the low input impedance of a measurement circuit.)
III
a typical DC reversal system has about seven times lower voltage noise than a lock-in
amplier. This leads to 50 times less required power.
Individual Instrument Noise Comparisons
All electronic circuits generate both white noise and 1/f noise. The noise of low fre-
quency measurements are often dominated by the latter. A lock-in ampliers front end
is usually the dominant source of 1/f noise. Instruments used in the DC reversal method
have similar issues. Therefore, comparing the noise performance of a lock-in amplier
with an instrument using the DC reversal method is essentially a case of comparing the
noise performance of their front-end circuitry. Furthermore, the DUT resistance value
must be considered when making these comparisons.
It is common for manufacturers to specify their white noise performance, but less
common to be given a 1/f noise specication. To make a valid comparison, like the one
in Figure 7, the noise level should be determined as measurements are made. Another
important consideration is whether to use the system voltage noise or current noise.
Figure 8 shows a model of a measurement system with V
n
being the voltage noise of the
system, I
n
being the current noise, and I
S
being the source current.
R
DUT
I
S
(ideal)
Ideal
DVM
V
n
I
n
Measurement System Model
Figure 8. Idealized measurement circuit with current and voltage noise sources, I
n
and V
n
.
A signal-to-noise ratio of one (one possible measurement objective) is achieved when the
power forced on the DUT equals the noise power of the system. This is expressed by:
P
DUT
= I
2
S
R
DUT
= V
2
n
/ R
DUT
+ I
2
n
R
DUT
This equation describes the V-shaped curves in Figure 9. Voltage noise dominates
when the DUT resistance is low, and current noise dominates when the DUT resistance
is high. The required power is minimum when R
DUT
equals V
n
/I
n
. Ultimately, a major
determinant of instrument performance is how little power can be imposed on the DUT
and still get a good measurement. Nevertheless, it is important to remember that very
low and very high values of R
DUT
impose different types of instrument limitations on
these measurements compared to midrange values.
Noise, Applied Power, and Measurement Time Considerations
To put noise error into perspective, consider measurements with a desired signal-to-
noise ratio of 100. Figure 9 shows the applied measurement power required on DUTs
of various resistances in order to achieve a voltage response equal to 100 times the
measurement systems RMS noise for a one-half second measurement time. The curves
shown are for measurement setups using a lock-in amplier and a DC reversal system.
For the lock-in amplier, it illustrates the relatively small range of measurable resist-
ances and the need for greater applied power to overcome the higher noise levels. The
noise of the DUT is shown separately, because it is dependent on temperature. However,
the Johnson noise power for room temperature resistances is represented by the lower
horizontal dashed line in Figure 9.
DUT Resistance
1 1m 1 1k 1M 1G
1W
1nW
1pW
1fW
1aW
P
o
w
e
r
Minimum measurement power needed
to maintain 1% noise and error
6221/2182A
Lock-in amplifier
6220/2182A
Guarded
Measurement power needed to
reduce thermal noise to <1%
DUT thermal noise power at room temperature
Figure 9. DUT power required for typical measurements with different instruments.
(See endnote on instruments used for comparisons.)
It can be shown that noise power (V
Johnson
2
/R) in the DUT measurement is a function
of temperature and is not dependent on its resistance. Measuring a DUT with 1% RMS
noise requires a signal voltage 100 times the noise voltage, thus a signal power 10,000
(100
2
) times the noise power, as shown by the upper dashed line in Figure 9. (See end-
note for a description of the instruments used to collect the data.)
Depending on which is greater, the system noise or the DUT noise should be used
to determine the applied power required, which in most measurements should be as
low as possible. Increasing the measurement time decreases the required power by the
same factor as the increase in time. For example, if time is increased by a factor of four
(e.g., from second to two seconds), then the required power decreases by a factor
of four.
III
For the current source and nanovoltmeter combination, Figure 9 shows that the
system noise is less than the Johnson noise of room temperature DUTs between 500
and 100M. Physics present the only limitation on this DC reversal system, and low
temperature measurements will benet from the full capabilities of the system to make
measurements with even less power.
Summary
Lock-in ampliers are useful for many measurement applications. Still, their com-
mon mode rejection ratio and low input impedance limits low power resistance meas-
ure ments to a range of about 100m to 1M. Typically, they are employed with user
constructed current sources, which are difcult to control with variable loads, resulting
in poor source accuracy. Results are obtained as current and voltage readings, requiring
the researcher to calculate resistance.
With modern current sources and nanovoltmeters, the DC reversal method requires
less power while providing excellent low-noise results. This combination is optimal for
low frequencies (0.124Hz), allowing measurements to be made much faster than with
a lock-in amplier. At resistances less than 100m, they have much better rejection of
lead resistances, and, at resistances greater than 1M, they have much higher input
impedance and less associated loading error.
The greatest advantage comes from current sources and nanovoltmeters that have
been designed to work together in Delta Mode and provide resistance values read
directly from the instrument display. These instruments are connected by a communi-
cation path that synchronizes them, allowing current reversal frequencies up to about
24Hz. Working as a system, they effectively cancel thermoelectric offsets that drift over
time and avoid errors associated with common mode rejection problems that are preva-
lent in low impedance measurements. By following good test practices, these instru-
ments provide excellent measurement accuracy from 10n to 1G. The measurement
noise level for such a system is about 3nV/Hz at 5Hz and higher frequencies.
Endnote
In Figures 7 and 9, a lock-in amplier similar to the SR-830 was used to collect data for
comparison with the DC reversal method, the latter using a combination of the Keithley Model
6221 AC and DC Current Source and Model 2182A Nanovoltmeter.
Achieving Accurate and Reliable Resistance Measurements
in Low Power and Low Voltage Applications
Low voltage measurements are often associated with resistance measurements of
highly conductive semiconductor materials and devices. These tests normally involve
sourcing a known current, measuring the resulting voltage, and calculating the resist-
ance using Ohms Law. Because of the DUTs typically low resistance, the resulting volt-
age will be very small and great care needs to be taken to reduce offset voltage and
noise, which can normally be ignored when measuring higher signal levels.
However, low voltage measurements can also result from resistance measurements
of non-conductive materials and components. Electronics are continuing to shrink as
consumers demand faster, more feature-rich products in ever-smaller form factors. Be-
cause of their small sizes, electronic components of today usually have limited power
handling capability. As a result, when electrically characterizing these components, the
test signals need to be kept small to prevent component breakdown or other damage.
In resistance measurements, even if the resistance is far from zero, the voltage to
be measured is often very small due to the need to source only a small current. There-
fore, low level voltage measurement techniques become important, not only for low
resistance measurements, but also for resistance measurements of non-conductive ma-
terials and components. For researchers and electronics industry test engineers, this
power limitation often makes characterizing the resistance of modern devices and
materials challenging.
There are many factors that make low voltage measurements difcult. Various noise
sources can make it difcult to resolve the actual voltage. In addition, thermoelectric
voltages (thermoelectric EMFs) can cause error offsets and drift in the voltage readings.
As mentioned previously, test requirements may limit the maximum current that can be
applied, so simply increasing the sourced signal (test current) isnt always an option. In
other cases, increasing the test current could cause device heating, which can change
the DUTs resistance and possibly destroy the DUT. The key to obtaining accurate, con-
sistent measurements is eliminating factors that contribute to measurement error. For
low voltage measurement applications, such error is composed largely of white noise
(random noise across all frequencies) and 1/f noise. Thermoelectric voltages (typically
having 1/f distribution), a serious problem in many test environments, are generated
from temperature differences in the circuit.
This discussion reviews techniques to eliminate thermoelectric voltages to allow
more accurate resistance measurements, including a three-step delta measurement
method for low power/low voltage applications.
III
Measurement Obstacles
Temperature uctuations are the biggest enemy of low voltage measurements. Any
junction of dissimilar metals in a measurement circuit constitutes a thermocouple.
Voltage errors occur when there is an opposing junction at a different temperature.
Figure 1 illustrates one example of this error.
In this example, the device under test is located on a silicon wafer. A tungsten probe
makes contact with one terminal of the device. The other terminal is the silicon sub-
strate. A copper base is used to make electrical contact with the substrate. The junctions
of differing materials produce three separate thermocouples: at the copper-tungsten
interface, at the tungsten-silicon interface, and at the silicon-copper interface. The tem-
perature difference between the two materials at each junction generates a voltage at
the voltmeter terminals. The summation of the thermoelectric voltages at each of these
junctions is the total error voltage that appears at the voltmeter terminals.
The rst step toward reducing measurement error is minimizing the temperature
variation in the test environment. This would mean reducing the temperature differ-
ence between T
1
, T
2
, and T
3
in Figure 1. The test setup should be isolated from drafts,
air conditioning, and heat sources. The connections should be located as close to each
other as possible to minimize temperature differences. Whenever possible, the designer
of the setup should use connections made of the same material and select insulators
with high thermal conductivity to surround the cables and junctions.
Traditional Resistance Measurements
No matter what steps are taken to minimize temperature problems, its virtually
impossible to eliminate them entirely. A standard DC resistance measurement approach
doesnt compensate for any of these errors. Resistance is calculated using Ohms Law;
that is, to nd the resistance, divide the DC voltage measured across the device by
Cu
Cu
Cu
Thermocouple #1 Cu-W
@ T
1
Thermocouple 2 W-Si
@ T
2
W (probe tip )
Thermocouple #3 Si-Cu
@ T
3
#
Voltmeter
Terminals
Si
Figure 1. Typical thermocouple scenario. Cu-Si interface where one terminal is
one device on wafer and the second terminal is at the substrate connection to a
conductive base.
the DC stimulus current (see Figure 2a). The voltage readings will be a sum of the
induced voltage across the device (V
R
), lead and contact resistance (V
lead res
), the volt-
ages present from the thermals (V
t
), other 1/f noise contributions (V
1/f noise
), and white
noise (V
white noise
). To eliminate lead resistance, use four separate leads to connect the
voltmeter and current source to the device. In this way, the voltmeter wont measure
any voltage drop across the source leads. However, the errors due to white noise, 1/f
noise, and temperature differences will remain (see Figure 2b). Implementing ltering
and selecting the appropriate test equipment may reduce white noise and 1/f noise
signicantly. However, these elements often determine the measurement noise oor.
Temperature presents a slightly different challenge because if the temperature changes,
the contribution of the V
t
term changes, too. With rapidly changing thermoelectric volt-
ages, this term may even exceed V
R
, the voltage across the DUT induced by the stimulus.
Its possible to reduce thermoelectric voltages using techniques such as all-copper cir-
cuit construction, thermal isolation, precise temperature control, and frequent contact
cleaning. However, it would be preferable to have a method that would allow accurate
resistance measurements even in the presence of large thermoelectric voltages, instead
of working to minimize them.
The Delta Method of Measuring Resistance
A change in test method is required to improve accuracy and overcome measure-
ment obstacles. A constant thermoelectric voltage may be canceled using voltage meas-
urements made at a positive test current and a negative test current. This is called a delta
reading. Alternating the test current also increases white noise immunity by increasing
the signal-to-noise ratio.
1
A similar technique can be used to compensate for changing
1 For more details, refer to the Reducing Resistance Measurement Uncertainty: DC Current Reversals vs.
Classic Offset Compensation white paper on www.keithley.com.
R
lead
R
lead
V
measured
=
V
R
+ V
lead res
+ V
t
+
V
white noise
+ V
1/f noise
R
R
lead
R
lead
V
measured
=
V
R
+ V
t
+
V
white noise
+
V
1/f noise
R
Multimeter/Ohmmeter
Current
Source
Voltmeter
Current
Source
Voltmeter
Figure 2a. Figure 2b.
Figure 2. The Delta Method of Measuring Resistance: The schematic on the left shows
a standard DC resistance measurement setup. Changing the standard measurement
setup to the schematic on the right by using four leads eliminates errors due to lead
resistance.
III
thermoelectric voltages (see Figure 3). Over the short term, thermoelectric drift may
be approximated as a linear function (see inset of Figure 3). The difference between
consecutive voltage readings is the slopethe rate of change in thermoelectric voltage.
This slope is constant, so it may be canceled by alternating the current source three
times to make two delta measurements one at a negative-going step and one at a
positive-going step. In order for the linear approximation to be valid, the current source
must alternate quickly and the voltmeter must make accurate voltage measurements
within a short time interval. If these conditions are met, the three-step delta technique
yields an accurate voltage reading of the intended signal unimpeded by thermoelectric
offsets and drifts.
Examining this technique in detail reveals how it reduces measurement error. An
analysis of the mathematics for one three-step delta cycle will demonstrate how the
technique compensates for the temperature differences in the circuit. Consider the ex-
ample in Figure 4a:
Test current = 10nA
Device = 100 resistor
Ignoring thermoelectric voltage errors, the voltages measured at each of the steps
are:
V
1
= 1V
V
2
= 1V
V
3
= 1V
Lets assume the temperature is linearly increasing over the short term in such a way
that it produces a voltage prole like that shown in Figure 4b, where V
t
= 100nV and is
climbing 100nV with each successive reading.
Thermal Voltage Plot
0.00
5.00
10.00
15.00
20.00
25.00
30.00
V
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
V
)
Figure 3. Thermoelectric drift approximated as a linear function.
As Figure 4b shows, the voltages now measured by the voltmeter include error due
to the increasing thermoelectric voltage in the circuit; therefore, they are no longer of
equal magnitude. However, the absolute difference between the measurements is in
error by a constant 100nV, so its possible to cancel this term. The rst step is to calcu-
late the delta voltages. The rst delta voltage (V
a
) is equal to:
(V
1
V
2
)
V
a
= negative-going step =
__________
= 0.95V
2
2.00E-06
1.00E-06
0.00E+00
1.00E-06
2.00E-06
Time
V
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
V
)
V
1
@ 10nA V
3
@ 10nA
V
2
@ 10nA
Figure 4a.The graph depicts an alternating, three-point delta method of measuring
voltage with no thermoelectric voltage error.
2.00E-06
1.00E-06
1.00E+06
2.00E-06
3.00E-06
Time
V
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
V
)
(V
1
+ V
t
) @ 10nA
(V
3
+ V
t
+ 2dV
t
) @ 10nA
(V
2
+ V
t
+ dV
t
) @ 10nA
3.00E-06
0.00E-00
Figure 4b. A linearly increasing temperature generates a changing thermoelectric
voltage error, which is eliminated by the three-point delta method.
III
The second delta voltage (V
b
) is made at the positive-going current step and is
equal to:
(V
3
V
2
)
V
b
= positive-going step =
_________
= 1.05V
2
The thermoelectric voltage adds a negative error term in V
a
and a positive error
term in the calculation of V
b
. When the thermal drift is a linear function, these error
terms are equal in magnitude. Thus, we can cancel the error by taking the average of
V
a
and V
b
:

V
f
= nal voltage reading
(V
a
+ V
b
) 1 (V
1
V
2
) (V
3
V
2
)
=
__________
=
__

_________
+
_________
= 100V
2 2
[
( 2 ) ( 2 )
]
The delta technique eliminates the error due to changing thermoelectric voltages.
Therefore, the voltmeter measurement is the voltage induced by the stimulus current
alone. As the test continues, every reading is the average of the three most recent A/D
conversions, so a moving average lter is embedded in this three-step delta technique.
The moving average lter further enhances white noise immunity by reducing the
spread of the data. The three-step delta method clearly offers signicant advantages
over other DC resistance measurement techniques in overcoming error due to chang-
ing temperature. Figure 6 provides a more detailed examination of the three-step delta
technique.
Other DC resistance measurement techniques include a two-step current reversal
and offset compensation, a subset of the three-step method. The two-step method cal-
culates an average based on only the rst delta (V
a
) of the three-step method. Offset
compensation is really a subset of the three-step delta method where the current is
alternated between some positive value and zero. The offset compensation method is
commonly found in digital multimeters where the test current cant be programmed
or reversed. Although this two-point technique sufciently compensates for constant
thermoelectric error voltages, its inadequate when the temperature is changing.
The three-step delta technique is the best choice for high accuracy resistance meas-
urements. Figure 5 compares 1000 voltage measurements of a 100 resistor made
with a 10nA test current taken over approximately 100 seconds. In this example, the
rate of change in thermoelectric voltage is no more than 7V/second. The two-step
delta technique uctuates with the thermoelectric error voltage 30 around the true
resistance value. Thus, for any one measurement, there could be an error of up to 30%,
which doesnt provide much condence in the measurements integrity. In contrast, the
three-step delta technique is tightly packed around the averagethe measurement
is unaffected by the thermoelectric variations in the test circuit. Its important to note
that both these measurements can be completed in the same test time. In addition, the
speed of the three-step delta method permits additional digital averaging of the data, so
it has lower noise than data taken with the two-step delta technique.
Equipment Requirements
Selecting appropriate measurement equipment is critical to the three-step delta
method. Keithley has designed the Models 6220 and 6221 Current Sources and the
Model 2182A Nanovoltmeter to perform resistance measurements using the three-step
delta technique. Pairing either of the current sources with the nanovoltmeter creates a
user-friendly solution that can be operated like a single instrument and that meets the
accuracy and repeatability requirements of low power and low voltage applications.
By understanding how the equipment affects the measurement, the researcher or test
engineer can also minimize white noise and 1/f noise.
The success of the three-step delta method depends on the linear approximation of
the thermal drift when this drift is viewed over a short time interval. This approxima-
tion requires the measurement cycle time to be faster than the thermal time constant
of the test system, which imposes certain requirements on the current source and
voltmeter used.
The current source must alternate quickly in evenly spaced steps, which helps make
a fast measurement cycle time possible. The current step spacing guarantees the meas-
2pt Delta Resistance 3pt Delta Resistance
1000 Delta Resistance Readings
100 Ohm Resistor, 10nA Source Current
Max. Thermal Voltage Rate of Change < 7V/s
0.00
20.00
40.00
60.00
80.00
100.00
120.00
140.00
160.00
Time
R
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
Figure 5. A graph comparing the results of applying a two- and three-point delta
method shows signicant noise reduction using the three-point method.
III
Detailed Three-Step Delta Calculations
2.00E-06
1.00E-06
1.00E+06
2.00E-06
3.00E-06
Time
V
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
V
)
(V
1
+ V
t
) @ 10nA
(V
3
+ V
t
+ 2dV
t
) @ 10nA
(V
2
+ V
t
+ dV
t
) @ 10nA
3.00E-06
0.00E-00
V
a
= negative-going step
(V
1
+ V
t
) (V
2
+ V
t
+ dV
t
) (V
1
V
2
dV
t
)
=
___________________________
=
_______________

