1 Algebrikc idithtec tou R

R
: To snolo twn pragmatikn arijmn Uposnola tou

R
: oi fusiko arijmo,

N = {0, 1, 2, . . .} Z = N (N)

N = {1, 2, . . .} = N \ {0}.

oi akraioi arijmo. : oi rhto arijmo.

: m, n Z, n = 0} = { m : m Z, n N } Q = {m n n
Oi idithtec twn prxewn kai thc ditaxhc:

(1) 0 : a + 0 = a a R (2) a (a) : a + (a) = 0 (3) a, b, c : a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c (4) a, b : a + b = b + a

(5) 1 = 0 : a.1 = a a R (6) a = 0 a1 : a.a1 = 1 (7) a, b, c : a.(b.c) = (a.b).c (8) a, b : a.b = b.a

(9) a, b, c : a.(b + c) = a.b + a.c (10) a, b, c : (a > b) kai (b > c) a > c (11) a, b : a = b a > b a < b (12) a, b, c : a > b a + c > b + c (13) a, b, c : (a > b) kai (c > 0) a.c > b.c
H sqsh

ab

shmanei:

a<b

a = b:

enai h

rnhsh

thc

a > b.

' Askhsh 1.1

'Es tw

a Z.
o

enai rtioc

a2

enai rtioc.

' Askhsh 1.2

Den uprqei

rhtc

arijmc

s te

q 2 = 2.
s te

1 Upenjumzoume 2 Ja

touc sumbolismoc:

gia kje,

uprqei

dome argtera ti uprqei pragmatikc arijmc

x2 = 2.

Proc to parn

parathrome ti h parxh ttoiou idithtec P1 - P13.

den mpore na apodeiqje qrhsimopointac mnon tic

Parathrseic 1.3

(i)

Prsjesh anisottwn kat mlh:

a, b, c, d R : an a > b kai c > d tte a + c > b + d

(gia thn apdeixh, qrhsimopohse thn (P12) kai thn (P10)). mporome genik na afairome anisthtec kat mlh: all p.q. Bebawc den kai

3>2

5>1

3 5 2 1.
kat mlh: p.q.

(ii) Den mporome en gnei na pollaplasizoume anisthtec 3 > 2 kai 1 > 2 all 3(1) (2)(2). 'Omwc

a, b, c, d R : an a > b > 0 kai c > d > 0 tte ac > bd.

Prgmati, ap thn thn

a > b afo c > 0 lgw thc (P13) qoume ac > bc kai ap c > d afo b > 0 qoume bc > bd gia ton dio lgo. Sunepc ac > bc kai bc > bd ra ac > bd ap thn (P10).
'Es tw

(iii)

a, b R \ {0}

omshmoi.

An

a > b tte

1 1 < . a b
kai sunepc ap thn

Prgmati, epeid lgw thc (P13)

1 ab > 0 qoume kai ab > 0 (giat?) a b 1 qoume > ab dhlad 1 >a . ab b

a>b

To sumprasma den isqei pnta an oi all

kai

enai etershmoi. P.q.

3 > 2

1 3

1 . 2

Askseic 1.4

ay < bx

kai (b)

(i) 'Es tw a, b, x, y R +x a <a <x . b b+y y

me

b > 0, y > 0.
1 b= a +a . 2

An

a b

<

x tte (a) y

(ii) 'Es tw a R, a > 0 me a2 > 2.

Lsh thc

Jtoume

Tte

b < a kai b2 > 2.

(ii)

Ap th sqsh

a2 > 2,

afo

a>0

prokptei (pollaplasi-

a 1 ) ti zontac me 2a 2

>

1 kai sunepc a

Epshc

a 1 a a + < + = a. 2 a 2 2 2 a 1 b2 2 = + 2 2 a a2 1 a2 1 = +1+ 2 2= 1+ 2 4 a 4 a 2 a 1 = >0 2 a b=

2

(diti an

a 2

1 a

=0

ja eqame

a2 = 2).

(iii)

To snolo

X = {x > 0 : x2 > 2}
den qei elqis to s toiqeo.
Lsh thc

(iii) X

An doje na opoiodpote

swc) mikrtero s toiqeo tou Sunepc to

X,

p.q. to

a X mporome na brome (gnh1 b= a +a , pwc petai ap thn (ii). 2

den qei elqis to s toiqeo.

