34

3.

Generation of Ultrashort Laser Pulses

Equations (3.1) and (3.2) indicate that the spectral bandwidth of an acti e !ediu!" and the laser action threshold" deter!ine the duration of the !odeloc#ed pulse. $he pulse duration depends on the nu!ber of lon%itudinal !odes" &" which in turn depends on the bandwidth of the laser %ain" . 's a rule" the %reater the nu!ber of lon%itudinal !odes in ol ed in a broader spectral transition" the shorter is the !odeloc#ed pulse. $he nu!ber of lon%itudinal !odes can ar( fro! a few)in %as lasers (for e*a!ple in +e,&e lasers))to around 1-4 or !ore in d(e lasers and in so!e solid,state lasers" such as the titaniu!,sapphire laser. .n d(es" the fluorescence lines are broad" which %enerates a lar%e nu!ber of lon%i, tudinal !odes" &" and therefore picosecond and fe!tosecond pulses can be %enerated. /or %as lasers the e!ission line is narrow and" as a consequence" pulses shorter than nanoseconds cannot be %enerated. /luorescence bands in solid,state lasers are !uch broader than in %ases" owin% to inho!o%eneous broadenin%" and picosecond pulses can be %enerated (e.%." in &d01'G). $here is a special class of solid,state lasers ( ibronic lasers) in which couplin% between electrons and ibra, tional de%rees of freedo! leads to a considerable band,broadenin% of spectral lines and" as a consequence" !a#es it possible to %enerate fe!tosecond pulses. $he titaniu!2sapphire laser is the best candidate a!on% the ibronic lasers for produ, cin% ultrafast pulses. 3etailed discussion of the arious t(pes of lasers can be found in the ne*t 4hapter. 5e will show now that in the !odeloc#in% re%i!e one obtains a pulse sequence with the periodicit( of $ 2L6c" with the duration of an indi idual pulse bein% tp 2L6c&. 5e shall assu!e for si!plicit( that the %enerated !odes are plane wa es" i7t E(t) E e . $his indicates that the spectral distribution of an indi idual lon%i,
-

tudinal !ode is described b( the 3irac delta function

(7

7 ) with infinitel(
-

narrow width. 5e will appl( this appro*i!ation" which is not too bad if we recall one of the properties of the /ourier transfor!. $he spectral line of width 7 (/i%. 3.3a) correspondin% to the da!ped si%nal in the ti!e do!ain (/i%. 3.3b) !easured in infinite ti!e inter al (-" 1) can be replaced b( a non,da!ped si%nal in the finite ti!e inter al ( 62" 62) (/i%. 3.3c). $herefore" the plane wa e is a reasonable appro*i!ation.

(a) A()

(b) A (t ) A /e

(c)

2 /2

+ /2

/i%. 3.3 9elationship between the spectral line width 7 in the frequenc( do!ain (a) and the si%nal in the ti!e do!ain (b). $he si%nal (b) is equi alent to the si%nal (c). E*planation in the te*t.

3.1.

:odeloc#in%

3;

$he total electric field co!in% fro! & 2n 1 !odes is represented b( a su!
n E t X E e*pfi7 # 7 t # < g= # n q q

303

where 7 and < are respecti el( the frequenc( and the phase difference between q q the nei%hborin% lon%itudinal !odes. 5e now use the followin% relationships
# n

X n n ei# 2 X cos #
#-

304

X
n # n

2 cos n sin 2n1 cos # 0 sin 2

30;

>ubstitutin% (3.4) and (3.;) into (3.3)" one obtains

22 cos n 4 E e*pi7 t @( insertin%" ( 7 t

sinh n 1
7 q t < q 2

7 q t < q

3 5 1

sin

30?

< ) into (3.?) one obtains "q 2 cos

E E e*pi7 t
-

# n1 sin
2

sin
2

sin
n 2

E e*pi7 t 2 cos
-

sin2 n

cos 2 2 cos sin

sin 2

2sin

E e*pi7 t
-

cos

2 n 2

sin sin cos 2 2 sin

E e*pi7 tsin 2n1 2

30A

>ince 2n 1 & is equal to the nu!ber of lon%itudinal !odes" one can E E- e*pi7- t write sin2
& 7 q t < q

30B

.f the phase,difference between the nei%hborin% lon%itudinal !odes" < " chan%es q with ti!e in a rando! wa(" the resultant electric field" E" in eq. (3.B) chan%es chaotic, all( with ti!e as in /i%. 3.1a. +owe er" if the phase difference" < " between !odes is
q

3?
sin nx sin x
2

3.

Generation of Ultrashort Laser Pulses

/i%. 3.4

Profile of a function

sin n*

constant" the total intensit( of the electric field" E" arisin% as a result of the interference fro! & s(nchronised lon%itudinal !odes" is an a!plitude,!odulated wa e at a carrier frequenc( 7 " equal to the central !ode with the en elope e*pressed in the for!
-

't E sin & 7q t - sin 7 t

<q C2 <q C2 0

30D

$he intensit(" .(t) '2(t)" %enerated as a result of the interference between the & !odes is a function of t(pe
sin n* 2

" well #nown fro! diffraction theor(" with the

!a*i!u! at * - illustrated in /i%. 3.4. >ince the function (3.D) is periodic" the radiation intensit( %enerated as a result of the interference of & s(nchronised lon%itudinal !odes is a repetition of pulses" periodic in ti!e" as represented in /i%. 3.;. $he result deri ed in eqn. (3.D) shows that the laser e!ission is a sequence of re%ular pulses with te!poral inter als of $" if the phase difference < between the
q

nei%hborin% !odes is constant. $he te!poral inter als" $" between the pulses can be

I (t ) = A (t )

T=

2L

t =0
1

t t =

2L Nc

/i%. 3.; 3ia%ra! of radiation,intensit( dependence %enerated as a result of & lon%itudinal !odes< interference" as a function of ti!e.