2 2
(V
1
V
2
) dV
t

=
_________

____

2 2
V

= positive-going step
(V
3
+ V
t
+ 2dV
t
) (V
2
+ V
t
+ dV
t
) (V
3
V
2
+ dV
t
)
=
______________________________________
=
________________

2 2
(V
3
V
2
) dV
t

=
__________
+
____

2 2
V
f
= nal voltage reading = average (V
a
, V
b
)
(V
a
+ V
b
) (V
1
+ V
3
2V
2
)
=
_________
=
_________________

2 4
For linear devices, |V
1
| = |V
2
| = |V
3
| = V
R
= voltage across resistor induced
by stimulus current.
1
Thus: V
1
=
__
(4V
R
) = V
R

4
Figure 6. Detailed three-step delta calculations
urements are made at consistent intervals so the thermoelectric voltage change remains
constant between these measurements.
The voltmeter must be tightly synchronized with the current source and capable
of making accurate measurements in a short time interval. Synchronization favors
hardware handshaking between the instruments so that the voltmeter can make volt-
age measurements only after the current source has settled and the current source
doesnt switch polarity until after the voltage measurement has been completed. The
measurement speed of the voltmeter is critical in determining total cycle time; faster
voltage measurements mean shorter cycle times. For reliable resistance measurements,
the voltmeter must maintain this speed without sacricing low noise characteristics.
The Model 6220 or 6221 Current Source and the Model 2182A Nanovoltmeter com-
bine to return as many as 48 delta readings per second at an integration time of 1PLC
(16.67ms at 60Hz power line frequency, 20ms at 50Hz power line frequency). These two
instruments are coupled by means of the Keithley Trigger Link bus so the test can be
run completely independent of a computer.
In low power applications, the current source must be capable of outputting low
values of current so as not to exceed the maximum power rating of the device. This abil-
ity is particularly important for moderately high and high impedance devices. Models
6220 and 6221 Current Sources can output currents as small as 100fA. Pairing either of
these current sources with the Model 2182A Nanovoltmeter permits accurate measure-
ments with 1nV sensitivity.
The test current may be increased without violating the device power rating by using
a pulsed current source. The Model 6221 differs from the 6220 in its ability to perform
pulsed delta measurements.
2
The Model 6221 may output pulses as short as 50s with
amplitude ranging from 100fA to 100mA.
Conclusion
Thermoelectric EMFs are often the dominant source of error in low resistance/low
power resistance measurements. This error may be almost completely removed using a
three-point current reversal technique. To implement this measurement technique, the
Keithley Model 6220 or 6221 Current Source, paired with the Model 2182A Nanovolt-
meter, produces faster and lower noise measurements than other resistance measure-
ment techniques. This improvement means its no longer necessary to take extreme
care to minimize thermally induced voltage noise in the wiring of resistance measuring
systems, greatly simplifying the measurement process.
2 See the datasheets for the Models 6220 and 6221 Current Sources for additional differences.
III
Characterizing Nanoscale Devices with
Differential Conductance Measurements
As modern electronics continue to shrink, researchers increasingly look to nanotech-
nology for breakthroughs in device size and power consumption. In these nanoscale
devices, electrical characteristics are affected by quantum behavior. In the macroscopic
world, conductors may have obeyed Ohms Law (Figure 1a), but in the nanoscale, Ohms
denition of resistance is no longer relevant (Figure 1b). Because the slope of the I-V
curve is no longer a fundamental constant of the material, a detailed measurement of
the slope of that I-V curve at every point is needed to study nanodevices. This plot of
differential conductance (dG = dI/dV) is the most important measurement made on
small scale devices, but presents a unique set of challenges.
I
V
I
V
Figure 1a. Macroscopic scale (Classical) Figure 1b. Nanoscale (Quantum)
Who Uses Differential Conductance?
Differential conductance measurements are performed in many areas of research,
though sometimes under different names. Table 1 lists some of these applications.
Table 1. Examples of research uses for differential conductance measurements and
associated nomenclatures.
Area of Research Structures Studied Measurement Nomenclature
Electron Energy
Structure
Quantum dots, nanoparticles, articial
atoms
Electron Energy Spectroscopy
Non-contact Surface
Characteristics
Variety of nanoscale materials and
devices
Scanning Tunneling Spectroscopy
Electronic Properties Ultra-small semiconductors and
nanotubes with semiconducting
properties
Density of States
Electrical I-V
Characteristics
Conduction at room and cryogenic
temperatures, tunneling phenomena, etc.
Differential Conductance
(dG = dI/dV)
The fundamental reason for these studies is that device conductance reaches a maxi-
mum at voltages (or more precisely, at electron energies in eV) where electrons are most
active. Thus, dI/dV is directly proportional to the density of states and is the most direct
way to measure it.
Existing Methods of Measuring Differential Conductance
While there is no standardized technique for obtaining differential conductance,
almost all approaches follow one of two methods:
(1) Perform a current-voltage sweep (I-V curve) and take the mathematical
derivative, or
(2) Superimpose a low amplitude AC sine
wave on a stepped DC bias; then use a
lock-in amplier to obtain the AC voltage
across the DUT (device under test) and
the AC current through it.
I-V Technique
The I-V sweep technique has the advantage
of being easier to set up and control. It only
requires one source and one measurement in-
strument, which makes it relatively easy to co-
ordinate and control. The fundamental problem
is that even a small amount of noise becomes
a large noise when the measurements are
differentiated.
Figure 2a shows an I-V curve, which is a
series of sourced and measured values (V
1
, I
1
),
(V
2
, I
2
), etc. Several techniques can be used
to differentiate this data, but the simplest and
most common uses the slope between every
pair of consecutive data points. For example,
the rst point in the differential conductance
curve would be (I
2
I
1
)/(V
2
V
1
). Because of the
small differences, a small amount of noise in
either the voltage or current causes a large un-
certainty in the conductance. Figure 2b shows
the differentiated curve and the noise, which
is unacceptably large for most uses. To reduce
this noise, the I-V curve and its derivative can be
measured repeatedly. Noise will be reduced by
N, where N is the number of times the curve is
measured. After 100 repetitions, which can take

Figure 2a. I-V curve
Figure 2b. Differentiated I-V curve
Figure 2c. 100 differentiated
curves, averaged together
III
more than an hour in a typical application, it is possible to reduce the noise by a factor
of 10, as shown in Figure 2c. While this could eventually produce a very clean data set,
researchers are forced to accept high noise levels, because measuring 10,000 times to
reduce the noise 100 would take far more time than is usually available. Thus, while
the I-V curve technique is simple, it forces a trade-off between high noise and very long
measurement times.
AC Technique
The AC technique superimposes a low amplitude AC sine wave on a stepped DC bias,
as shown in Figure 3. The problem with this method is that, while it provides a mar-
ginal improvement in noise over the I-V technique, it imposes a large penalty in terms
of system complexity (Figure 4). A typical equipment list includes:
AC voltage source or function generator
DC bias source
Series resistor or coupling capacitor to mix AC and DC signals
Lock-in amplifer synchronized to the sources to facilitate low-level
measurements
Separate instruments to measure AC and DC voltage and current
Assembling such a system requires extensive time and knowledge of electrical cir-
cuitry. Trial and error methods may be required to determine the series resistor and
coupling capacitor values based on the unknown DUT impedance and response fre-
quency. Long cabling, such as that used in attaching a device in a cryostat, reduces
usable frequency and increases noise. In addition, multiple instruments are susceptible
to problems of ground loops and common mode current.
A
p
p
l
i
e
d

S
t
i
m
u
l
u
s
Time
Figure 3. The AC technique measures the response to a sine stimulus while sweeping
the DC bias through the devices operating range.
Mixing the AC and DC signals is a signicant challenge. It is sometimes done with
series resistors and sometimes with blocking capacitors. With either method, the cur-
rent through the DUT and the voltage across the DUT are no longer calibrated, so both
the AC and DC components of the current and voltage must be measured. A lock-in
amplier may provide the AC stimulus, but frequently the required AC signal is either
larger or smaller than a lock-in output can provide, so an external AC source is often
required and the lock-in measurements must be synchronized to it.
The choice of frequency for the measurement is another complicating factor. It is
desirable to use a frequency that is as high as possible, because a lock-in ampliers
measurement noise decreases at higher frequencies. However, the DUTs response fre-
quency usually limits the usable frequency to 10100Hz, where the lock-in ampliers
measurement noise is ve to ten times higher than its best specication. The DUTs
response frequency is determined by the device impedance and the cable capacitance,
so long cabling, such as that used to attach to a device in a cryostat, reduces the us-
able frequency and increases noise, further reducing the intended benet of the AC
technique. Above all, the complexity of the AC method is the biggest drawback, as it
requires precise coordination and computer control of six to eight instruments, and it
is susceptible to problems of ground loops and common mode current noise.
Another challenge of this method is combining the AC signal and DC bias. Theres no
one widely recognized product that addresses this issue. Often, many instruments are
massed together in order to meet this requirement. Such instrumentation may include
a lock-in amplier, AC voltage source or function generator (if not using the reference in
the lock-in amplier), DC bias source, DC ammeter, and coupling capacitor/circuitry to
combine AC source and DC bias. In many cases, what researchers are really trying to do
dV
dI
DC
Voltage
DC
Voltmeter
DC
Meter
AC
Voltage
Lock-In
Lock-In
R
1
R
2
V
DC
I
DC
DUT
AC Technique
Figure 4: The AC technique for obtaining differential conductance can use as many as a
half dozen components, making it a far more complex setup than the I-V curve method.
However, there is a reduction in the amount of noise introduced into the measurement.
III
is source current, so the series resistors used to combine the AC and DC must be higher
impedance than the device, which is unknown until the measurement is made.
Simple, Low-Noise Solution
Fortunately, there is a new technique for differential conductance measurements
that is easy to use and provides low-noise results. This improved method uses a four-
wire, source current/measure voltage methodology. It requires a precision instrument
that combines the DC and AC source components (stimulus), and a nanovoltmeter for
the response measurements. These features are contained in the Keithley Models 6220
and 6221 Current Sources and 2182A Nanovoltmeter. The current sources combine the
DC and AC components into one source, with no need to do a secondary measure of the
current, because its output is much less dependent on the changing device impedance
(Figure 5).
dV
dI
DC
Voltage
DC
Voltmeter
DC
Meter
AC
Voltage
Lock-In
Lock-In
R
1
R
2
V
DC
I
DC
DUT
AC Technique
GPIB or
Ethernet
RS-232
Trigger Link
DUT
Model 2182A Model 622X
Figure 5. The AC Technique (left) vs. the Keithley Technique (right)
With these instruments, an AC current is superimposed on a linear staircase sweep.
The amplitude of the alternating portion of the current is the differential current, dI
(Figure 6a). The current source is synchronized with the nanovoltmeter by using a
Trigger Link cable. After measuring the voltage at each current step, the nanovoltmeter
calculates the delta voltage between consecutive steps. Each delta voltage is averaged
with the previous delta voltage to calculate dV. Differential conductance, dG, is then
derived from dI/dV (Figure 6b).
Benets of the Four-Wire, Source I/Measure V Method
This new method provides low noise results at least 10 times faster than previous
methods. Only two instruments and a single sweep are required. When user-dened
currents are small, the performance of instrumentation described above cannot be du-
plicated by any user-assembled system in terms of source accuracy, noise, and guarded
measurements (the latter being used to reduce DC leakage and improve system response
time). AC current can be sourced accurately, even below 10pA. The nanovoltmeter has
a sensitivity superior to lock-in ampliers, low 1/f noise, and automatically compensates
for offsets and drift. The four-wire connections eliminate voltage drop errors due to
lead or contact resistance, because there is no current owing through sense leads. This
is important when the DUT has regions of low or moderate impedance.
Another key benet is that more data points can be collected in areas of highest con-
ductance (i.e., areas of greatest interest) by sourcing the sweep in equal current steps.
Because of the instrumentations inherently low source and measurement noise, only
one pass is required, shortening data collection time from hours to minutes. Further-
more, the instruments active guard eliminates the slowing effects of cable capacitance,
greatly improving device settling time, measurement speed, and accuracy.
Special Cases
Some devices have non-monotonic I-V curves. This behavior is classied as follows:
(1) Current Hop A given voltage may correlate to more than one possible current.
(2) Negative Differential Conductance (NDC) A given current may correlate to
more than one possible voltage.
With a slight modication, the source current/measure voltage differential conduc-
tance method can be used with devices that exhibit these behaviors.
Current Hop
Some devices exhibit an I-V curve where the current is a multi-valued function of
voltage (Figure 7a). The negative differential conductance (NDC) region cannot be
characterized by applying a voltage source, because any regulated voltage source is
unstable into negative resistance loads. Instead, a voltage source would produce a hys-
teresis curve that never traces out the NDC region (dashed lines in Figure 7a). Inter-
estingly, a current source is not stable over this NDC region either, but adding a series
A
p
p
l
i
e
d