(iv)

To snolo

Y = {x Q+ : x2 2}
den qei elqis to s toiqeo.

(v) (vi)

An An

a, b R a, b R

tte kai

a2 +b2 2

ab > 0

(vii) An c > 0 kai n = 1, 2, . . . tte c + c

Lsh thc

a+b 2 . Pte isqei isthta? 2 b a tte +a 2. b 2n 2n1 2

+ . . . + c + c + 1 (2n + 1)cn .
kje

(vii)

Jtontac

opte jtontac diadoqik

1 2 gia b = 1 s thn (vi) qoume a + a 2 n a = c, met a = c , . . . , a = c qoume

a > 0,

c+

1 1 1 2, c2 + 2 2, . . . , cn + n 2 . c c c

Prosjtontac kat mlh prokptei

cn + cn1 + . . . + c +
ra

1 1 1 + 2 + . . . + n 2n c c c

cn + cn1 + . . . + c + 1 +
kai pollaplasizontac ta do mlh tomenh.

1 1 1 + 2 + . . . + n 2n + 1 c c c n me ton jetik arijm c prokptei

h zh-

' Askhsh 1.5

kje

(i) Den uprqei elqis toc jetikc arijmc: > 0, isqei a < , tte a = 0. ab+ a<b+
gia kje gia kje

An

0 a kai,

gia

(ii) (iii)

An An

>0 >0

tte

a b. a < b?
ti

enai aljeia ti

a b?

Lsh

(i)

An

a >0

den mpore na isqei h sqsh

gia

la

ta jetik

> 0: (ii) (iii)

paradegmatoc qrin gia

a den isqei. 2

An den isqei to sumprasma, an dhlad

den mpore na alhjeei gia kje

> 0:

p.q.

a > b, tte h sqsh a b + ab 3 den isqei . gia = 2 a = b.

Sto prto erthma h apnthsh enai arnhtik: mpore na qoume

Sto detero erthma h apnthsh enai jetik ap thn prohgomenh skhsh.

Orismc 1.1

An

aR

, jtoume

|a| =

a a

an

a0 a<0

an

Paratrhsh 1.6

Gia kje

aR

kai

b0
dhl.

|a| b b a b |a| b a b b a
Paratrhsh 1.7
Gia kje

b a

kai

ab

a, b R
(tri gwnik anisthta)

|a + b| |a| + |b| | |a| |b| | |a b| | |a| |b| | |a + b|

Apdeixh

(i) Oi

|a| + |b|

ra

|a| a |a| kai |b| b |b| dnoun |a||b| a + b (|a| + |b|) a + b |a| + |b| ra |a + b| |a| + |b| (ap thn
Epeid

prohgomenh Paratrhsh). (ii) 'Es tw qw

c = |a| |b|.

a = (a b) + b

ap thn trigwnik anisthta

|a| = |(a b) + b| |a b| + |b|,

ra

c = |a| |b| |a b|. Omowc b = (b a) + a ra |b| |b a| + |a|, opte c = (|a| |b|) = |b| |a| |b a| = |a b|.

Dexame ti

c |a b| b

kai

c |a b|, b.

ra

|c| |a b|.

(iii) Sthn (ii) ble

s th jsh tou

3 giat

a (b + ) =

ab 2

>0

dhlad

a > b + .
4

' Askhsh 1.8

|a| + |b| |a| |b| |a + b| + 1 + |a + b| 1 + |a| + |b| 1 + |a| 1 + |b|

Lsh

H prth anisthta prokptei wc exc

|a + b| |a| + |b| (prosjtw |a + b|(|a| + |b|)) |a + b| + |a + b|(|a| + |b|) (|a| + |b|) + (|a| + |b|)|a + b| |a + b|(1 + |a| + |b|) (|a| + |b|)(1 + |a + b|) |a| + |b| |a + b| . 1 + |a + b| 1 + |a| + |b|
Gia th deterh anisthta, jtontac

x = |a|

kai

y = |b|,

qw

x+y x y = + 1+x+y 1+x+y 1+x+y x y + 1+x 1+y

afo

x0

kai

y 0.

