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OSI Layers
The OSI model consists of seven layers, each of which can (and typically does) have several sublayers. Cisco requires that CCNAs demonstrate an understanding of each layer as well as the protocols that correspond to each OSI layer. The names of the OSI model layers and their main functions are simply good things to memorize. And frankly, if you want to pursue your Cisco certications beyond CCNA, these names and functional areas will come up continually. The upper layers of the OSI model (application, presentation, and sessionLayers 7, 6, and 5) are oriented more toward services to the applications. The lower four layers (transport, network, data link, and physicalLayers 4, 3, 2, and 1) are oriented more toward the ows of data from end to end through the network. CCNAs work mostly with issues in the lower layers, in particular with Layer 2, upon which switching is based, and Layer 3, upon which routing is based. Table 3-2 diagrams the seven OSI layers, with a thorough description and a list of example protocols.
Table 3-2

OSI Reference Model Layer Name Application (Layer 7) Functional Description An application that communicates with other computers is implementing OSI application layer concepts. The application layer refers to communications services to applications. For example, a word processor that lacks communications capabilities would not implement code for communications, and word processor programmers would not be concerned about OSI Layer 7. However, if an option for transferring a le were added, then the word processor would need to implement OSI Layer 7 (or the equivalent layer in another protocol specication). This layers main purpose is dening data formats, such as ASCII text, EBCDIC text, binary, BCD, and JPEG. Encryption is also dened by OSI as a presentation layer service. For example, FTP enables you to choose binary or ASCII transfer. If binary is selected, the sender and receiver do not modify the contents of the le. If ASCII is chosen, the sender translates the text from the senders character set to a standard ASCII and sends the data. The receiver translates back from the standard ASCII to the character set used on the receiving computer. Examples Telnet, HTTP, FTP, WWW browsers, NFS, SMTP gateways (Eudora, CC:mail), SNMP, X.400 mail, FTAM

Presentation (Layer 6)

JPEG, ASCII, EBCDIC, TIFF, GIF, PICT, encryption, MPEG, MIDI

continues

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Chapter 3: OSI Reference Model & Layered Communication

Table 3-2

OSI Reference Model (Continued) Layer Name Session (Layer 5) Functional Description The session layer denes how to start, control, and end conversations (called sessions). This includes the control and management of multiple bidirectional messages so that the application can be notied if only some of a series of messages are completed. This allows the presentation layer to have a seamless view of an incoming stream of data. The presentation layer can be presented with data if all ows occur in some cases. For example, an automated teller machine transaction in which you withdraw cash from your checking account should not debit your account, and then fail, before handing you the cash, recording the transaction even though you did not receive money. The session layer creates ways to imply which ows are part of the same session and which ows must complete before any are considered complete. Layer 4 includes the choice of protocols that either do or do not provide error recovery. Multiplexing of incoming data for different ows to applications on the same host (for example, TCP sockets) is also performed. Reordering of the incoming data stream when packets arrive out of order is included. This layer denes end-to-end delivery of packets. To accomplish this, the network layer denes logical addressing so that any endpoint can be identied. It also denes how routing works and how routes are learned so that the packets can be delivered. The network layer also denes how to fragment a packet into smaller packets to accommodate media with smaller maximum transmission unit sizes. (Note: Not all Layer 3 protocols use fragmentation.) The network layer of OSI denes most of the details that a Cisco router considers when routing. For example, IP running in a Cisco router is responsible for examining the destination IP address of a packet, comparing that address to the IP routing table, fragmenting the packet if the outgoing interface requires smaller packets, and queuing the packet to be sent out to the interface. Examples RPC, SQL, NFS, NetBios names, AppleTalk ASP, DECnet SCP

Transport (Layer 4)

TCP, UDP, SPX

Network (Layer 3)