S
t
i
m
u
l
u
s
Time
4th Cycle
3rd Cycle
2nd Cycle
1st Cycle
Meas
V1
Meas
V2
Meas
V3
Meas
V4
Meas
V5
Meas
V6
2182A
V-Meas
622X
I-Source
Delay I I
Each A/D conversion
integrates (averages)
voltage over a fixed time.
1st Reading V = [(V1V2) + (V3V4)]/4
Figure 6a. Applied current during
differential conductance sweep.
Figure 6b. Detail of applied current and
measured voltage.
III
resistor in the HI lead presents a composite device to the current source, so that it does
not see any NDC region. This resistance must be at least as large as the largest negative
resistance throughout the NDC region of the device.
Without any change to the 622x/2182A setup, the entire differential conductance
curve can be measured because the four-wire conguration connects the nanovoltme-
ter directly across the device and not the series resistor, whose voltage drop is rejected
along with all other lead resistance. This lead resistance, which is normally considered a
problem, actually makes full characterization possible with these devices. With Keithleys
source-current architecture there is no additional measurement required. Other meth-
ods require measurements of both device current and voltage in these cases.
Negative Differential Conductance
If the I-V curve exhibits voltage that is a multi-valued function of current, again, nei-
ther voltage nor current sources are stable over the NDC region. To stabilize this meas-
urement, it is necessary to add a parallel resistor. The resistance should be low enough
Current
Voltage
Negative differential region:
both I and V sources
unstable, no direct
measurements possible.
Current
Voltage
Series resistor
eliminates
NDC region.
Figure 7a. Devices with negative
differential conductance regions require
special treatment.
Figure 7b. The gray curve shows the device
voltage as seen by the nanovoltmeter. The
pink curve shows the voltage across the
device plus the series resistor as seen by
current source no NDC region to create
instability.
Current
Voltage
Negative differential region:
both I and V sources
unstable, no direct
measurements possible.
Current
Voltage
Resistor in parallel
with DUT eliminates
instability from NDC.
Figure 8. Even when the device shows multiple possible voltages for some currents,
differential conductance can easily be obtained with the new method.
that the slope of its I-V curve exceeds the maximum slope of the negative resistance
region of the devices I-V curve. That is, the resistance must be smaller than the smallest
negative resistance throughout the NDC region of the device. If the chosen resistor is
small enough, the slope of the combined I-V response will always be monotonic. The I-V
curve traced out is now the sum of both I-V curves (Figure 8b). Because we are measur-
ing differential conductance, the conductance of the parallel resistor (1/R) can be simply
subtracted from every measurement in the sweep.
Conclusions
With appropriate instrumentation, the four-wire source current/measure voltage
method is a great improvement over older differential conductance measurements,
which are slow, noisy, and complex. The new techniques single sweep shortens hours
of data collection to a few minutes while improving accuracy. Equipment cost is also
reduced, since only two instruments are required, instead of six or more.
Precision AC/DC Current Source-Nanovoltmeter Combo
Improves Speed and Accuracy of Nanotech Measurements
Keithleys Model 6221 is an AC and DC Current Source with a Current Source
Waveform Generator. As the only commercially available AC current source, it now
eliminates the need for researchers and engineers to build their own instrumenta-
tion. By combining the Model 6221 with the Keithley Model 2182A Nanovoltmeter,
rapid measurement and characterization of nanoscale devices and materials are easi-
ly accomplished. This can be done at very low source currents levels with great preci-
sion and without sacricing accuracy in the lowerand harder to measurevoltages
across the sample. Consequently, the Model 6221/2182A combination can measure
resistances from 10n to 1G, including delta mode measurements that improve
accuracy by up to 1000 times. Used in this way, the Model 6221 acts as a high perfor-
mance alternative to AC resistance bridges and lock-in ampliers, and is especially
useful in differential conductance measurements for characterizing semiconductor
and nanotechnology devices.
The Model 6221 can be programmed for pulse widths as short as 50 microsec-
onds, and supports pulsed I-V measurements. It can source AC currents from 2pA to
100mA and DC currents from 100fA to 100mA with a 10MHz output update rate. The
built-in standard and arbitrary waveform generator has a frequency range of 1mHz
to 100kHz. The user can dene current ramps and program the unit to step through
predened sequences of up to 64,000 output values using a trigger or a timer. Linear,
logarithmic, and custom sweeps are supported. Programming can be done from the
front panel controls or from an external controller via an RS-232, GPIB, or Ethernet
interface. Included control software simplies setup and operation.
III
Counting Electrons: How to Measure Currents
in the Attoampere Range
Nanoscale materials hold promise for areas such as medicine, homeland security,
defense, and many other industries. Researchers in labs all over the globe are investigat-
ing the physical and electrical properties of nanoscale components as in single-electron
transistor (SET) and quantum-dot research. This reduction in the physical size of the
material under investigation creates new problems, particularly the difculty of measur-
ing electrical parameters such as resistance, voltage, and current accurately.
To keep pace, test and measurement instruments and techniques have had to
adapt to the changing needs of researchers. Already, improvements in instrumentation
make it fairly simple to measure currents of a few picoamps, and electrometers with
femtoamp-level current sensitivity have been available for some time. However, mea-
suring currents in the range of ten attoamps or less is a different matter. After all, one
attoamp (110
18
A) represents just six electrons per second.
Once, measuring such low currents required the use of expensive test equipment
and cryogenic current comparators. Today, however, it is possible to measure changes
in current as small as one attoamp (1aA) at room temperature using commercially avail-
able test and measurement equipment. This discussion looks at a simple setup and
technique for making repeatable and reliable measurements at the attoamp level.
Equipment Required
Making current measurements on the attoamp range requires a device that can meas-
ure currents with a few tens of attoamps of RMS noise in the range of 0.10.01Hz and
a current source with a resolution better than one attoamp. Instruments known as
Source-Measure Units (SMUs) contain a precision voltage source, a precision current
source, a voltmeter, and an ammeter. The Keithley Model 6430 Sub-Femtoamp Remote
SourceMeter instrument has an ultra-low noise current amplier and provides these
functions in a single instrument. Figure 1 shows a typical SourceMeter instrument,
with the source block representing both the voltage source and current source capa-
bility. The V
measure
circle represents the built-in voltmeter, which gives feedback to the
source block and can be used to control it. The I
measure
circle represents the built-in am-
meter; it, too, can control the source block. Note also that the instrument can provide
both V
measure
and I
measure
functions simultaneously.
A good SMU can source very small currents, and the Model 6430 can source cur-
rent with 50aA resolution. For this application (counting electrons), a source capable
of repeatedly producing 10aA currents precisely is required. The voltage source within
the Model 6430 was used to create a current source with this high resolution. To reduce
the difculty of working with extremely high value resistors, the voltage source was rst
divided down by a factor of ten, then applied across a 2T resistor to the current meas-
urement input (Figure 1). The result is 10aA of current owing with 200V applied.
The 5V digital resolution of the source (programming resolution of the Model 6430)
yields a 0.25aA current resolution. It is important to recognize that this is not a true cur-
rent sourceits output current will be very sensitive to the load. The reason why it still
works for this application is that the load is going to be a nearly perfect ammeteri.e.,
virtually a short circuit.
Making measurements with a few tens of attoamps of RMS noise in the bandwidth of
0.10.01Hz required using a digital lter with a rise time of roughly ve seconds. This
meant that the standard deviation of 60 seconds worth of measured data didnt exceed
100aA. A remote preamp on the Model 6430 reduced cable noise, giving us 30aA of
RMS noise.
Measurement Procedure
The simplest way to make attoamp current measurements is to alternate between
measuring a positive signal, then a negative signal of the same magnitude, and repeat-
edly taking the difference. This method is still applicable, even if there is no way to
generate a negative signal, by taking the difference between a positive signal and zero
signal, although there is a factor of two noise penalty.
Current sources in typical nanotechnology applications are functions of time rather
than constants, so we chose a current source that varies with time. In this case, the
current took the form of a staircase function. The procedure involves taking a xed
number of readings at each step level for a total of N readings. The rst of the series of
Source
I
Measure
V
Measure
I
feedback
V
feedback
R
R
Force
Sense HI
Sense LO
Common
Figure 1. A source-measure unit includes a precision voltage source and a precision
current source (shown here as one block), a voltmeter, and an ammeter.
III
readings taken with the positive source applied is averaged with the negative of the rst
in the series of readings taken with the negative source applied. In equation form, this
is expressed as:
(I
n
+
I
n
)
I
n
=
_________

2
The division by two comes about because the signal-to-noise ratio is the same in
both signals, but there is twice the signal present in the full plus-to-minus signal. For
signals with no negative component, the equation is identical except there is no division
by two. Doing this for each of the readings in the series yields a series of difference read-
ings. The whole process is repeated several times and averaged. Each difference series is
averaged point-by-point, resulting in a single series of readings representing the current
shape produced by the source.
Setting Up the Measurement
Choosing how fast to alternate between positive and negative sourcing requires
some balancing. Faster alternations help minimize the effects of slow drifts in input
current and also reduce noise. But, with teraohms of resistance in the source (which is
typical for any source generating such small currents), the settling time is one to two
seconds. If the source alternated every few seconds, most of the measurement would
be of the source settling rather than the nal DC value. One way to solve this is to let
the source settle for ten percent of the time after each alternation and measure for 90
percent of the timewhich means a half-period of ten times the settling time, or about
20 seconds.
Using this mathematical technique, the valid points from the current shape (i.e.,
the last 90 percent) were averaged to produce the nal measurement. Estimating the
error in this mean value required using the statistics of uncorrelated noise. Instead of
one nal current shape averaged from many difference series, N current shapes were
generated. Each of these current shapes yields a mean from its valid data points so the
collection of mean values has a standard deviation. Because the means are uncorrelated,
the nal answer, the mean of the N means, has a one sigma uncertainty equal to the
standard deviation of the collection of means divided by the square root of N.
2T
R
9R
I
SMU
Guard
Buffer
Figure 2. The schematic shows a basic measurement circuit.
This was veried by generating 1,000 current shapes and plotting the standard devia-
tions of the collections for N = 1000, 500, 250, etc. As expected, the standard deviations
of the collections dropped as the square root of the number of means in the collection.
Results
For the simplest case, using a single current value and using 40 seconds for each
source polarity, after one hour of measurement or 45 reversal pairs, the uncertainty
was about 2.6 attoamps. After 12 hours of averaging, the uncertainty fell to about 0.75
attoamps. After several such 12-hour runs, the collection of results had a standard devia-
tion consistent with 0.75 attoamps.
A good way to estimate the time required to achieve these results on an arbitrary
system with unknown external noise sources is to measure the noise of the system in
the 0.10.01Hz bandwidth as described earlier. The test system, with the source on
but constant, measured 60aA RMS in this bandwidth. If another system had 120aA, it
is reasonable to expect that each of the uncertainties achieved here could be done in
approximately four times the amount of time.
Physical Precautions
The largest contributor to low-frequency noise in this sort of test setup is tempera-
ture variation. Instrument offset currents vary with ambient temperature, in this case by
less than 500aA/C. But even slow temperature changes from a buildings heating and
cooling systems could cause large current changes. One way of avoiding this problem
is to simply place a cardboard box over the low current amplier and source xture.
Doing so nearly eliminates the problem. It is critically important that the low current
amplier have low power dissipation (in this case <1/3 watt) to avoid heat buildup in
the enclosure.
Another concern is stray electrostatic elds. Housing the current-generating element
(in this case the sources resistors) in an electrostatic shield that is grounded for safety
eliminates this problem. Its also possible to improve the settling time of the source by
placing the current-generating element inside an inner electrostatic shield driven by the
guard buffer.
Time-Varying Input
Using a slow staircase input instead of a simple DC signal shows that a discernable
signal can be retrieved from the noise. After every 90 measurements (about 18 sec-
onds), the current source was incremented by 10aA. Inverting the staircase generated
the negative source period. The results are shown in Figure 3.
III
Considering each step as a separate measurement and using the estimates described
earlier, the mean of each current step has a one-sigma uncertainty of 0.8 attoamps
(Figure 4). The measurement took 84 hours, only slightly longer than the equivalent
of ve 12-hour runs for ve separate measurements. The extra time required to reduce
the noise is expected. The longer alternation period allows offsets to drift more be-
tween the positive and negative measurements, so the residual noise is larger. This can
also be described by noting that offset drift due to temperature change typically has a
1/f characteristic. That is, noise current is inversely proportional to frequency (Figure
5). So, while the current reversal process still narrows the bandwidth to 1/(12 hours)
10
1
s