Upenjmish:

Jerhma 1.9 (Majhmatik epagwg)

m

'Estw ti se kje fusik arij-

antistoiqe ma prtash

P (n)

pou afor ton

Upojtoume ti ikanopoiontai oi

exc do propojseic:

) H

P (0)

alhjeei,

KAI

tte

ii

) gia h

kje fusik arijm

m,

an

P (m)

alhjeei

P (m + 1) P (n)

alhjeei.

Tte h

alhjeei gia

kje fusik arijm

Pardeigma

Na deiqje ti gia kje

nN

qoume

0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n =
Apdeixh

n(n + 1) 2

'Es tw

P (n)

h prtash

0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n =
Prpei na dexoume ti h H prtash

n(n + 1) . 2 n N. P (k ) P (k + 1).

P (0)

enai h

P (n) 0 = 0:

alhjeei gia kje alhjc.

Isqurismc:

Gia kje

kN

isqei h

sunepa gw g

Prgmati:

k (k + 1) tte 2 k (k + 1) (k + 2)(k + 1) 1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + k + (k + 1) = + (k + 1) = 2 2
an

1 + 2 + 3 + ... + k =

pou enai h

P (k + 1).

Ma llh morf thc majhmatikc epagwgc enai h akloujh:

Jerhma 1.10 (Deterh morf thc epagwgc)

fusik arijm

'Estw ton

ti

se

kje

antistoiqe ma prtash

P (n)

, pou afor

Upojtoume ti ikanopoiontai oi

exc do propojseic:

) H

P (0)

alhjeei,

KAI

an

ii

) gia

kje fusik arijm

alhjeoun oi

m P (0), P (1), . . . , P (m)

,

tte

P (m + 1)
.

alhjeei.

Tte h

P (n)
4

alhjeei gia

kje fusik arijm

Pardeigma

Kje fusikc arijmc

n1

grfetai wc ginmeno prtwn

paragntwn.

4 Jumzoume
kai to

ti

prtoc

lgetai nac

p N, p 1

an diairetai mnon ap ton eaut tou

1.

Apdeixh

H Prtash {O

n+1

enai ginmeno prtwn} enai alhjc gia

n = 0:

o arijmc

enai prtoc. prpei na dexoume, gia kje

Gia na qrhsimopoisoume to Jerhma 1.10,

m N, m 1,
Kai prgmati:

ti an oi arijmo

1, 2, . . . , m

grfontai wc ginmena prtwn

paragntwn, tte o arijmc An men o

m +1 grfetai wc ginmeno prtwn paragntwn.

enai prtoc, tte bebawc enai ginmeno

m+1

prtwn paragntwn. An den enai prtoc, tte qei diairtec, opte grfetai

m+1 = kl k
kai

pou oi fusiko

epomnwc ankoun s to snolo

k, l enai kai oi do mikrteroi ap ton m + 1, {1, 2, . . . , n}. Ap thn epagwgik upjesh, oi

grfontai wc ginmena prtwn paragntwn, sunepc to dio isqei kai

gia to ginmen touc, ton

m + 1.

Suqn sunantme protseic pou alhjeoun gia kje fusik arijm megaltero ap kpoion

n o N,

qi mwc endeqomnwc gia touc prohgomenouc.

Mpore kanec tte na qrhsimopoisei to exc ekolo Prisma tou Jewrmatoc 1.9:

Prisma 1.11

'Estw .

ti

se

kje

fusik ti

arijm

antistoiqe oi exc

ma

prtash

P (n)
seic: (i) H

kai

stw

no N

Upojtoume

ikanopoiontai

do

propoj-

P (no )

isqei.

kai

(ii) Gia kje

n N, n n o

, an h

P (n)

isqei, tte

isqei

P (n + 1)

Tte h

P (n)

isqei gia kje

fusik

arijm

n no
isqei

Pardeigma 1.12
gia

anisthta

2n n2

gia

kje

n4

qi

mwc

n=3

Apdeixh

Ed

P (n)

enai h prtash

2n n2 .