IP, IPX, AppleTalk DDP

The OSI, TCP/IP, and NetWare Protocol Architectures

77

Table 3-2

OSI Reference Model (Continued) Layer Name Data link (Layer 2) Functional Description The data link (Layer 2) specications are concerned with getting data across one particular link or medium. The data link protocols dene delivery across an individual link. These protocols are necessarily concerned with the type of media in question; for example, 802.3 and 802.2 are specications from the IEEE, which are referenced by OSI as valid data link (Layer 2) protocols. These specications dene how Ethernet works. Other protocols, such as High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC) for a point-to-point WAN link, deal with the different details of a WAN link. As with other protocol specications, OSI often does not create any original specication for the data link layer but instead relies on other standards bodies such as IEEE to create new standards for the data link layer and the physical layer. These physical layer (Layer 1) specications, which are also typically standards from other organizations that are referred to by OSI, deal with the physical characteristics of the transmission medium. Connectors, pins, use of pins, electrical currents, encoding, and light modulation are all part of different physical layer specications. Multiple specications are sometimes used to complete all details of the physical layer. For example, RJ-45 denes the shape of the connector and the number of wires or pins in the cable. Ethernet and 802.3 dene the use of wires or pins 1, 2, 3, and 6. So, to use a category 5 cable, with an RJ-45 connector for an Ethernet connection, Ethernet and RJ-45 physical layer specications are used. Examples IEEE 802.3/802.2, HDLC, Frame Relay, PPP, FDDI, ATM, IEEE 802.5/ 802.2

Physical (Layer 1)

EIA/TIA-232, V.35, EIA/TIA- 449, V.24, RJ45, Ethernet, 802.3, 802.5, FDDI, NRZI, NRZ, B8ZS

Some protocols dene details of multiple layers. For example, because the TCP/IP application layer correlates to OSI Layers 5 through 7, the Network File System (NFS) implements elements matching all three layers. Likewise, the 802.3, 802.5, and Ethernet standards dene details for the data link and physical layers. CCNAs deal with many aspects of Layers 1 through 4 on a daily basis. However, the upper layers are not as important to CCNAs. In addition, most networking people know what the OSI model is but do not need to memorize everything about it. Table 3-2 shows plenty of detail and explanation for a more in-depth idea of the OSI model components. If you are daunted by the task of memorizing all the examples in Table 3-2, you can refer to Table 3-3, which offers a

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Chapter 3: OSI Reference Model & Layered Communication

more condensed description of the layer characteristics and examples. This table is taken directly from Ciscos ICND course, so if you are just not willing to try and remember all of Table 3-2, the information in Table 3-3 is a good compromise. (ICND is the instructor-led course in the ofcial CCNA training path.)
Table 3-3

OSI Reference Model (Condensed Information) OSI Layer Name Application (Layer 7) Presentation (Layer 6) Functional Description User interface How data is presented Special processing, such as encryption Session (Layer 5) Keeping data separate from different applications Reliable or unreliable delivery Multiplexing Network (Layer 3) Data link (Layer 2) Logical addressing, which routers use for path determination Combination of bits into bytes, and bytes into frames Access to the media using MAC address Error detection and error recovery Physical (Layer 1) Moving of bits between devices Specication of voltage, wire speed, and cable pin-outs EIA/TIA-232, V.35 IP, IPX 802.3/802.2, HDLC Operating systems and application access scheduling TCP, UDP, SPX Examples Telnet, HTTP JPEG, ASCII, EBCDIC

Transport (Layer 4)

Layering Benets and Concepts

Many benets can be gained from the process of breaking up the functions or tasks of networking into smaller chunks, called layers, and dening standard interfaces between these layers. One obvious benet is that the individual protocols or layers are less complex and therefore can be dened in great detail. The following list summarizes the benets of layered protocol specications:

Humans can discuss and learn about the many details of a protocol specication easier. Standardized interfaces among layers facilitates modular engineering. Different products can provide functions of only some layers (such as a router with Layers 1 to 3), or some products could supply parts of the functions of the protocol (such as Microsoft TCP/IP built into Win95, or the Eudora e-mail application providing TCP/IP application layer support).

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Cisco CCNA Exam #640-507 Certication Guide

Wendell Odom Copyright 2000 Lacidar Unlimited, Inc. Cisco Press logo is a trademark of Cisco Systems, Inc. Published by: Cisco Press 201 West 103rd Street Indianapolis, IN 46290 USA All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission from the publisher, except for the inclusion of brief quotations in a review. Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Number: 99-67898 ISBN: 0-7357-0971-8

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