o
f

c
o
l
l
e
c
t
i
o
n

o
f

a
v
e
r
a
g
e
s
N, number of samples averaged
Noise reduction 1/ N as N increases: Best fit is N -.5015
100 1000
1E16
1E17
1E18
1E19
Figure 3. The graph depicts a plot estimating the uncertainty in the mean, which is
0.8aA.
50
40
30
20
10
0
10
20
30
40
50
Seconds
Attoamps
0 50 100 150 200 250
Figure 4. A graph of the staircase current waveform used in the experimental setup.
(0.00002Hz), the lower alternation frequency of the staircase places the measurement
higher on the 1/f curve.
Conclusions
Using the data analyses and ltering described here, a wide range of tradeoffs be-
tween measurement time and uncertainty can be obtained. In addition, if proper at-
tention is given to relevant noise sources such as temperature and cabling, current
measurements can be made well below the one femtoamp level. In fact, using commer-
cially available test equipment, measurements with uncertainties of one attoampere and
below are possible and indeed practical.
1E13
1E14
1E15
1E16
1E17
1E6 1E5 1E4 1E3 1E2 1E1 1E+0 1E+1
Frequency
6430 Spectral Noise Distribution
Instrument alone
With experimental apparatus
Figure 5. The noise spectrum of the experimental setup shows that noise decreases
with increasing frequency.
III
A Feel for the Pulse
Understanding your test requirements will help you
select the right pulse generator for the job.
Rapidly changing and advancing technology continually challenges test equipment
manufacturers to develop new systems for testing the latest generation of electronic de-
vices and materials. Industries such as semiconductor and communication technology,
with rapid development of new standards, often require cutting-edge device testing and
new source and measurement capabilities.
In recent years, new testing techniques have been developed to meet these challeng-
es. One such technique is pulse testing. The uses for instruments with pulse capabilities
are many, for instance, testing advanced semiconductor devices as well as RF devices
such as high-speed serial communications links.
Pulse Testing
Pulse testing involves delivering a single pulse to an output. This pulse is used to
test a variety of things, such as for transient testing of a device to determine its transfer
function and thereby characterize the material under test.
Pulse or pattern generators (Figure 1) are used in a wide variety of applications in
both the lab and on the production line. Researchers often need to stimulate a device
under test (DUT) with a pulse, series of pulses (Figure 2a), or known data patterns at
specied rates in order to characterize device performance. Pulse or pattern generators
are often congured into test systems that also include SMUs, digital multimeters, volt-
meters, switches, and oscilloscopes (Figure 2b).
Figure 1. Keithleys Series 3400 Pulse/Pattern Generators feature a frequency
range from 1mHz to 165MHz with programmable rise and fall times down to two
nanoseconds.
An example of an application where a pulse/pattern generator is an important tool
is in the testing of program/erase cycles in memory devices (Figure 3). Two of the tests
performed for this type of application are endurance and speed tests. For these types of
test, a pulse should be applied at one polarity to write to the device, and a pulse should
be applied at the opposite polarity with a larger amplitude to erase memory. For endur-
ance tests, program/erase actions must be cycled as quickly as possible while perform-
ing DC threshold (V
t
) tests on the transistors. For speed tests, the pulse width and/or
amplitude are varied until the optimal threshold voltages for the program and erase
functions are found. During this test, a DC V
t
test must be performed on the transistors
between every program or erase pulse.
Need for Pulse Testing
The need for pulse sources has been growing over time. Shrinking device geometries,
new materials, and more complex designs are having a tremendous impact on device
lifetimes due to increased fragility, higher power density, and new failure mechanisms.
This need is driven in part by the higher operating speeds of todays electronic circuits.
The higher operating speed requires test equipment that can produce simulated clock
and data signals at the rate that the circuit will actually perform (Figure 4).
Also, analog components used in these circuits behave differently at higher speeds,
so they cant be characterized at DC using traditional DC methods. Because pulse sizes
can be made extremely small, on the order of a few nanoseconds, pulse testing over-
comes the problems inherent in DC testing techniques. Therefore, pulsed test signals
are needed to characterize these components.
In addition, as components have become smaller, the need for pulsed testing tech-
niques becomes more critical. Smaller DUTs are more susceptible to self-heating, which
can destroy or damage the part or change its response to test signals, masking the
Figure 2a. Example of a pulse/pattern
output
Figure 2b. Measured response from a
device using pulse testing
III
Figure 3. Example application: Program/erase cycles on memory devices.
Figure 4. Pulse/pattern generators must provide simulated clock and data signals at
the rate the circuit will actually perform.
response the user is seeking. Pulse testing is commonly used when characterizing nano-
electronic devices.
Advanced IC technologies incorporate new materials and failure mechanisms that
traditional DC testing techniques may not be powerful enough to uncover. The limits
of DC methods are apparent in the charge-trapping behavior of gate dielectrics in semi-
conductor devices. The issue is the relatively long periods of time required for these DC
techniques.
During device development, structures like single electron transistors (SETs), sen-
sors, and other experimental devices often display unique properties. Characterizing
these properties without damaging one-of-a-kind structures requires systems that pro-
vide tight control over sourcing to prevent device self-heating.
Voltage pulsing can produce much narrower pulse widths than current pulsing, so
its often used in experiments such as thermal transport, in which the timeframe of
interest is shorter than a few hundred nanoseconds. Figure 5 illustrates connecting to
a device to measure an unknown resistance.
Scope
(1M Input Z)
Ch. 2 Ch. 1
R
Pulse
Generator
Scope Ch. 3
(50 Input Z)
R =
V
M
I
M
V
M
= (V
Ch 2
V
Ch 1
)
I
M
=
V
Ch 3
50
Figure 5. Measuring unknown resistance, pulsed I-V, etc.
High amplitude accuracy and programmable rise and fall times are necessary to
control the amount of energy delivered to a device. An example is shown in Figure 6.
What to Look For
The three key items to keep in mind while evaluating a pulse/pattern generator are
exibility, delity, and ease of use.
Flexibility is key to a good pulse generator. It lets users control the critical signal
parameters such as amplitude, offset, rise and fall times, pulse widths, and duty cycle of
the output signal. Interdependency of these parameters can reduce the exibility of the
instrument. It is important to understand that if you adjust one parameter, that another
parameter does not change. For example if you adjust the rise-time of the pulse, does
III
the pulse amplitude change? This extensive control over key signal parameters makes
the instrument exible and useable in many different applications.
The second key item to look for is pulse delity. The amount of overshoot, or droop
in a pulse can make the instrument not suitable for your application. These undesirable
effects can be worsened by the setup and cabling that your application requires. Using
an instrument that minimizes these effects will help reduce these setup challenges.
Instruments that can deliver an extremely short duration pulse, on the order of a few
nanoseconds wide, with tight control of critical signal parameters, are highly useful
for testing sensitive devices. Also, look carefully at the specications of the unit. Often
times parameters such as rise-time or fall-time are specied at either 10% to 90% or
20% to 80%. Using 20%80% allows a slower pulse to appear to have a faster rise-time.
Additionally, when using the looser specication, the actual delity of the pulse could
be signicantly lower.
Ease of use is another factor to consider, which often times gets overlooked. For ex-
ample, an intuitive user interface makes instruments simple to use for both experienced
test engineers as well as novice users of instrumentation.
Conclusion
Facilities involved in testing semiconductor devices, nanotechnology devices, and
high speed components are faced with intense budget and time-to-market constraints.
Figure 6. Example of variability of both rise and fall times on a single pulse.
However, they cannot compromise on measurement quality, valuable rack or bench-top
space, or ease of use. These designers have a need for test instruments such as pulse
generators that satisfy their needs for current as well as future testing.
DC Source
DC Source
Dual-Channel
Digital
Oscilloscope for
Measurement
Dual-Channel
Pulse Generator
Trigger
AC+DC
Out
AC+DC
Out
DC
DC
Figure 7. The 4200-PIV option bundle for the Model 4200-SCS includes everything
needed to implement a turnkey system for pulsed I-V testing of leading-edge devices
and materials:
Integrated dual-channel pulse generator and GUI for stand-alone control as desired
Dual-channel high speed pulse measurement
PIV control software (patent pending)
Interconnect fxture designed to minimize the signal refections common to pulse I-V
testing (patent pending)
All required connectors and cables
Pulse I-V sample project created for isothermal testing of FinFETs, SOI devices, power
devices, and Laterally Diffused Metal Oxide Semiconductors (LDMOSs)
Charge-trapping sample project created for high k gate stack characterization
S E C T I ON I V
Nanomaterials Research
IV Nanomaterials Research
Electronic Transport Characteristics of Gallium Nitride
Nanowire-based Nanocircuits
Electronic transport studies of a two-phase gallium nitride nanowire were explored.
The steps taken are briey described here and discussed in detail below.
Current-voltage measurements were taken of gallium nitride based three terminal
eld effect transistors fabricated via electron beam lithography. The measurements in-
dicated a working eld effect transistor using a global back gate conguration. Very
high current levels within the nanowire were reported. Direct transport measurements
were also taken via two nanomanipulator probes. High current levels in this experi-
ment were also observed. Scanning Probe Re cog ni tion Mi cro scopy was used to detect
the contact pad and nanowire radial boundary, and a nanowire auto- fo cus ex per i ment
was reported.
Introduction
Over the past decade nanowires and nanotubes made from a wide variety of materi-
als have demonstrated extraordinary electronic, mechanical, and chemical characteris-
tics. Gallium nitride (GaN) nanowires are particularly promising due to an inherently
wide bandgap coupled with structurally induced electronic and optical connement
[1]. Gallium nitride-based nanocircuits have recently been shown to be viable for wide
range of electronic and optical applications. GaN nanowire eld effect transistors [2,
3, 4] and logic devices [5] have shown the desired characteristics of high transconduc-
tance and good switching, and room temperature UV lasing has been reported for GaN
nanowire systems [6, 7] as well as good eld emission properties [8].
Understanding the interactions of gallium nitride nanowires within a nanocircuit
architecture is critically important to the maximizing the potential of the GaN nanowire
building block. In particular, details of the electronic transport and carrier injection
require fundamental elucidation. This discussion will present details of an investigation
into electronic transport and carrier injection.
Materials and Methods
The ~50100nm gallium nitride nanowires were grown in a direct reaction of metal
gallium vapor with owing ammonia at 850900C without a catalyst, as reported in
Reference [9]. These had a two-phase coaxial zinc-blende/wurtzite structure, shown in
Figure 1 and reported in Reference [10]. A eld effect transistor design using a GaN
nanowire as an n-type semiconducting channel was used in the experiment (GaNFET).
The nanowires were dispersed on a highly doped p-type silicon substrate covered with
a 150nm dielectric layer of thermally grown silicon dioxide. The GaNFET source and
drain contacts were patterned using electron beam lithography, with Ti/Au used for the
IV
conducting source and drain material. The backside of the wafer was stripped of silicon
dioxide using hydrouoric acid, and Ti/Au was evaporated to form the global back gate.
Electronic transport characteristics were measured in two-point and four-point
probe congurations using a Keithley 4200-SCS ultra low noise electronic character-
ization system and a Keithley-Zyvex KZ100 nanoprobing system, in which specially
sharpened ~30nm radius tungsten nanoprobes were coupled with the 4200-SCS and
experiments were performed under direct SEM observation.
These experiments were carried out at the corporate laboratories of Keithley Instru-
ments (Cleveland Ohio) and Zyvex Corporation (Richardson Texas). Carrier injection
was investigated using Scanning Probe Recognition Microscopy, a new scanning probe
microscope modality under development by our group in partnership with Veeco In-
struments, Santa Barbara, CA. [11]
Nanocircuit Electronic Transport Measurements
Current-voltage measurements were taken at Keithley Labs on a Keithley 4200-SCS
which offers very low noise and low current measurements. The Keithley 4200-SCS is
uniquely suited for this application because high levels of noise can arise while analyz-
ing the GaNFETs. Measurements indicate this FET has a good on-off ratio and is capable
of handling high current. Currents measured in these devices approached 30A, which
is similar to ndings from other groups [12, 13], is very high considering the nanowire
dimensions. The current density can thus be approximated as ~2.4mA m
2
. Although
the nanowire is capable of very high current densities, the gate voltages needed to
achieve this are somewhat above accepted levels. A gate voltage step of 30V to 30V was
needed to clearly show current change based on gate voltage modulation. These gate
Two-Phase Coaxial Homostructure Gallium Nitride Nanowires Structure
Figure 1. (a) TEM and (b) high resolution TEM of two-phase coaxial homostructure
GaN nanowires used in the experiments. The boxed area in (a) is shown in (b).
Nanodiffraction, selected area electron diffraction, and fast fourier transforms were
used to identify (c) the inner phase as wurtzite and (d) the outer phase as zinc-blende.
The two boxed areas in (b) are shown in (c) and (d).
levels, however, are not feasible in most devices. Other discrepancies include unpredict-
ability of the device at negative drain-source voltages, where the gate-source voltage
variation does not seem to affect the drain current as much. The reason for this anomaly
is unknown at this time, but is being investigated further.
Nanowire Electronic Transport Measurements
Further two-point and point-to-point probe measurements were performed in the
Keithley-Zyvex KZ100 nanoprobing system under direct SEM observation. The nano-
probe arrangement for the four-point measurements is shown in Figure 3(a). Place-
ment of a probe tip resulted in the nanowire break. The probes labeled 2 and 3 were
lifted out of contact with the nanowire and the probe labeled 1 was placed in direct
contact with the cleaved open end as shown in Figure 3(b). The probe labeled 4 re-
mained on the gold contact pad as shown in Figure 3(a).
The current density to breakdown was then investigated. The results conrmed the
high current capacity previously discussed. In a typical example, 10A of current was
achieved, as shown in Figure 3(c). Electrical breakdown with pull apart in the middle
of the nanowire occurred at greater than 50A. The gold contact pad near probe 4 did
not display any sign of local heating.
Scanning Probe Recognition Microscopy of Nanocircuits
Scanning Probe Recognition Microscopy (SPRM) is a new scanning probe micro-
scope modality under development in partnership with Veeco Instruments, Santa Bar-
Figure 2. Current-voltage charateristics for a GaN naowire FET showing the effect of
gate-source and drain-source voltage variation.
IV
bara, California [14]. In SPRM, we give the Scanning Probe Microscope (SPM) system
itself the power to return to a specic nanoscale feature of interest through feature
recognition coupled with adaptive scan plan generation and implementation. It is a
recognition-driven and learning approach, made possible through combining Scan-
ning Probe Micro scope piezoelectric implementation with on-line image processing
and dynam ically adaptive learning algorithms. The human operator interaction is now
focused on the decision-making level, rather than the execution level.
SPRM has been implemented in the main atomic force and scanning tunneling
modes. The SPRM experiments are performed on a specially adapted Multimode Nano-
scope IIIA (Veeco Instruments) in ambient air. For the nanociruits investigation, several
aspects of the GaNFETs are currently under investigation, which require the ability to
auto-focus the scan path to proceeed from the conducting contact pad onto the semi-
conducting GaN nanowire, while avoiding the insulating oxide layer.
Our implementation, shown in Figure 4, uses real-time captured information to
detect the contact pad (user dened region), the contact pad-nanowire linear junction,
and the nanowire radial boundary. Our current implementation also has an adaptive
learning capability with statistical methods that can be used in boundary detection
adjustment to improve accuracy.
The resulting nanowire auto-focus using SPRM is shown in Figure 4. The image cap-
tured by the SPM is shown in Figure 4 (a) (dotted lines are used to articially enhance
Figure 3. (a) Nanoprobe arrangement for the four-point measurements.
(b) Probe 1 placed in direct contact with the cleaved nanowire open end.
(c) Example high current density I-V char ac ter ist ic.
the low relief contact pad boundaries). The scan plan generation, shown in Figure 4
(b), shows that our scanning scheme can detect and predict boundaries reliably. Thus,
we can scan back and forth only on the interested region, which starts from the left
side (light points) and ends with right side (black points) in Figure 4 (b). We can see
that the scanning scheme can follow changes of boundaries very well because of the
adaptive learning algorithm. The captured real-time auto-focused image is shown in
Figure 4 (c). This is a still image from an .mpg movie clip of the top to bottom auto-
focused scan that starts from a small region on the contact pad and proceeds along
the nanowire. The regions that are not actually scanned are padded with 0 (dark gray
region) for display.
Discussion
Gallium nitride eld effect transistors reported here may be a viable solution in
many electronic devices. The high current density that these nanowires can achieve may
be desirable in high current, high power applications. The device itself, however, needs
to be improved so as to lower gate-source voltage levels thus making this device design
more practical. Optical applications are also being realized and the biphasic nature of
these nanowires may provide an optical connement element similar to optical bers.
The possibility of carrier and exiton connement in these nanowires may provide a
wide variety of electonic device applications.
Acknowledgements
The support of NASA MEI Task 14, The National Science Foundation (DMI-0400298),
the NASA GRSP Fellowship Program, and Veeco Instruments is gratefully acknow-
ledged. Devices were fabricated at the Keck Microfabrication Facility at Michigan State
University.
Figure 4. Scanning scheme implementation for GaN anocircuit:
(a) Image captured by standard SPM. The contact region boundaries are delineated by
white dotted lines. The image size is 55 microns.
(b) Scanning scheme showing lines of the scan plan.
(c) Real-time image captured by SPRM system using the auto-focused scanning scheme
along the nanowire. The height variation at the contact regions is also visible.
IV
References
[1] J. C. Johnson, H-J Choi, K. P. Knutsen, R. D. Schaller, P. Yang, R. J. Saykally, Single gallium
nitride nanowire lasers, Nat. Mater. Lett., 1, R106 (2002).
[2] Y. Huang, X. Duan, Y. Cui, C. M. Lieber, Gallium nitride nanowire nanodevices, Nano Lett.,
2, R101 (2002).
[3] E. Stern, G. Cheng, E. Cimpoiasu, R. Klie, S. Guthrie, J. Klemic, I. Kretzschmar, E. Steinlauf,
D. Turner-Evans, E. Broomeld, J. Hyland, R. Koudelka, T. Boone, M. Young, A. Sanders,
R. Munden, T. Lee, D. Routenberg, M. A. Reed, Electrical characterization of single GaN
nanowires, Nanotechnology, 16, R2941 (2005).
[4] J. M. Barker, K. A. Bertness, N. A. Sanford, Electrical measurements of GaN nanowires
deposited using electric-eld assisted alignment, 6th International Conference on Nitride
Semiconductors, Tu-P-123.
[5] Y. Huang, X. Duan, Y. Cui, L. J. Lauhon, K. H. Kim, C. M. Lieber, Logic gates and computa-
tion from assembled nanowire building blocks, Science, 294, R1313 (2001).
[6] F. Qian, S. Gradecak, Y. Li, C. Wen and C.M. Lieber, Core/multishell nanowire heterostruc-
tures as multicolor, high-efciency light-emitting diodes, Nano Lett., 5, R2287, (2005).
[7] S. Gradecak, F. Qian, Y. Li, H.-G. Park and C.M. Lieber, GaN nanowire lasers with low lasing
thresholds, Appl. Phys. Lett., 87, R173111, (2005).
[8] C-C. Chen, C-C. Yeh, C-H. Chen, M-Y. Yu, H-L. Liu, J-J. Wu, K-H. Chen, L-C. Chen, J-Y. Peng, Y-
F. Chen, Catalytic growth and characterization of gallium nitride nanowires, J. Am. Chem.
Soc., 123, R2791 (2001).
[9] M. He, P. Zhou, S. N. Mohammad, G. L. Harris, J. B. Halpern, R. Jacobs, W. L. Sarney, L. Sala-
manca-Riba, Growth of GaN nanowires by direct reaction of Ga with NH3, J. of Crys. Grow.,
231, 357 (2001).
[10] V.M. Ayres, B.W. Jacobs, M.E. Englund, E.H. Carey, M.A. Crimp, R.M. Ronningen, A.F. Zeller,
J.B. Halpern, M.-Q. He, G.L. Harris, D. Liu, H.C. Shaw and M.P. Petkov, Investigation of
heavy ion irradiation of gallium nitride nanowires and nanocircuits, in press, Diamond and
Related Materials, (2006).
[11] http://www.nsf.gov/awardsearch/showAward.do?AwardNumber=0400298
[12] H-Y. Cha, H. Wu, M. Chandrashekhar, Y. C. Choi1, S. Chae, G. Koley, M. G. Spencer, Fabrica-
tion and characterization of pre-aligned gallium nitride nanowire eld-effect transistors,
Nanotechnology, 17, R1264 (2006).
[13] C. Y. Nam, J. Y. Kim, J. E. Fischer, Focused-ion-beam platinum nanopatterning for GaN
nanowires: ohmic contacts and patterned growth, Nano Lett., 5, R2029 (2005).
[14] http://www.nsf.gov/awardsearch/showAward.do?AwardNumber=0400298
Keithley gratefully acknowledges the assistance of Dr. V. M. Ayres of Michigan State University,
who granted permission to reprint this paper. It received the Best Student Poster award at IEEE
Nano2006, held July 1720, 2006, in Cincinnati, Ohio.
S E C T I ON V
Nanodevice
Measurement Techniques
V Nanodevice Measurement Techniques
Tips for Electrical Characterization of Carbon Nanotubes
and Low Power Nanoscale Devices
The potential uses for carbon nanotubes are seemingly endless, with plenty of poten-
tial applications in the semiconductor industry alone. Researchers are already incorpo-
rating carbon nanotubes into FETs for switches, memory for consumer goods, and eld
emission displays for the next generation of televisions. Researchers are also looking
into applying carbon nanotubes in sensor applications to detect molecular particles for
applications in homeland security. There is also serious work being done to use carbon
nanotubes transistors for digital logic.
The semiconductor and nanotechnology communities continue to be faced with
challenges when working with carbon nanotubes and other low power nanoscale de-
vices. One challenge is the difculty of electrically characterizing extremely small circuit
elements, not only in the current generation of semiconductors, but in next-generation
nanoscale electronics as well.
A second challenge is how to characterize these next generation devices when power
limitation is critical. The scaling of devices and components to the nano scale forces re-
searchers to limit the levels of electrical signals that can be applied for characterization.
Lastly, probing nanoscale devices continues to be a challenge. With standard gate
dimensions of less than 90nm and space budgets shrinking continuously, the small-
est probe pad dimensions required for most prober systems remain xed at about 50
microns. This limitation is largely the result of the inaccuracy of probe movements and
the size of the probe tips. This challenge is being solved with new probing tools that
offer nanometer movement precision with probe tip diameters of less than 50nm and
current measuring capability better than 1pA (see Figure 1).
This discussion focuses on measurement techniques that can be applied to char-
acterizing carbon nanotubes low power devices, and what can be done to overcome
various sources of measurement error.
Methods and Techniques
Consumers are demanding faster, more feature-rich products in ever-smaller form
factors. Because the electronics must have smaller sizes, the components will also have
limited power handling capability. As a result, when electrically characterizing these
components, the test signals need to be kept small to prevent component breakdown
or other damage. Current versus Voltage (I-V) characterization on nanoscale devices
may require the measurement of very small voltages due to the necessity of applying
a very small current to control power or to reduce the Joule-heating effects. Therefore,
low level voltage measurement techniques become important, not only for I-V charac-
terization of devices but also for resistance measurements of non-conductive materials
V
and components. For researchers and electronics industry test engineers, this power
limitation makes characterizing modern devices and materials and future devices
challenging.
Unlike I-V curve generation on macro- and micro-scale components and materials,
measurements on carbon nanotubes and nanoscale devices require such special care
and techniques. General-purpose I-V curve characterizations are often performed using
a two-point electrical measurement technique. The problem with this method is that
the voltage is measured not only across the device in question, but includes the voltage
drop across the test leads and contacts as well. If your goal is to measure the resistance
A
I

(
A
m
p
s
)
AV (Volts)
3.00E07
2.00E07
1.00E07
0.00E07
1.00E07
2.00E07
3.00E07
0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Figure 1. I-V curve on a carbon nanotube.