P (3)

den alhjeei, afo

2 <3
H

. enai alhjc.

P (4) : 24 42

Mnei na apodexoume gia kje dhlad

n 4

thn sunepagwg

P (n) P (n + 1),

2n n2 2n+1 (n + 1)2 .
7

Prgmati, an

2n n2

tte

2n+1 (n + 1)2 = 2.2n (n2 + 2n + 1) 2.n2 (n2 + 2n + 1) = n2 2n 1 = (n 1)2 2 0

efson

n 4.

To diwnumik anptugma

(a + b)0 a+b (a + b)2 (a + b)3 (a + b)4 (a + b)5 (a + b)6

= 1 = a+b = a2 + 2ab + b2 = a3 + 3a2 b + 3ab2 + b3 4 = a + 4a3 b + 6a2 b2 + 4ab3 + b4 = a5 + 5a4 b + 10a3 b2 + 10a2 b3 + 5ab4 + b5 6 = a + 6a5 b + 15a4 b2 + 20a3 b3 + 15a2 b4 + 6ab5 + b6 Pascal:

Oi sunteles tc sqhmatzoun to legmeno trgwno tou

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 5 15 4 10 20 3 6 10 15 2 3 4 5 6 1 1 1 1 1 1

Kje sunteles tc enai to jroisma twn do sunteles tn pou brskontai akribc ap pnw tou. apdeixh pou akolouje. Ja qreiasjon oi Aut h paratrhsh enai h ida gia thn epagwgik

Sumbolismo

n k

0! = 1, n! = 1 2 . . . n (n N) (dhl. n! = n(n 1)!) n! n(n 1) . . . (n k + 1) = = k !(n k )! k!

n

(k, n N, k n)

ak = a0 + a1 + . . . + an
k=0
Parathrome ti to jroisma

(n N).

a0 + a1 + . . . + an
n n+1

mpore epshc na grafte

am =
m=0 j =1

aj 1 .

H isthta twn do autn paras tsewn mpore na prokyei kai me thn {allag metablhtc}

j = m + 1.
An

Prtash 1.13 (Diwnumik anptugma)

a, b R

kai

nN

n1

, tte

(a + b)n =
k=0
Shmewsh: Gia

n nk k a b k

(: P (n)).

n2

qoume

(a + b)n =an + nan1 b + +

n(n 1) n2 2 n(n 1)(n 2) n3 3 a b + a b + ... 2! 3!

n(n 1) 2 n2 ab + nabn1 + bn . 2!

H apdeixh gnetai me epagwg: Gia

n=1

P (1)

enai h

a+b=a+b

pou profanc alhjeei.

Ja dexoume, gia kje An

n N, n 1, (a + b)n =

thn sunepagwg

P (n) P (n + 1):

k=0

n nk k a b k

tte

(a + b)

n+1

= (a + b )
k=0 n

n nk k n nk k n nk k a b =a a b +b a b k k k k=0 k=0
n

=
k=0 n+1

n nm m+1 n n+1k k a b + a b k m m=0

n

=a =a

+
k=1 n

(k=0) n+1

n n+1k k n nm m+1 a b + a b + bn+1 (m=n) k m m=0 n n+1k k n a b + an(k1) bk + bn+1 k k1 k=1

(k=m+1) n

n1

+
k=1 n

= an+1 +
k=1
All

n n + k k1

an+1k bk + bn+1 .

n n + k k1

n! n! + k !(n k )! (k 1)!(n k + 1)! n! n! + = k (k 1)!(n k )! (k 1)!(n k + 1)(n k )! n!(n k + 1) n!k + = k (k 1)!(n k )!(n k + 1) k (k 1)!(n k + 1)(n k )! n!(n k + 1 + k ) (n + 1)! n+1 = = = k !(n k + 1)! k !(n + 1 k )! k

ra

(a + b)

n+1

=a

n+1

+
k=1

n + 1 n+1k k n+1 a b +b = k

n+1

k=0

n + 1 n+1k k a b . 2 k

10

Prtash 1.14 (Anisthta

Bernoulli)

An

x > 1

(1 + x)n 1 + nx
Apdeixh

gia kje

n N. 1 = 1.