Figure 1a. Keithleys Model 4200-SCS
semiconductor characterization system.
Figure 1b. Zyvex S100 nanomanipulator.
of a device using a typical ohmmeter to measure resistances greater than a few ohms,
this added resistance is usually not a problem. However, when measuring low resist-
ances on conductive nanoscale materials or components, obtaining accurate results
with a two-point measurement can be a problem.
If your I-V characterization or resistance measurement involves low voltage or low
resistance, such as with molecular wires, semiconducting nanowires, and carbon nano-
tubes, a four-wire, or Kelvin, measurement technique with a probe station is preferred
and will yield more accurate results. With Kelvin measurements, a second set of probes
is used for sensing. Negligible current ows in these probes due to the high impedances
associated with the sensing inputs; therefore, only the voltage drop across the DUT is
measured (see Figure 2). As a result, your resistance measurement or I-V curve genera-
tion is more accurate. Source and measurement functions for this measurement tech-
nique are typically provided by Source-Measure Units (SMUs) (electronic instruments
that source and measure DC voltages and currents).
Typical Sources of Error
Low power electrical characterization on carbon nanotube based devices and other
nanoscale components can be fraught with measurement error. Offset voltage and
noise sources that can normally be ignored when measuring higher signal levels can
Test Current (I)
R
LEAD
I V
M
Sense HI
Sense LO
V
M
R
LEAD
V
R
R
Resistance
Under Test
Lead
Resistances
DMM or Micro-ohmmeter
V
M
= Voltage measured by meter
V
R
= Voltage across resistor (R)
Because sense current is negligible, V
M
= V
R
R
LEAD
R
LEAD
Source HI
Source LO
Sense Current (pA)
=
I
V
M
and measured resistance =
I
V
R
Figure 2. Four-point measurement schematic.
V
introduce signicant error into low-voltage, low current, low power measurements. We
will discuss four factors that can affect measurement performance and accuracy.
Offset Voltages
Ideally, when a voltmeter is connected to a relatively low-impedance circuit in which
no voltages are present, it should read zero. However, a number of error sources in the
circuit may show up as a non-zero voltage offset. These sources include thermoelectric
EMFs, offsets generated by rectication of RFI (radio frequency interference), and off-
sets in the voltmeter input circuit. Steady offsets can generally be nulled out by shorting
the ends of the test leads together and then enabling the instruments zero (relative)
feature. However, canceling the offset drift may require frequent re-zeroing or using
specic measurement techniques, particularly in the case of thermoelectric EMFs.
Thermoelectric Voltages
Thermoelectric voltages, or thermoelectric EMFs, are the most common source of
errors in low-voltage measurements. These voltages are generated when different parts
of a circuit are at different temperatures and when conductors made of dissimilar ma-
terials are joined together. Constructing circuits using the same material for all conduc-
tors minimizes thermoelectric EMF generation.
Measurements at cryogenic temperatures pose special problems. This is because the
connections between the sample in the cryostat and the voltmeter are often made of
metals with lower thermal conductivity than copper, such as iron, which introduces dis-
similar metals into the circuit. In addition, because the source may be near zero degrees
Kelvin while the meter is at 300 degrees Kelvin, there is a large temperature gradient. By
matching the composition of the wires between the cryostat and the voltmeter and by
keeping all dissimilar metal junction pairs at the same temperature, nanovolt measure-
ments can be made with good accuracy.
Another approach to controlling thermoelectric voltages is to use a delta meas-
urement technique. A constant thermoelectric voltage may be cancelled using voltage
measurements made at a positive and negative test current. Alternating the test current
also increases noise immunity by increasing the signal-to-noise ratio. Over the short-
term, thermoelectric drift may be approximated by a linear function. The difference
between consecutive voltage readings is the slope the rate of change in thermoelectric
voltage. This slope is constant, so it may be canceled by alternating the current source
three times to make two delta measurements one at a negative-going step and one at
a positive-going step. In order for the linear approximation to be valid, a current source
must alternate quickly and the voltmeter must make accurate voltage measurements
within a short time interval. If these conditions are met, a three-step delta technique
yields an accurate voltage reading of the intended signal unimpeded by thermoelectric
offsets and drifts.
Device Heating
Small amounts of heat introduced by the measurement process itself can raise the
DUTs temperature, skewing test results or even destroying the device. Device heating is
a consideration when making I-V measurements on temperature-sensitive devices such
as nanoscale components or materials.
The power dissipation in a device is given by P = I
2
R, which means that the power
dissipated in the device increases by a factor of four each time the current doubles. One
way to minimize the effects of device heating is to use the lowest current possible while
maintaining the desired voltage across the device being tested.
Current sources that offer pulse measurement capability can also minimize the
amount of power dissipated into a DUT. Pulse measurement tools allow users to pro-
gram the optimal pulse current amplitude, pulse interval, pulse width, and other pulse
parameters to reduce potential device heating and control the energy applied to the de-
vice. Combined with a synchronized nanovoltmeter, the combination can synchronize
the pulse and measurementthus reducing device heating.
Contaminated Probes
Test signal integrity when probing carbon nanotubes or nanoscale semiconductor
devices depends on a high quality probe contact, which is directly related to contact
resistance (Figure 3). Probe contact resistance has become increasingly important as
signal voltages drop and contact pressures decrease.
Figure 3. SEM photo of a carbon nanotube attached to the S100 probes.
During the course of their use, probe needles can become contaminated. Probe
tip wear and contamination that builds up on the tip can cause an increase in contact
resistance. The best way to enhance long-term performance of probe tips is to incor-
porate periodic cleaning procedures in the test protocol. While regularly scheduled
cleaning removes contaminants before they cause test yield problems, this gain must
V
be weighed against its cost. One major cost element associated with cleaning is reduced
test throughput while the probe system is out of service. Another consideration is that
too little cleaning adversely affects test yields.
The Necessity for Testing Standards
As newer electronic devices are created using carbon nanotubes or other nanoscale
materials, the need for testing standards becomes more evident. Consistency in meas-
urement technique and reporting of data is critical in order for new manufacturing
processes to be consistent. Keithley Instruments worked closely with The Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) to create IEEE 1650-2005, the worlds rst
measurement standard for the electrical characterization of carbon nanotubes. P1650
and future standards and recommended guidelines will permit semiconductor manu-
facturers and materials manufacturers of carbon nanotubes and nanoscale materials to
precisely manufacture and fabricate the next generation of electronic components.
Conclusion
This discussion focused on just a few of the measurement issues that the semicon-
ductor industry and nanotechnologists must confront and overcome when designing
the next generation of electronic devices. Traditional measurement techniques can still
be applied, but as the dimensions of the devices shrink and power limitations are in-
creasingly of concern, the measurement techniques must be tailored so as to achieve
the results one is expecting. New measurement tools are now becoming available that
address the many issues. In addition, professional organizations must continue work-
ing on developing new measurement standards so that the measurement results can be
made, compared, and veried with condence.
A P P E N D I X A
Selector Guides
A-2 KEI THLEY I NSTRUMENTS, I NC.
A Selector Guides
Which Keithley nanotechnology solution is best for your
sourcing or measurement application?
Keithley instrumentation is being used in a growing list of nanotechnology research
and production test settings. The applications shown here are only a sampling of the
nanotechnology test and measurement tasks for which our instruments and systems are
suitable. If your tests require sourcing or measuring low level signals, Keithley instru-
mentation can help you perform them more accurately and cost-effectively.
The Model 4200-SCS conforms to and supports the new IEEE Standard P1650-2005:
IEEE Standard Test Methods for Measurement of Electrical Properties of Carbon
Nanotubes, the worlds first electrical measurement standard for these devices.
Carbon Nanotube
Field Effect Transistors
Low I, Pulse
Polymer Nanofibers/
Nanowires
High R/Low I, 1M to 10
14
Semiconductor
Nanowires
Low Power, R <10M, Pulse
Carbon Nanotubes
Low Power, R < 100k
Single Electron
Devices/Transistors
Low I, Low V
Nanobatteries
Low I, Low Power
Nanophotonics
Low I, Pulse
Synthesized Molecular
Electronics/Wires
Low I, Low Power
Nanosensors & Arrays
Low I, Low V
Thermal Transport
Low I, Low Power, Pulse
Want multiple channels of sourcing and measurement?
The fully integrated Model 4200 Semiconductor Characterization
Systembrings together up to eight channels in one easy-to-operate
package. Its used in many phases of nano research, development,
characterization, and production.
Need tighter control over your pulses?
Our newest pulse generation solutions, Series 3400
Pulse/Pattern Generators, can output voltage
pulses with widths as short as 3ns, with indepen-
dently adjustable rise and fall times as short as 2ns.
Want seamless control over current pulse
sourcing and measurement?
When linked together, the Model 6221 AC+DC Current
Source and Model 2182A Nanovoltmeter are designed
to operate like a single instrument to make high
speed pulse mode measurements.
Troubled by overheating problems?
The Model 4200-PIV Option for the Model
4200-SCS combines a pulse generator, an
oscilloscope, a specialized interconnect, and
powerful software to control pulse I-V testing of
devices with self-heating issues.
Testing lots of devices?
Series 2600 System SourceMeter instruments let you
make precision DC, pulse, and low frequency AC source-
measure tests quickly, easily, and economically. They offer
virtually unlimited flexibility to scale the systems channel
count up or down to match changing application needs.
Looking for just a single channel?
Each Series 2400 SourceMeter instrument is a
complete, single-channel DC parametric tester. Choose
from a variety of ranges and functions to suit specific
application needs. The Model 2430 can be programmed to
produce individual pulses or pulse trains up to 5ms wide.
Studying highly resistive nanowires?
The Model 6430 Sub-Femtoamp Remote
SourceMeter
instruments low noise and drift

performance make it ideal. It measures currents with 400aA
(40010
18A
) sensitivity.
Want low current measurements without
the high price tag?
With <200V burden voltage, the cost-effective
Model 6485 Picoammeter ensures accurate low
current measurements, even in circuits with very low
source voltages. The Model 6487 Picoammeter/
Voltage Source adds a 500V bias source for high
resistance and resistivity measurements.
Trying to characterize high
resistance nanomaterials?
The Model 6517A Electrometer/High
Resistance Meters built-in 1kV source,
200Tinput resistance, and low current
sensitivity make it an ideal solution.
Need really high current pulses?
The Model 2520 Pulsed LIV Test
Systemcan source pulses up to 5A with
pro-grammable pulse on times from 500ns
to 5ms. A remote test head minimizes
cable effects and maximizes the signal-to-
noise ratio for greater pulse measurement
accuracy.
A Selector Guides
NANOTECHNOLOGY MEASUREMENT HANDBOOK A-3
A
To discuss how we can work with you to congure a solution for a specic nanotech-
nology application, contact Keithleys Applications Engineering department and ask to
speak with one of our nano measurements experts. In the U.S., call us toll free at 1-888-
KEITHLEY (534-8453). Or contact one of the sales ofces listed on our website, www.
keithley.com, for guidance.
The Model 4200-SCS conforms to and supports the new IEEE Standard P1650-2005:
IEEE Standard Test Methods for Measurement of Electrical Properties of Carbon
Nanotubes, the worlds first electrical measurement standard for these devices.
Carbon Nanotube
Field Effect Transistors
Low I, Pulse
Polymer Nanofibers/
Nanowires
High R/Low I, 1M to 10
14
Semiconductor
Nanowires
Low Power, R <10M, Pulse
Carbon Nanotubes
Low Power, R < 100k
Single Electron
Devices/Transistors
Low I, Low V
Nanobatteries
Low I, Low Power
Nanophotonics
Low I, Pulse
Synthesized Molecular
Electronics/Wires
Low I, Low Power
Nanosensors & Arrays
Low I, Low V
Thermal Transport
Low I, Low Power, Pulse
Want multiple channels of sourcing and measurement?
The fully integrated Model 4200 Semiconductor Characterization
Systembrings together up to eight channels in one easy-to-operate
package. Its used in many phases of nano research, development,
characterization, and production.
Need tighter control over your pulses?
Our newest pulse generation solutions, Series 3400
Pulse/Pattern Generators, can output voltage
pulses with widths as short as 3ns, with indepen-
dently adjustable rise and fall times as short as 2ns.
Want seamless control over current pulse
sourcing and measurement?
When linked together, the Model 6221 AC+DC Current
Source and Model 2182A Nanovoltmeter are designed
to operate like a single instrument to make high
speed pulse mode measurements.
Troubled by overheating problems?
The Model 4200-PIV Option for the Model
4200-SCS combines a pulse generator, an
oscilloscope, a specialized interconnect, and
powerful software to control pulse I-V testing of
devices with self-heating issues.
Testing lots of devices?
Series 2600 System SourceMeter instruments let you
make precision DC, pulse, and low frequency AC source-
measure tests quickly, easily, and economically. They offer
virtually unlimited flexibility to scale the systems channel
count up or down to match changing application needs.
Looking for just a single channel?
Each Series 2400 SourceMeter instrument is a
complete, single-channel DC parametric tester. Choose
from a variety of ranges and functions to suit specific
application needs. The Model 2430 can be programmed to
produce individual pulses or pulse trains up to 5ms wide.
Studying highly resistive nanowires?
The Model 6430 Sub-Femtoamp Remote
SourceMeter
instruments low noise and drift

performance make it ideal. It measures currents with 400aA
(40010
18A
) sensitivity.
Want low current measurements without
the high price tag?
With <200V burden voltage, the cost-effective
Model 6485 Picoammeter ensures accurate low
current measurements, even in circuits with very low
source voltages. The Model 6487 Picoammeter/
Voltage Source adds a 500V bias source for high
resistance and resistivity measurements.
Trying to characterize high
resistance nanomaterials?
The Model 6517A Electrometer/High
Resistance Meters built-in 1kV source,
200Tinput resistance, and low current
sensitivity make it an ideal solution.
Need really high current pulses?
The Model 2520 Pulsed LIV Test
Systemcan source pulses up to 5A with
pro-grammable pulse on times from 500ns
to 5ms. A remote test head minimizes
cable effects and maximizes the signal-to-
noise ratio for greater pulse measurement
accuracy.
A Selector Guides
Table 1. Keithley Pulse Solutions
3401/3402 Pulse/Pattern Generators*
4200-SCS w/Pulse I-V Option*
4200-PG2*
4200-PG2 Dual-Channel Pulse Generator*
2520 Pulsed Laser Diode Test System
6221
6221 & 2182A
AC & DC Current Source
2601/2602 System SourceMeter
Instruments
Instruments
2430 1kW Pulse Mode SourceMeter
Instrument
6221
6221 & 2182A
Instruments
Instruments
2430 1kW Pulse Mode SourceMeter
Instrument
Voltage
Voltage
Current
Voltage
Current
Voltage
Current
1ns
100ns
10V 20V 40V 100V 200V
100mA 1A 3A 5A 10A
Source
Type
Minimum
Desired
Pulse Width
Best Fit Solutions by Range
Table 2. Keithley Pulse Capabilities
High
Speed
Model
Voltage
Pulse
Current
Pulse
Integrated
Measurements
Pulse
Width
Max.
Voltage
Max.
Current
3401/3402 n 3ns1000s 10V
1
400mA
4200-PG2
High Speed
n 10ns1s 5V
1
200mA
1
4200-PG2
High Voltage
n 250ns1s 20V
1
800mA
1
4200-PIV n n 40ns150ns 5V
1
100mA
2520 n n 500ns5ms 10V 5A
Medium
Speed
6221 n 5sDC 105V 100mA
6221/2182A n n 50s12ms 105V 100mA
2601/2602 n n n 300sDC 40V 3A
2611/2612 n n n 200sDC 200V 10A
2430 n n n 150s5ms 100V 10A
1. Specication applies for a 50 source into 50 load.
A Selector Guides
A
Selector Guide: Low Voltage/Low Resistance Meters
Model 2182A
1801 with
2001 or 2002 2002 2010 2750
VOLTAGE RANGE (Full Scale)
From 10 mV 20 V 200 mV 100 mV 100 mV
To 100 V 2 mV 1000 V 1000 V 1000 V
Input Voltage
Noise
1.2 nV rms 0.12 nV rms 150 nV rms 100 nV rms <1.5 V rms
RESISTANCE RANGE
From
1
10 n
3
20 1.2 m 0.9 m 0.4 m
To
2
100 M
3
200 1 G 100 M 100 M
THERMOCOUPLE TEMPERATURE
From 200C 200C 200C 200C 200C
To 1820C 1820C 1820C 1372C 1820C
FEATURES
IEEE-488
RS-232
CE
Input
Connection
Special low
thermoelectric w/
copper pins. Optional
2187-4 Modular Probe
Kit adds banana plugs,
spring clips, needle
probes, and alligator
clips.
Copper nuts Banana jacks
(4)
Banana jacks
(4)
Banana jacks
(4)
Special
Features
Delta mode
and differential
conductance with
Model 6220 or 6221.
Pulsed I-V with Model
6221. Analog output.
IEEE-488. RS-232.
Multi-function.
Temperature.
IEEE-488.
DMM.
8 digits.
DMM. Plug-in
scanner cards.
Dry circuit.
Offset
compensation.
DMM. IEEE-
488. RS-232.
Plug-in scanner
cards.
Dry circuit.
Offset
compensation.
DMM.
IEEE-488.
RS-232. Digital
I/O. Plug-in
modules.
1. Lowest resistance measurable with better than 10% accuracy.
2. Highest resistance measurable with better than 1% accuracy.
3. Delta mode, offset voltage compensation with external current source.
10n if used with 5A test current with Model 2440.
A Selector Guides
Selector Guide: Source and Measure Products
MODEL
2400
2400-C
2400-LV
2410
2410-C
2420
2420-C
2425
2425-C
2430
2430-C
2440
2440-C
Description
General
Purpose
High Voltage 3 A High Power Pulse 5 A
Current Source/Sink
Voltage Source/Sink
POWER OUTPUT 22 W 22 W 66 W 110W 1100 W* 55 W
CURRENT CAPABILITY
Min. 10 pA 10 pA 100 pA 100 pA 100 pA 100 pA
Max 1.05 A 1.05 A 3.15 A 3.15 A 10.5 A* 5.25 A
VOLTAGE CAPABILITY
Min. 1 V 1 V 1 V 1 V 1 V 1 V
Max. 21/210 V 1100 V 63 V 105 V 105 V 42 V
OHMS RANGE
<0.2 to
>200 M
<0.2 to
>200 M
<0.2 to
>200 M
<0.2 to
>200 M
<0.2 to
>200 M
<2.0 to
>200 M
BASIC ACCURACY
I 0.035% 0.035% 0.035% 0.035% 0.035% 0.035%
V 0.015% 0.015% 0.015% 0.015% 0.015% 0.015%
0.06 % 0.07 % 0.06 % 0.06 % 0.06 % 0.06 %
APPLICATIONS
Resistive
devices
Diodes
Opto-
electronic
components
IDDQ testing
Voltage coef-
cient
Varistors
High voltage
diodes and
protection
devices
Airbag infa-
tors
Power resis-
tors
Thermistors
Solar cells
Batteries
Diodes
IDDQ testing
Power semi
con ductors
DC/DC
converters
High power
components
IDDQ testing
High power
pulse testing
Varistors and
other circuit
protection
devices
5A pump
laser diodes
FEATURE SUMMARY
Pulse Mode No No No No Yes No
Linear/Log/Custom
Sweeps
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Embedded
Execution
Embedded Scripting No No No No No No
Contact Check Optional Optional Optional Optional Optional Optional
Selectable Front/
Rear Inputs
Connections Banana Banana Banana Banana Banana Banana
Limit Inspection Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Selectable Output-
Off Impedance State
Remote or 4W
Voltage Sense
Source Readback Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Command Language
Protocol
SCPI SCPI SCPI SCPI SCPI SCPI
Programming IEEE-488, RS-232
Memory 5000 point, 2500 point reading buffer
Trigger Trigger Link with 6 In/Out
Guard Ohms (high current) and cable
Digital I/O 1 In/4 Out with built-in component handler interfaces.
Other
5-digit measure capability. Handler interface. 500s pass/fail test. Optional contact check
capability.
Compliance CE, UL CE CE CE CE CE
* In pulse mode.
A Selector Guides
A
MODEL
2601
2602
2611
2612 6430 4200-SCS 4500-MTS
Description
Scalable, High
Throughput
High voltage and
pulsed output
Ultra-Low Current
Multi-Channel I-V
Characterization
Multi-Channel I-V
Production Test
Current Source/Sink Source only
Voltage Source/Sink Source only
POWER OUTPUT 40.4 W/channel 30.6 W/channel 2 W Up to 96.8 W Up to 216 W
CURRENT CAPABILITY
Min. 1 pA 1 pA 10 aA** 10 aA w/PA 0.1 nA
Max 3.03 A/channel
1.5 A DC/10 A
pulsed per ch.
105 mA
1 A w/4210-
SMU
1 A
VOLTAGE CAPABILITY
Min. 1 V 1 V 1 V 1 V 10 mV
Max. 40.4 V/channel 202 V 210 V 210 V 10 V
OHMS RANGE N/A N/A
<2.0 to >20
T
N/A N/A
BASIC ACCURACY
I 0.02% 0.02% 0.035% 0.05 %*** 0.065%
V 0.015% 0.015% 0.015% 0.012%*** 0.06 %
N/A N/A 0.06 % N/A N/A
APPLICATIONS
IV functional test and characteriza-
tion of 2- and 3-leaded discrete
and passive components
Testing integrated devices such as
RFICs, ASICs, SOCs
Testing opto devices such as LEDs,
VCSELs, and displays
Testing nanosensors
Particle beam
experiments
SET testing
Ultrahigh R (to
10
15
)
Nano materials
Experimental
nanostructures
Semiconduc-
tor laser diode
DC/CW
Carbon nano
tube char.
Materials
research
Nanoelect.
High speed paral-
lel testing of:
HiB LEDs
Photonic inte-
grated circuits
Optoelectronic
devices
FEATURE SUMMARY
Pulse Mode No Yes No Yes No
Linear/Log/Custom
Sweeps
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Embedded Execution Yes Yes Yes No No
Embedded Scripting Yes Yes No No No
Contact Check Yes Yes No No No
Selectable F/R Inputs Rear only Rear only Rear and Preamp Rear Rear
Connections
Screw terminal, adapters for
banana and triax
Triax
Lemo Triax, Std.
Triax in Preamp
High density
Limit Inspection Yes Yes Yes No No
Selectable Output-Off
Impedance State
Yes Yes Yes No
Yes (using output
of relay states)
Remote or 4W
Voltage Sense
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Source Readback Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Command Language
Protocol
ICL ICL SCPI SCPI in PXCI 4500 test API
Programming
IEEE-488, RS-232 with embedded
Test Script Processor (TSP)
capability
IEEE-488, RS-232 Embedded GUI Ethernet
Memory
100,000 rdgs /
channel
100,000 rdgs /
channel
5000 point,
2500 point rdg.
buffer
4096 sample
memory per card
Up to 1,000,000
points per card
Trigger
14 digital I/O-
trigger lines
14 digital I/O-
trigger lines
Trigger Link with
6 In/Out
Internal only
Triggering w/PCI
digital I/O
Guard Cable Cable
Ohms (high I)
and cable
Cable Cable
Digital I/O
14 digital I/O-
trigger lines
14 digital I/O-
trigger lines
1 In/4 Out
w/built-in handler
interfaces
N/A
With optional PCI
card
Other
Scalable to 16+
channels with
TSP-Link
Scalable to 16+
channels with
TSP-Link
5-digit
measure. Handler
interface. 500s
pass/fail.
Optimized for
front panel
operation
5-digit
measure. Handler
interface w/PCI
digital I/O
Compliance CE, UL CE, UL CE CE CE
* In pulse mode. ** 1aA = 110
18
A. *** Approximate average.
A Selector Guides
Selector Guide: Picoammeters, Electrometers,
Source-Measure Units (Measurement)
Current
Amplier Picoammeters Electrometers
MODEL 428-PROG 6485 6487 2502 6514 6517A 6430
CURRENT MEASURE
From
1
1.2 fA 20 fA 20 fA 15 fA <1 fA <1 fA 400 aA
To 10 mA 20 mA 20 mA 20 mA 20 mA 20 mA 100 mA
VOLTAGE MEASURE
From
2
10 V 10 V 10 V
To 200 V 200 V 200 V
RESISTANCE MEASURE
4
From
5
10 10 100 100
To
6
1 P 200 G 10 P
3
10 P
3
CHARGE MEASURE
From
2
10 fC 10 fC
To 20 C 2 C
FEATURES
Input
Connection
BNC BNC 3 Slot Triax 3 Slot Triax 3 Slot Triax 3 Slot Triax
3 Slot
Triax
IEEE-488
RS-232
Guard
CE
Other
2 s rise
time.
10
11
V/A
gain.
5 digits.
Autorang-
ing. 1000
rdg/s.
5 digits.
Built-in
500V
source.
Alternating
voltage
method
for HI-R
sweeps.
5 digits.
Dual chan-
nel. Built-in
100V
source per
channel.
5 digits.
Replaces
Models
6512,
617-HIQ.
5 digits.
Built-in 1kV
source.
Temperature,
RH measure-
ments. Alter-
nating polarity
method for
HI-R. Plug-in
switch cards
available.
Source-
Meter with
Remote
PreAmp to
minimize
cable
noise.
1. Includes noise.
2. Digital resolution limit. Noise may have to be added.
3. P (Petaohms) = 10
15
.
4. Resistance is measured with the 236, 237, and 238 using Source V/Measure I
or Source I/Measure V, but not directly displayed.
5. Lowest resistance measurable with better than 1% accuracy.
6. Highest resistance measurable with better than 10% accuracy.
A Selector Guides
A
Selector Guide: Sources and Source-Measure Units (Sourcing)
MODEL 6220 6221 248 6430
Current Source
Voltage Source
Sink
CURRENT OUTPUT
Accuracy
1
2 pA
2 pA DC
4 pA AC
10 fA
Resolution
2
100 fA
100 fA
(DC & AC)
50 aA
Maximum 105 mA 105 mA 105 mA
VOLTAGE OUTPUT
From 1.5 V 5 V
To 5000 V 210 V
POWER OUTPUT 11 W 11 W 25 W 2.2 W
CURRENT LIMIT 5.25 mA 1 fA to 105 mA
VOLTAGE LIMIT 105 V 105 V 0 to 5000 V 0.2 mV to 210 V
ACCURACY (Setting)
I 0.05% 0.05% 0.03%
V 0.01% 0.02%
FEATURES
Output Connector 3 Slot Triax 3 Slot Triax
SHV High Voltage
Coax
3 Slot Triax
Ethernet
RS-232
IEEE-488
Memory 65,000 pt. 65,000 pt. 2500 pt.
Remote Sense
Current Source Guard
CE
Other Controls 2182A
for low-power
resistance and I-V
measurements.
AC and DC
current source.
ARB waveforms
up to 100kHz.
Controls 2182A
like 6220, adds
pulsed I-V.
Voltage
monitor output.
Programmable
voltage limit.
1. Best absolute accuracy of source.
2. Resolution for lowest range, smallest change in current that source can provide.
A Selector Guides
A Selector Guides
A P P E N D I X B
Glossary
B-2 KEI THLEY I NSTRUMENTS, I NC.
B Glossary
Absolute Accuracy. A measure of the closeness of agreement of an instrument
reading compared to that of a primary standard having absolute traceability to a
standard sanctioned by a recognized standards organization. Accuracy is often
separated into gain and offset terms. See also Relative Accuracy.
A/D (Analog-to-Digital) Converter. A circuit used to convert an analog input
signal into digital information. All digital meters use an A/D converter to convert
the input signal into digital information.
Analog Output. An output that is directly proportional to the input signal.
Assembler. A molecular manufacturing device that can be used to guide chemical
reactions by positioning molecules. An assembler can be programmed to build
virtually any molecular structure or device from simpler chemical building blocks.
Auto-Ranging. The ability of an instrument to automatically switch among ranges
to determine the range offering the highest resolution. The ranges are usually in
decade steps.
Auto-Ranging Time. For instruments with auto-ranging capability, the time interval
between application of a step input signal and its display, including the time for
determining and changing to the correct range.
Bandwidth. The range of frequencies that can be conducted or amplied within
certain limits. Bandwidth is usually specied by the 3dB (half-power) points.
Bias Voltage. A voltage applied to a circuit or device to establish a reference level or
operating point of the device during testing.
Capacitance. In a capacitor or system of conductors and dielectrics, that property
which permits the storage of electrically separated charges when potential
differences exist between the conductors. Capacitance is related to the charge and
voltage as follows: C = Q/V, where C is the capacitance in farads, Q is the charge in
coulombs, and V is the voltage in volts.
Carbon Nanotube. A tube-shaped nanodevice formed from a sheet of single-layer
carbon atoms that has novel electrical and tensile properties. These bers may
exhibit electrical conductivity as high as copper, thermal conductivity as high as
diamond, strength 100 times greater than steel at one-sixth of steels weight, and
high strain to failure. They can be superconducting, insulating, semiconducting,
or conducting (metallic). Non-carbon nanotubes, often called nanowires, are often
created from boron nitride or silicon.
Channel (switching). One of several signal paths on a switching card. For scanner
or multiplexer cards, the channel is used as a switched input in measuring circuits,
or as a switched output in sourcing circuits. For switch cards, each channels signals
B Glossary
NANOTECHNOLOGY MEASUREMENT HANDBOOK B-3
B
paths are independent of other channels. For matrix cards, a channel is established
by the actuation of a relay at a row and column crosspoint.
Coaxial Cable. A cable formed from two or more coaxial cylindrical conductors
insulated from each other. The outermost conductor is often earth grounded.
Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR). The ability of an instrument to reject
interference from a common voltage at its input terminals with respect to ground.
Usually expressed in decibels at a given frequency.
Common-Mode Current. The current that ows between the input low terminal
and chassis ground of an instrument.
Common-Mode Voltage. A voltage between input low and earth ground of an
instrument.
Contact Resistance. The resistance in ohms between the contacts of a relay or
connector when the contacts are closed or in contact.
Contamination. Generally used to describe the unwanted material that adversely
affects the physical, chemical, or electrical properties of a semiconductor or
insulator.
D/A (Digital-to-Analog) Converter. A circuit used to convert digital information
into an analog signal. D/A converters are used in many instruments to provide an
isolated analog output.
Dielectric Absorption. The effect of residual charge storage after a previously
charged capacitor has been discharged momentarily.
Digital Multimeter (DMM). An electronic instrument that measures voltage,
current, resistance, or other electrical parameters by converting the analog signal
to digital information and display. The typical ve-function DMM measures DC
volts, DC amps, AC volts, AC amps, and resistance.
Drift. A gradual change of a reading with no change in input signal or operating
conditions.
Dry Circuit Testing. The process of measuring a device while keeping the
voltage across the device below a certain level (e.g., <20mV) in order to prevent
disturbance of oxidation or other degradation of the device being measured.
Electrochemical Effect. A phenomenon whereby currents are generated by
galvanic battery action caused by contamination and humidity.
Electrometer. A highly rened DC multimeter. In comparison with a digital
multimeter, an electrometer is characterized by higher input resistance and greater
current sensitivity. It can also have functions not generally available on DMMs (e.g.,
measuring electric charge, sourcing voltage).
B Glossary
EMF. Electromotive force or voltage. EMF is generally used in context of a voltage
difference caused by electromagnetic, electrochemical, or thermal effects.
Electrostatic Coupling. A phenomenon whereby a current is generated by a
varying or moving voltage source near a conductor.
Error. The deviation (difference or ratio) of a measurement from its true value.
True values are by their nature indeterminate. See also Random Error and
Systematic Error.
Fall Time. The time required for a signal to change from a large percentage (usually
90%) to a small percentage (usually 10%) of its peak-to-peak value. See also Rise
Time.
Faraday Cup. A Faraday cup (sometimes called a Faraday cage or icepail) is an
enclosure made of sheet metal or mesh. It consists of two electrodes, one inside
the other, separated by an insulator. While the inner electrode is connected to the
electrometer, the outer electrode is connected to ground. When a charged object
is placed inside the inner electrode, all the charge will ow into themeasurement
instrument. The electric eld inside a closed, empty conductor is zero, so the cup
shields the object placed inside it from any atmospheric or stray electric elds. This
allows measuring the charge on the object accurately.
Feedback Picoammeter. A sensitive ammeter that uses an operational amplier
feedback conguration to convert an input current into voltage for measurement.
Floating. The condition where a common-mode voltage exists between an earth
ground and the instrument or circuit of interest. (Circuit low is not tied to earth
potential.)
Four-Point Probe. The four-point collinear probe resistivity measurement
technique involves bringing four equally spaced probes in contact with the material
of unknown resistance. The array is placed in the center of the material. A known
current is passed through the two outside probes and the voltage is sensed at the
two inside probes. The resistivity is calculated as follows:
V
r =
____