H anisthta gia

n=0

enai profanc:

Deqnoume to epagwgik bma: An ra

(1+ x)n 1+ nx tte (1+ x)(1+ x)n (1+ x)(1+ nx) (efson 1+ x > 0) (1 + x)n+1 = (1 + x)(1 + x)n (1 + x)(1 + nx) = 1 + (n + 1)x + nx2 1 + (n + 1)x. 2

Paratrhsh

Gia

x 0

h anisthta

Bernoulli

enai mesh sunpeia tou

diwnumiko anaptgmatoc, afo loi oi prosjetoi tou enai mh arnhtiko.

Prtash 1.15
ginmeno

n N n 1 b1 , . . . bn b1 b2 . . . bn = 1 b1 + b2 + . . . + bn n.
An , kai oi , tte

enai

jetiko

arijmo

me

Apdeixh

Me epagwg s to pljoc

n=1

h anisthta enai tetrimnh:

n twn 1 1.

arijmn pou emfanzontai.

Gia

Upojtoume loipn ti gia kje

m-ada jetikn arijmn d1 , . . . dm me ginmeno

d1 d2 . . . dm = 1

isqei h anisthta

d1 + d2 + . . . + dm m
kai jloume na dexoume ti an dojon ginmeno

m+1

jetiko arijmo

b1 , . . . bm+1

me

b1 b2 . . . bm+1 = 1

tte ja isqei h

b1 + b2 + . . . + bm+1 m + 1 .
Parathrome ti, an qi, diatssontac

b1 = b2 = . . . = bm+1 , h anisthta isqei profanc. An touc arijmoc b1 , . . . , bm+1 kat axousa seir megjouc

(prgma pou den allzei to jroism touc), parathrome ti anagkas tik

b1 < 1 < bm+1

(allic to ginmeno lwn touc den ja tan 1).

An jewrsw thn

m-ada

jetikn arijmn

b1 bm+1 , b2 , . . . , bm
11

pou qoun ginmeno 1, ap thn epagwgik upjesh ja qw

b1 bm+1 + b2 + . . . + bm m .
'Omwc ap tic sqseic

(1) dhlad

b1 + bm+1

b1 < 1 < bm+1 petai > bm+1 b1 + 1 kai sunepc

ti

(bm+1 1)(1 b1 ) > 0

(1)

b1 + bm+1 + b2 + . . . + bm > b1 bm+1 + 1 + b2 + . . . + bm m + 1 .

O gewmetrikc msoc miac nadikc jetikc arijmc sumbolzetai

pou a1 .a2 . . . an .

n-dac a1 , . . . , an jetikn arijmn enai o mon ikanopoie = a1 a2 . . . an . O arijmc autc

Thn parxh kai monadiktht tou ja apode-

xoume se epmeno Keflaio.

Prtash 1.16 (Anisthta arijmhtiko-gewmetriko msou)

An

nN n1
,

kai oi

a1 , . . . , a n a1 + a2 + . . . + an n a1 .a2 . . . an . n bk = n ak a1 .a2 . . . an

enai jetiko arijmo, tte

(2)

Apdeixh

An jsw

k = 1, 2, . . . , n), parathr ti oi bk enai jetiko arijmo me ginmeno a1 an a1 a2 . . . an = 1. ... = n n a .a . . . a n a .a . . . a ( a1 .a2 . . . an )n 1 2 n 1 2 n b1 + b2 + . . . + bn n ,

(3)

' Ara ap thn prohgomenh Prtash ja qoume

isodnama

pou enai isodnamh me thn

a1 + a2 + . . . + an n n a .a . . . a 1 2 n apodeikta. 2 a1 , . . . an
enai

Paratrhsh 1.17

'Opwc dh parathrsame, an oi arijmo

loi soi, tte h anisthta (2) enai s thn pragmatikthta isthta. An den enai loi soi, tte pwc prokptei ap thn apdeixh, h anisthta enai gnsia (diti

b1 + bm+1 > bm+1 .b1 + 1).

Sthn an anisthta

Sunepc:
msou isqei isthta an kai mnon

arijmhtiko-gewmetriko .

a1 = a2 = . . . = an

12