__
t k
ln2 I
where: V = the measured voltage in volts, I = the source current in amps, t = the
wafer thickness in centimeters, and k = a correction factor based on the ratio of the
probe to wafer diameter and on the ratio of wafer thickness to probe separation.
Four-Terminal Resistance Measurement. A measurement where two leads are
used to supply a current to the unknown, and two different leads are used to sense
the voltage drop across the resistance. The four-terminal conguration provides
maximum benets when measuring low resistances.
B Glossary
B
Fullerene. Refers to C60, an approximately spherical, hollow, carbon molecule
containing 60 carbon atoms arranged in interlocking hexagons and pentagons,
reminiscent of the geodesic dome created by architect R. Buckminster Fuller.
Sometimes called buckminsterfullerene or buckyball.
Ground Loop. A situation resulting when two or more instruments are connected
to different points on the ground bus and to earth or power line ground. Ground
loops can develop undesired offset voltages or noise.
Guarding. A technique that reduces leakage errors and decreases response time.
Guarding consists of a conductor driven by a low impedance source surrounding
the lead of a high impedance signal. The guard voltage is kept at or near the
potential of the signal voltage.
Hall Effect. The measurement of the transverse voltage across a conductor when
placed in a magnetic eld. With this measurement, it is possible to determine the
type, concentration, and mobility of carriers in silicon.
High Impedance Terminal. A terminal where the source resistance times
the expected stray current (for example, 1A) exceeds the required voltage
measurement sensitivity.
Input Bias Current. The current that ows at the instrument input due to internal
instrument circuitry and bias voltage.
Input Impedance. The shunt resistance and capacitance (or inductance) as
measured at the input terminals, not including effects of input bias or offset
currents.
Input Offset Current. The difference between the two currents that must
be supplied to the input measuring terminals of a differential instrument to
reduce the output indication to zero (with zero input voltage and offset voltage).
Sometimes informally used to refer to input bias current.
Input Offset Voltage. The voltage that must be applied directly between the input
measuring terminals, with bias current supplied by a resistance path, to reduce the
output indication to zero.
Input Resistance. The resistive component of input impedance.
Insulation Resistance. The ohmic resistance of insulation. Insulation resistance
degrades quickly as humidity increases.
Johnson Noise. The noise in a resistor caused by the thermal motion of charge
carriers. It has a white noise spectrum and is determined by the temperature,
bandwidth, and resistance value.
B Glossary
Leakage Current. Error current that ows (leaks) through insulation resistance
when a voltage is applied. Even high resistance paths between low current
conductors and nearby voltage sources can generate signicant leakage currents.
Long-Term Accuracy. The limit that errors will not exceed during a 90-day or
longer time period. It is expressed as a percentage of reading (or sourced value)
plus a number of counts over a specied temperature range.
Maximum Allowable Input. The maximum DC plus peak AC value (voltage or
current) that can be applied between the high and low input measuring terminals
without damaging the instrument.
MEMS. Microelectromechanical systems. Describes systems that can respond to a
stimulus or create physical forces (sensors and actuators) and that have dimensions
on the micrometer scale. They are typically manufactured using the same
lithographic techniques used to make silicon-based ICs.
Micro-ohmmeter. An ohmmeter that is optimized for low resistance measurements.
The typical micro-ohmmeter uses the four-terminal measurement method and has
special features for optimum low level measurement accuracy.
Molecular Electronics. Any system with atomically precise electronic devices of
nanometer dimensions, especially if made of discrete molecular parts, rather than
the continuous materials found in todays semiconductor devices.
Molecular Manipulator. A device combining a proximal-probe mechanism for
atomically precise positioning with a molecule binding site on the tip; can serve as
the basis for building complex structures by positional synthesis.
Molecular Manufacturing. Manufacturing using molecular machinery, giving
molecule-by-molecule control of products and by-products via positional chemical
synthesis.
Molecular Nanotechnology. Thorough, inexpensive control of the structure
of matter based on molecule-by-molecule control of products and by-products;
the products and processes of molecular manufacturing, including molecular
machinery.
MOSFET. A metal oxide eld effect transistor. A unipolar device characterized by
extremely high input resistance.
Nano-. A prex meaning one billionth (1/1,000,000,000).
Nanoelectronics. Electronics on a nanometer scale. Includes both molecular
electronics and nanoscale devices that resemble current semiconductor devices.
Nanotechnology. Fabrication of devices with atomic or molecular scale precision.
Devices with minimum feature sizes less than 100 nanometers (nm) are considered
products of nanotechnology. A nanometer [one-billionth of a meter (10
9
m)] is
B Glossary
B
the unit of length generally most appropriate for describing the size of single
molecules.
Nanovoltmeter. A voltmeter optimized to provide nanovolt sensitivity (generally
uses low thermoelectric EMF connectors, offset compensation, etc.).
Noise. Any unwanted signal imposed on a desired signal.
Normal-Mode Rejection Ratio (NMRR). The ability of an instrument to reject
interference across its input terminals. Usually expressed in decibels at a specic
frequency such as that of the AC power line.
Normal-Mode Voltage. A voltage applied between the high and low input
terminals of an instrument.
Offset Current. A current generated by a circuit even though no signals are applied.
Offset currents are generated by triboelectric, piezoelectric, or electrochemical
effects present in the circuit.
Overload Protection. A circuit that protects the instrument from excessive current
or voltage at the input terminals.
Picoammeter. An ammeter optimized for the precise measurement of small
currents. Generally, a feedback ammeter.
Piezoelectric Effect. A term used to describe currents generated when mechanical
stress is applied to certain types of insulators.
Precision. Refers to the freedom of uncertainty in the measurement. It is often
applied in the context of repeatability or reproducibility and should not be used in
place of accuracy. See also Uncertainty.
Quantum Dot. A nanoscale object (usually a semiconductor island) that can conne
a single electron (or a few) and in which the electrons occupy discrete energy
states, just as they would in an atom. Quantum dots have been called articial
atoms.
Random Error. The mean of a large number of measurements inuenced by random
error matches the true value. See also Systematic Error.
Range. A continuous band of signal values that can be measured or sourced. In
bipolar instruments, range includes positive and negative values.
Reading. The displayed number that represents the characteristic of the input signal.
Reading Rate. The rate at which the reading number is updated. The reading rate is
the reciprocal of the time between readings.
Relative Accuracy. The accuracy of a measuring instrument in reference to a
secondary standard. See also Absolute Accuracy.
B Glossary
Repeatability. The closeness of agreement between successive measurements
carried out under the same conditions.
Reproducibility. The closeness of agreement between measurements of the same
quantity carried out with a stated change in conditions.
Resolution. The smallest portion of the input (or output) signal that can be
measured (or sourced) and displayed.
Response Time. For a measuring instrument, the time between application of a
step input signal and the indication of its magnitude within a rated accuracy. For a
sourcing instrument, the time between a programmed change and the availability
of the value at its output terminals. Also known as Settling Time.
Rise Time. The time required for a signal to change from a small percentage (usually
10%) to a large percentage (usually 90%) of its peak-to-peak amplitude. See also
Fall Time.
Sensitivity. The smallest quantity that can be measured and displayed.
Settling Time. For a measuring instrument, the time between application of a step
input signal and the indication of its magnitude within a rated accuracy. For a
sourcing instrument, the time between a programmed change and the availability
of the value at its output terminals. Also known as Response Time.
Shielding. A metal enclosure around the circuit being measured, or a metal sleeve
surrounding the wire conductors (coax or triax cable) to lessen interference,
interaction, or leakage. The shield is usually grounded or connected to input LO.
Shunt Ammeter. A type of ammeter that measures current by converting the input
current into a voltage by means of shunt resistance. Shunt ammeters have higher
voltage burden and lower sensitivity than do feedback ammeters.
Shunt Capacitance Loading. The effect on a measurement of the capacitance
across the input terminals, such as from cables or xtures. Shunt capacitance
increases both rise time and settling time.
Short-Term Accuracy. The limit that errors will not exceed during a short,
specied time period (such as 24 hours) of continuous operation. Unless specied,
no zeroing or adjustment of any kind are permitted. It is expressed as percentage
of reading (or sourced value) plus a number of counts over a specied temperature
range.
Single Electron Transistor. A switching device that uses controlled electron
tunneling to amplify current. An SET is made from two tunnel junctions that share
a common electrode. A tunnel junction consists of two pieces of metal separated
by a very thin (~1nm) insulator. The only way for electrons in one of the metal
electrodes to travel to the other electrode is to tunnel through the insulator.
B Glossary
B
Tunneling is a discrete process, so the electric charge that ows through the tunnel
junction ows in multiples of e, the charge of a single electron.
Source Impedance. The combination of resistance and capacitive or inductive
reactance the source presents to the input terminals of a measuring instrument.
Source-Measure Unit (SMU). An electronic instrument that sources and measures
DC voltage and current. Generally, SMUs have two modes of operation: source
voltage and measure current, or source current and measure voltage. Also known
as source-monitor unit or stimulus-measurement unit.
SourceMeter. A SourceMeter
instrument is very similar to the source-measure unit

in many ways, including its ability to source and measure both current and voltage
and to perform sweeps. In addition, a SourceMeter instrument can display the
measurements directly in resistance, as well as voltage and current. It is designed
for general-purpose, high speed production test applications. It can also be used as
a source for moderate to low level measurements and for research applications.
Source Resistance. The resistive component of source impedance. See also
Thevenin Equivalent Circuit.
Spintronics. Electronics that take advantage of the spin of an electron in some way,
rather than just its charge.
Standard Cell. An electrochemical cell used as a voltage reference in laboratories.
Superconductor. A conductor that has zero resistance. Such materials usually
become superconducting only at very low temperatures.
Switch Card. A type of card with independent and isolated relays for switching
inputs and outputs on each channel.
Switching Mainframe. A switching instrument that connects signals among
sourcing and measuring instruments and devices under test. A mainframe is also
referred to as a scanner, multiplexer, matrix, or programmable switch.
Systematic Error. The mean of a large number of measurements inuenced by
systematic error deviates from the true value. See also Random Error.
Temperature Coefcient. A measure of the change in reading (or sourced value)
with a change in temperature. It is expressed as a percentage of reading (or
sourced value), plus a number of counts per degree change in temperature.
Temperature Coefcient of Resistance. The change of resistance of a material
or device per degree of temperature change, usually expressed in ppm/C.
Thermoelectric EMFs. Voltages resulting from temperature differences within a
measuring circuit or when conductors of dissimilar materials are joined together.
B Glossary
Thevenin Equivalent Circuit. A circuit used to simplify analysis of complex,
two-terminal linear networks. The Thevenin equivalent voltage is the open-circuit
voltage and the Thevenin equivalent resistance equals the open-circuit voltage
divided by the short-circuit current.
Transfer Accuracy. A comparison of two nearly equal measurements over a limited
temperature range and time period. It is expressed in ppm. See also Relative
Accuracy, Short-Term Accuracy.
Triboelectric Effect. A phenomenon whereby currents are generated by charges
created by friction between a conductor and an insulator.
Trigger. An external stimulus that initiates one or more instrument functions. Trigger
stimuli include: an input signal, the front panel, an external trigger pulse, and
IEEE-488 bus X, talk, and GET triggers.
Two-Terminal Resistance Measurement. A measurement where the source
current and sense voltage are applied through the same set of test leads.
Uncertainty. An estimate of the possible error in a measurement; in other words, the
estimated possible deviation from its actual value.
van der Pauw Measurement. A measurement technique used to measure the
resistivity of arbitrarily shaped samples.
Voltage Burden. The voltage drop across the input terminals of an ammeter.
Voltage Coefcient. The change in resistance value with applied voltage. Usually
expressed in percent/V or in ppm/V.
Warm-up Time. The time required after power is applied to an instrument to
achieve rated accuracy at reference conditions.
Zero Offset. The reading that occurs when the input terminals of a measuring
instrument are shorted (voltmeter) or open-circuited (ammeter).
B Glossary
A P P E N D I X C
Safety Considerations
C-2 KEI THLEY I NSTRUMENTS, I NC.
C Safety Considerations
Many electrical test systems or instruments are capable of measuring or sourcing
hazardous voltage and power levels. It is also possible, under single fault conditions
(e.g., a programming error or an instru ment failure), to output hazardous levels even
when the system indi cates no hazard is present.
These high voltage and power levels make it essential to protect oper ators from any
of these hazards at all times.
Protection methods include:
Design test fxtures to prevent operator contact with any hazardous circuit.
Make sure the device under test is fully enclosed to protect the operator
from any ying debris.
Double insulate all electrical connections that an operator could touch.
Double insulation ensures the operator is still protected, even if one insula-
tion layer fails.
Use high-reliability, fail-safe interlock switches to disconnect power sources
when a test xture cover is opened.
Where possible, use automated handlers so operators do not require access
to the inside of the test xture or have a need to open guards.
Provide proper training to all users of the system so they understand all
potential hazards and know how to protect themselves from injury.
It is the responsibility of the test system designers, integrators, and installers to make
sure operator and maintenance personnel protec tion is in place and effective.
The following safety precautions should be observed before using any Keithley prod-
uct and any associated instrumentation. Although some instruments and accessories
would normally be used with non-hazardous voltages, there are situations where haz-
ardous conditions may be present.
Keithley products are intended for use by qualied personnel who recognize shock
hazards and are familiar with the safety precautions required to avoid possible injury.
Read and follow all installation, operation, and maintenance information carefully be-
fore using the product. Refer to the manual for complete product specications.
If Keithley products are used in a manner not specied, the protection provided by
the products may be impaired.
The types of product users are:
Responsible body is the individual or group responsible for the use and mainte-
nance of equipment, for ensuring that the equipment is operated within its specica-
tions and operating limits, and for ensuring that operators are adequately trained.
NANOTECHNOLOGY MEASUREMENT HANDBOOK C-3
C
Operators use the product for its intended function. They must be trained in electri-
cal safety procedures and proper use of the instrument. They must be protected from
electric shock and contact with hazardous live circuits.
Maintenance personnel perform routine procedures on the product to keep it op-
erating properly, for example, setting the line voltage or replacing consumable materi-
als. Maintenance procedures are described in the manual. The procedures explicitly
state if the operator may perform them. Otherwise, they should be performed only by
service personnel.
Service personnel are trained to work on live circuits, and perform safe installa-
tions and repairs of products. Only properly trained service personnel may perform
installation and service procedures.
Keithley products are designed for use with electrical signals that are rated Meas-
urement Category I and Measurement Category II, as described in the International
Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) Standard IEC 60664. Most measurement, control,
and data I/O signals are Measurement Category I and must not be directly connected
to mains voltage or to voltage sources with high transient over-voltages. Measurement
Category II connections require protection for high transient over-voltages often as-
sociated with local AC mains connections. Assume all measurement, control, and data
I/O connections are for connection to Category I sources unless otherwise marked or
described in the manual.
Exercise extreme caution when a shock hazard is present. Lethal voltage may be
present on cable connector jacks or test xtures. The American National Standards Insti-
tute (ANSI) states that a shock hazard exists when voltage levels greater than 30V RMS,
42.4V peak, or 60VDC are present. A good safety practice is to expect that hazard-
ous voltage is present in any unknown circuit before measuring.
Operators of Keithley products must be protected from electric shock at all times.
The responsible body must ensure that operators are prevented access and/or insulated
from every connection point. In some cases, connections must be exposed to potential
human contact. Product operators in these circumstances must be trained to protect
themselves from the risk of electric shock. If the circuit is capable of operating at or
above 1000 volts, no conductive part of the circuit may be exposed.
As described in the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) Standard IEC
664, instruments that are Installation Category I must not be directly connected to AC
mains. Do not connect switching cards directly to unlimited power circuits. They are
intended to be used with impedance limited sources. NEVER connect switching cards
directly to AC mains, the level of power supplied by an electric utility company.
When connecting sources to switching cards, install protective devices to limit fault cur-
rent and voltage to the card.
Before operating an instrument, make sure the line cord is connected to a properly
grounded power receptacle. Inspect the connecting cables, test leads, and jumpers for
possible wear, cracks, or breaks before each use.
When installing equipment where access to the main power cord is restricted, such
as rack mounting, a separate main input power disconnect device must be provided, in
close proximity to the equipment and within easy reach of the operator.
For maximum safety, do not touch the product, test cables, or any other instruments
while power is applied to the circuit under test. ALWAYS remove power from the entire
test system and discharge any capacitors before: connecting or disconnecting cables or
jumpers, installing or removing switching cards, or making internal changes, such as
installing or removing jumpers.
Do not touch any object that could provide a current path to the common side of the
circuit under test or power line (earth) ground. Always make measurements with dry
hands while standing on a dry, insulated surface capable of withstanding the voltage
being measured.
The instrument and accessories must be used in accordance with its specications
and operating instructions or the safety of the equipment may be impaired.
Do not exceed the maximum signal levels of the instruments and accessories, as de-
ned in the specications and operating information, and as shown on the instrument
or test xture panels, or switching card.
When fuses are used in a product, replace with same type and rating for continued
protection against re hazard.
Chassis connections must only be used as shield connections for measuring circuits,
NOT as safety earth ground connections.
If you are using a test xture, keep the lid closed while power is applied to the device
under test. Safe operation requires the use of a lid interlock.
If a screw is present, connect it to safety earth ground using the wire recom-
mended in the user documentation.
The symbol on an instrument indicates that the user should refer to the operat-
ing instructions located in the manual.
The symbol on an instrument shows that it can source or measure 1000 volts or
more, including the combined effect of normal and common mode voltages. Use stan-
dard safety precautions to avoid personal contact with these voltages.
The symbol on an instrument shows that the surface might be hot. Avoid per-
sonal contact to prevent burns.
The symbol indicates a connection terminal to the equipment frame.
NANOTECHNOLOGY MEASUREMENT HANDBOOK C-5
C
The WARNING heading in a manual explains dangers that might result in personal
injury or death. Always read the associated information very carefully before perform-
ing the indicated procedure.
The CAUTION heading in a manual explains hazards that could damage the instru-
ment. Such damage may invalidate the warranty.
Instrumentation and accessories shall not be connected to humans.
Before performing any maintenance, disconnect the line cord and all test cables.
To maintain protection from electric shock and re, replacement components in
mains circuits, including the power transformer, test leads, and input jacks, must be
purchased from Keithley Instruments. Standard fuses, with applicable national safety
approvals, may be used if the rating and type are the same. Other components that are
not safety related may be purchased from other suppliers as long as they are equivalent
to the original component. (Note that selected parts should be purchased only through
Keithley Instruments to maintain accuracy and functionality of the product.) If you are
unsure about the applicability of a replacement component, call a Keithley Instruments
ofce for information.
To clean an instrument, use a damp cloth or mild, water based cleaner. Clean the
exterior of the instrument only. Do not apply cleaner directly to the instrument or allow
liquids to enter or spill on the instrument. Products that consist of a circuit board with
no case or chassis (e.g., data acquisition board for installation into a computer) should
never require cleaning if handled according to instructions. If the board becomes con-
taminated and operation is affected, the board should be returned to the factory for
proper cleaning/servicing.
A P P E N D I X D
Troubleshooting
D-2 KEI THLEY I NSTRUMENTS, I NC.
D Troubleshooting
Measurement Type and
Typical Applications
Error
Symptoms Likely Causes How to Avoid
Low
Voltage
Standard Cell
Intercomparison
Josephson Junction
Array Voltage
Thermometry
Thermoelectric EMF
Relay/Connector
Contact Voltage
Magnetic EMF
Offset
Voltage
Thermoelectric
EMF
Keep all connections at same
temperature. Use crimped Cu-Cu
connections.
Noisy
Readings
Thermoelectric
EMF
See above.
Magnetic
Interference
Arrange leads as twisted pairs.
Remove/shield from magnetic
elds.
Ground Loop Connect to ground at only one
star point.
Low
Current
Ion/Electron Currents
Tunneling Current
Component Leakage
Photodetector Current
Insulator Leakage/
Breakdown
MOS Charge Pumping
Current
Quasistatic Capacitance
Tribo-, Piezoelectric
Current
Offset
Current
Insulator
Leakage
Guard/Choose good insulator/
Clean well.
Meter Bias
Current
Choose picoammeter/
electrometer.
Detector Dark
Current
Suppress or subtract with REL.
Noisy
Readings
Electrostatic
Coupling
Shield and avoid high voltage and
movement nearby.
Vibration/
Deformation
High Input
Capacitance
Offset Current
Drift
Isolate room vibration. Use low
noise cables. Use shunt ammeter
or add series resistance. Stabilize
temperature of DUT and meter.
Gain Error at
Low Voltage
Voltage Burden Use feedback ammeter. Use
higher range.
D Troubleshooting
NANOTECHNOLOGY MEASUREMENT HANDBOOK D-3
D
Measurement Type and
Typical Applications
Error
Symptoms Likely Causes How to Avoid
Low
Resistance
Superconductor
Resistance
Metal Resistance
Crack Growth/Fatigue
Bonding Resistance
Relay/Connector
Contact Resistance
Offset
Resistance
Lead Resistance Four-wire method (Kelvin
connections).
Drift in
Readings
Thermoelectric
EMF
Pulse test signal (delta mode/
offset compensate).
Noisy
Readings
Magnetic
Interference
Remove/shield from magnetic
elds.
Arrange leads as twisted pairs.
High
Resistance
Insulation Resistance
Surface Insulation
Resistance
of PC Boards,
Substrates, or Packages
Material Resistivity
Polymer Conductivity
Surface/Volume
Resistivity
Four-point Probe
Spreading Resistance
Reading Too
Low
Fixture
Resistance in
Parallel with
DUT
Use xture and cables with
higher insulation R.
Guarding will effectively increase
shunt R.
Low Voltmeter
Input R
Use force voltage/measure
current method.
Offset Current Suppress or REL the current
offset with test voltage off. Use
alternating voltage.
Noisy
Readings
Electrostatic
Coupling
Shield and avoid movement and
fuctuating voltages nearby. Use
alternating voltage.
Common Mode
Current
Ground one side of DUT. Use
analog lter.
Voltage
from
a High
Resistance
Source
pH or Ion Selective
Electrode
Dielectric Absorption
FET Gate Voltage
Hall Effect Voltage
Reading
Too Low
(Loading
Error)
Shunt
Resistance
Fixture and cables with higher
insulation R. Guarding will
effectively increase shunt R.
Offset Current Use electrometer.
Noisy
Readings
Electrostatic
Coupling
Shield and avoid movement and
fuctuating voltages nearby.
Fluctuating
Current
Generated by
Instrument
Use electrometer.
D-4 KEI THLEY I NSTRUMENTS, I NC.
D Troubleshooting
D Troubleshooting
Index
I-2 KEI THLEY I NSTRUMENTS, I NC.
I Index
1/f noise, 3-15, 3-23, 3-26
3D dimensionality, 2-11
A
AC and DC current source, 3-42
AC resistance bridge, 2-19
AC technique for measuring differential
conductance, 3-373-38
analog components
behavior at high speeds, 3-50
atomic particle size, 2-7
atomic structures, 2-7
B
bandgap, 2-82-9
body-centered cubic, 2-7
breakdown
gallium nitride nanowire, 4-4
bulk material, 2-11, 2-14
testing, 2-6
C
carbon nanotube, 2-3, 2-6, 2-8, 3-103-11
changing state, 2-8
characterization, 5-25-7
commercial applications, 5-2
current density, 3-10
current owing through, 3-11
electrical properties, 2-3
eld effect transistor, 3-11
low power electrical characterization, 5-4
measurements, 2-3, 5-3
switch speed, 2-18
carbon nanotube eld emitter
impedance, 2-21
voltage, 2-21
carbon nanotube eld emitter display
raster device, 2-21
carrier injection, 4-3
characterizing nanoscale devices, 3-35
chassis ground, 3-3
chemical properties, 2-9
circuit density, 3-10
CMRR, 3-19
lock-in amplier, 3-19, 3-20
nanovoltmeters, 3-20
CNT. See carbon nanotube
color, 2-10
common, 3-3
common mode rejection ratio, 3-19
complex current, 2-20
complex impedance, 2-19, 2-20
complex voltage, 2-20
component breakdown, 3-26
conductance, 3-35
conduction band, 2-10, 2-12
contact resistance, 5-6
contaminated probe, 5-6
cryogenic temperatures, 5-5
crystalline atomic structures, 2-7
current
drifts, 3-45
error, 3-9
extraneous, 3-8
leakage, 3-2, 3-7
molecules, 3-12
multi-valued function of voltage, 3-40
nanotube, 3-11
noise, 2-17, 3-23
pulsing, 2-5, 3-52
reaction to temperature, 3-46
unstable in NDC region, 3-403-41
current capacity
current density
carbon nanotube, 3-10
copper wire, 3-10
gallium nitride nanowire, 4-3, 4-6
current hop, 3-40
current source waveform generator, 3-42
D
data collection
reducing time required, 3-40
DC current
limiting, 2-17
DC reversal measurement method, 3-16, 3-18,
3-21, 3-25
noise, 3-22
test setup, 3-17
DC testing problems, 3-50
delta method, 3-17, 3-28, 3-303-34, 5-5
delta mode, 2-19
density of states, 2-10, 2-11, 2-21, 3-36
characteristics, 2-11
I Index
NANOTECHNOLOGY MEASUREMENT HANDBOOK I-3
I
measure by bombarding with electrons,
2-11
measure with electrical impedance, 2-12,
2-13
device conductance, 3-35
device self-heating, 5-6
excessive current, 2-18
minimizing, 5-6
preventing, 2-4, 3-14
dielectric absorption, 3-6
differential conductance, 2-19, 3-36
four-wire, source I/measure V technique,
3-403-42
differential conductance measurements,
3-353-42
AC technique, 3-37, 3-38
3-393-42
I-V technique, 3-36
simple, low-noise solution, 3-39
drain-source voltage
drain current
E
electrical breakdown
electrical impedance spectroscopy, 2-19
electrical measurements on passive devices,
2-14
electrical noise, 2-16
electrical resistance
nanoparticle, 2-8
electrometers, A-8
electron
jumping bands, 2-10
thermal energy, 2-10
electron energies, 3-35
electron energy bands, 2-7, 2-9, 2-10
electron energy effects, 2-11
electronic properties, 2-7
electronic structure, 2-21
electronic transport characteristics
gallium nitride nanowire, 4-24-7
electrostatic elds
eliminating, 3-46
energy
controlling, 3-52
energy bands, 2-7, 2-9, 2-10
environmental noise, 3-15
error, 3-26, 3-28, 5-45-7
acceptable, 3-7
current, 3-9
external leakage current, 3-2
extraneous current, 3-8
ground, 3-4
noise reduction, 3-6
offset voltages, 5-5
reducing, 3-27, 3-29, 3-31, 3-39, 3-40
sources, 3-2
thermal noise current, 3-8
thermoelectric EMFs, 3-34
thermoelectric voltages, 3-18, 5-5
voltage, 3-27
error current model, 3-8
external leakage current, 3-2, 3-7
external noise sources, 3-14
F
face-centered cubic, 2-7
feature recognition, 4-5
four-point measurement schematic, 5-4
3-393-42
frequency
power line noise, 3-15
G
gallium nitride eld effect transistors, 4-6
gallium nitride nanowire, 4-24-6
breakdown, 4-4
current, 4-3
current-voltage charateristics, 4-4
current capacity, 4-4
current density, 4-3, 4-6
drain-source voltage, 4-4
drain current, 4-4
electrical breakdown, 4-4
gate voltage, 4-3
grown, 4-2
noise, 4-3
optical applications, 4-6
structure, 4-24-3
gate dielectrics
testing, 3-52
I Index
thickness, 1-2
gate dimensions, 5-2
gate voltage
ground, 3-3
chassis, 3-3
power line, 3-4
system, 3-4
ground error, 3-4
guard connections, 3-4
guarding, 3-3
H
high impedance devices, 2-22
measuring, 2-15
high resistance measurements, 3-20, 3-21
input impedance, 3-21
noise, 3-21
humidity, 3-3
I
I-V curve, 3-35
I-V curve characterizations, 5-35-4
I-V technique for measuring differential
conductance, 3-36
IEEE 1650-2005, 2-3, 5-7
impedance
density of states, 2-12, 2-13
phase angle, 2-20
impedance measurement
speed, 2-18
instrument
noise, 3-23
power, 3-24
insulators, 3-2, 3-3
J
Johnson current noise, 2-17
Johnson noise, 3-14, 3-25
minimizing, 3-14
Johnson noise voltage, 2-16, 2-17
K
Kelvin measurements, 5-4
L
leakage currents, 3-2, 3-7
learning approach, 4-5
boundary detection adjustment, 4-5 to 4-6
lock-in amplier, 2-19, 3-15, 3-21, 3-25
current source, 3-20
method, 3-15
noise, 3-22
test setup, 3-16
low current measurements, 3-10
attoamps, 3-433-48
low frequency noise, 3-46
low impedance, 3-19, 3-22
low impedance device, 2-22
measuring, 2-15
low power electrical characterization, 5-4
low power measurements
current source, 3-34
low power pulsing, 2-18
low resistance measurements, 3-19
test setup, 3-19
low voltage/low resistance meters, A-5
low voltage measurements, 3-26
temperature uctuations, 3-27
M
macroscopic particle size, 2-7
mean free path, 2-8
measurement, 2-3
attoamps, 3-433-48
carbon nanotubes, 2-3, 5-3
challenges, 2-2
cryogenic temperatures, 5-5
current, 4-34-4
DC reversal method, 3-163-18, 3-21, 3-25
delta method, 3-283-34, 5-5
differential conductance, 3-353-42
DUT power required, 3-24
error, 3-26, 3-28, 5-45-7
four-wire, 5-4
high impedance devices, 2-15
highly conductive semiconductors, 3-26
high resistance, 3-20, 3-21
Kelvin, 5-4
lock-in amplier, 3-21, 3-25
lock-in amplier method, 3-15, 3-16
low current, 3-10, 3-433-48
low impedance, 3-19, 3-22
low impedance devices, 2-15
low power, 3-14
low resistance, 3-19
low voltage, 3-26
mid-range resistance, 3-21
I Index
I
nanoscale devices, 5-3
non-conductive materials, 3-26
resistance, 5-35-4
voltage, 4-34-4
measurement complexities, 1-3
measurement considerations, 2-14
measurement error, 3-26, 3-28, 5-45-7
external leakage current, 3-2
reducing, 3-27, 3-29, 3-31
sources, 3-2
memory devices
testing, 3-50
mesoscopic particle size, 2-7
mid-range resistance measurements, 3-21
molecular chemical composition, 2-8
molecules conduct current, 3-12
Moores Law, 3-10
MOSFET transistor switch, 2-8
changing state, 2-8
N
nano-lm, 2-13
nano-manipulator probing of nanoscale
structures, 2-12
Nanodiffraction, 4-3
nanoparticles
electrical resistance, 2-8
testing, 2-6
nanopore test structure, 3-12
nanoscale devices
characterization, 5-25-7
gate dimensions, 5-2
measurements, 5-3
nanoscopic particles
measurement considerations, 2-14
size, 2-7
nanotechnology
commercial applications, 1-2, 3-43, 4-2, 5-2
nanovoltmeter, 3-42
nanowire
two-phase gallium nitride, 4-2
negative differential conductance (NDC),
3-40, 3-41
noise, 3-6, 3-22, 3-23, 3-24, 3-26, 5-45-5
1/f, 3-15
carbon resistors, 3-15
DUT, 3-24
environmental, 3-15
long cables, 3-6
low frequency, 3-46
metal lm, 3-15
minimizing, 3-14
power line frequency, 3-15
reducing, 3-39
semiconductors, 3-15
sources, 3-14
switching hardware, 3-6
system, 3-24
test lead resistance, 3-15
thermal energy, 3-15
uncorrelated, 3-45
wirewound resistors, 3-15
noise current, 2-17
noise gain, 2-17
noise power, 3-24
noise reduction, 3-6
noise voltage, 2-16, 2-17
non-monotonic I-V curves, 3-40
O
offset voltages, 5-5
Ohms Law, 3-27, 3-35
P
particle classications, 2-7
particles
electronic structure, 2-21
size, 2-7, 2-10, 2-11
passive devices
electrical measurements, 2-14
pattern generators, 3-49
phase sensitive detection, 3-16
picoammeters, A-8
polymer materials, 1-3
polyphenylene molecules, 3-12
power
device heating, 3-14
power dissipation, 5-6
calculated, 2-19
power handling capability, 5-2
power line frequency
noise, 3-15
I Index
power line ground, 3-4
power required, 3-24
pre-amplier, 3-6
probe
cleaning procedures, 5-6
contact resistance, 5-6
contaminated, 5-6
movements, 5-2
pad dimensions, 5-2
tips, 5-2
tip wear, 5-6
pulse
droop, 3-53
delity, 3-53
low power, 2-18
overshoot, 3-53
pulse/pattern generators, 3-493-54
ease of use, 3-53
exibility, 3-52
pulse delity, 3-53
what to look for, 3-523-54
pulse capabilities, A-4
pulse current, 3-52
optimize, 2-19
pulsed I-V testing, 3-54
pulse measurement tools, 5-6
pulse mode, 2-19
pulse solutions, A-4
pulse testing, 2-4, 3-493-54
pulse voltage, 3-52
pulse widths, 3-42
Q
quantum behavior, 3-35
quantum dots, 2-13
quantum size, 2-11
quantum wells, 2-13
quantum wires, 2-13
R
raster device
eld emitter display, 2-21
reaction rates, 2-11
recognition-driven, 4-5
resistance
contact, 5-6
noise, 3-15, 3-28
resistance measurements, 5-35-4
delta method, 3-283-34
low voltage, 3-26
noise, 3-15, 3-28
Ohms Law, 3-27
S
Scanning Probe Recognition Microscopy
(SPRM), 4-34-6
scan plan
adaptive, 4-54-6
settling time, 3-6
characterizing, 3-7
shielding, 3-4
signal-to-noise ratio, 3-6, 5-5
of 1, 3-23
of 100, 3-24
simple cubic, 2-7
SMU, 3-43, 3-44
source-measure instruments, 2-17
source-measure unit, 3-43, 3-44, A-8
source and measure products, A-6
SourceMeter instrument, 3-43, 3-44
sources and source-measure units, A-9
sourcing
tight control, 3-52
SPRM, 4-44-6
Standard Methods for Measurement of
Electrical Properties of Carbon
Nanotubes, 2-3
standards, 2-3, 5-7
states
density, 2-102-13, 2-21, 3-36
statistics of uncorrelated noise, 3-45
structures with fundamentally new
properties, 1-3
synchronizing instruments, 3-6
system ground, 3-4
system noise, 3-24
temperature
effects on current, 3-46
testing
bulk materials, 2-6
challenges, 2-2
memory devices, 3-50
nanoparticles, 2-6
I Index
I
test lead resistance, 3-15
thermal drift
compensation for, 3-17
thermal energy, 3-14, 3-15
thermocouple, 3-27
thermoelectric EMFs, 3-34
thermoelectric error voltages, 3-18
thermoelectric voltages, 3-15, 5-5
three-point delta method, 3-293-31
three-step delta technique, 3-323-34, 5-5
two-phase gallium nitride nanowire, 4-2
two-step delta technique, 3-31
U
uncorrelated noise, 3-45
V
valence band, 2-10
vector impedance, 2-20
voltage
compliance, 2-17
errors, 3-27
multi-valued function of current, 3-41
noise, 2-16, 2-17, 3-23
pulsing, 2-5, 3-52
unstable in NDC region, 3-40
W
water vapor, 3-3
waveform generator, 2-19
white noise, 3-23, 3-26, 3-31
wurtzite, 4-2, 4-3
X
x-ray emission, 2-11
Z
zinc-blende, 4-2, 4-3
I Index
I Index
KEITHLEY INSTRUMENTS, INC. n 28775 AURORA ROAD n CLEVELAND, OHI O 44139-1891
440-248- 0400 n Fax: 440-248- 6168 n 1- 888- KEI THLEY n www. kei t hl ey. com

BELGIUM
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Ph: 089-84 93 07- 40
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INDIA
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Ph: 044-821 94 44
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UNITED KINGDOM
Theal e
Ph: 0118-929 75 00
Fax: 0118-929 75 19
www. kei thl ey. co. uk
Nanotechnology Measurement Handbook
A Guide to Electrical Measurements for Nanoscience Applications
1
st
Edition
www.keithley.com
N
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K e i th le y I n stru m e n ts, I n c.
Corporate Headquarters 28775 Aurora Road Cleveland, Ohio 44139 440-248-0400 Fax: 440-248-6168 1-888-KEITHLEY ( 534-8453) www.keithley.com
Copyright 2007 Keithley Instruments, Inc. No. 2819
Printed in the U.S.A. 020731KIPC
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Nanotechnology Measurement Handbook

A Guide to Electrical Measurements for Nanoscience Applications

operating system. These system fea-

-based semiconductor characterization solution, the

-based semiconductor characterization system, the

instruments low noise and drift

instruments low noise and drift

instrument is very similar to the source-measure unit

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