3.1.

:odeloc#in%

3A

calculated easil( fro! eq. (3.D). 5e si!pl( ha e to find the distance between the two subsequent lar%est !a*i!a in /i%. 3.;. /ro! eq. (3.D)" the first !a*i!u!" at ti!e t1" occurs when 7q t1 <q -0 301-

$he ne*t !a*i!u!" at ti!e t2" has to fulfil the condition 7q t 2 <q 2 0 7 $
q

3011 7 (t
q 2

>ubtractin% the equations (3.11) and (3.1-)" we obtain 2 2

t )2 .
1

$herefore" the inter al $ between the !odeloc#ed pulses is $ 2 7q 2 L 0 c

3012

$he equation (3.12) e!plo(s the relationship (2.3) deri ed in 4hapter 2 for the c frequenc( difference between the nei%hborin% !odes " which is . .n a q si!ilar wa(" we can esti!ate a sin%le,pulse duration" tp. Ene can see fro! /i%ure 3.; that it corresponds appro*i!atel( to the distance between the first two !ini!a around the FFlar%e<< !a*i!u!. $he !ini!u! occurs when the nu!erator of eq. (3.D) is equal to Gero sin & 7q t correspondin% to & 7q t1 & 7q t 2 <q C2 -= 3013 3014

<q C2 -= <q C2 0 2L &c 0

and

301;

$hus" the sin%le,pulse duration" tp" is tp t 2 2 t1 & 7 q 301?

$herefore" we ha e pro ed that the relationship (3.1) is alid. @( insertin% eqn. (3.2) into (3.1?)" one obtains the pulse duration" tp" in another for! t t
p 2

t
1

2 -

301A

Equation (3.1A) is a er( i!portant relationship between the pulse duration" tp" and the %ain bandwidth" for the sti!ulated e!ission. 'ccordin% to this relation, ship" the broader the spectral width " the shorter is the pulse that can be %enerated. 5e will refer to this relationship !an( ti!es. $he relationship (3.1A) is a consequence of the relationship between the ti!e do!ain and the frequenc( do!ain described b( the /ourier transfor! in eq. (2.14)" as is discussed in 4hapter 2. .t si!pl( illustrates the +eisenber% uncertaint( principle t E hC2 = 301B

3B

3.

Generation of Ultrashort Laser Pulses

where t denotes the uncertaint( of the ti!e" which !a( be interpreted as a pulse duration" tp" and E h 7 defines the uncertaint( of the ener%( correspondin% to the width of the spectral band. $he !a%nitude of the product t E depends on a te!poral pulse shape. 5e assu!e that the pulse shape is described b( a Gaussian function 2t E t e*p 2 2 0 301D $he frequenc( spectru!" E(7)" 1 can be obtained fro! the /ourier transfor!
i7t 2

E 7 2

E te

dt

e*p

7-

302-

$his indicates that the shape of the spectral band in the frequenc( do!ain is also described b( a Gaussian distribution. $he full width at half hei%ht (/5++) of the te!poral pulse profile E(t) %i en b( (3.1D) is t/5++ 2 ln 21C2 = 3021

and the /5++ of the spectral profile" E(7)" in the frequenc( do!ain %i en b( eq. (3.2-) is 7/5++ C2
/5++

ln 21C2 C 0 E is equal to -04410

3022 3023

$hus" for the Gaussian profile the product t

/5++

/or other shapes of te!poral profiles" this product is different fro! -.441. $able 3.1 shows the alues of the product for the !ost co!!on pulse shapes.
$able 3.1 $he product of ti!e and spectral widths" t/5++ shapes of te!poral pulses" .(t) /unction .(t) >quare . (t) 1= jtj tp 62 . (t) -= jtj H t 62
p
2

/5++

" for different

t
/5++ /5++

1.---

t t/5++ t

3iffracti e

. (t)

sin

-.BB?

Gaussian +(perbolic >ecant LorentGian E*ponential

. (t) e*p

t
/5++

(4 ln 2)t2 62 t2 -.441 -.31; -.221 -.142

. (t) sec h2 . (t) 1 . (t) e*p

1 0A?t 1

/5++

(ln 2)t

3.1.

:odeloc#in%

3D

$he relationship deri ed in eq. (3.23) corresponds to an ideal situation of a perfectl( !odeloc#ed laser with a pulse called the /ourier,transfor! li!ited pulse. >uch a pulse is the shortest pulse" of t " that can be %enerated for a %i en %ain, /5++ spectru!" . .n practice" such pulses are seldo! produced. $he uncertaint( /5++ relationship (3.23) holds onl( when the indi idual lon%itudinal !odes are perfectl( s(nchronised with each other" or in other words" when the spectral phase is a linear function of frequenc(" as we assu!ed in eq. (3.3) E 7 '7ei/ 7

/7 /- /1 7

7- 0

3024

.t is crucial for perfect !odeloc#in% that all frequenc( co!ponents e*perience the sa!e round,trip ca it(,ti!e" which is ensured b( the phase linearit( in eq. (3.24). Ewin% to !aterial dispersion" each frequenc( co!ponent tra els with a different elocit( (the so,called %roup elocit(" which will be discussed in 4hapter ;)" and the spectral phase is usuall( !ore co!plicated than linear X 1 d / 7
1 n

n7 d 7n 77
-

7- 0

302;

Ewin% to the quadratic ter! in the phase" each frequenc( co!ponent that co!prises the spectru! of the pulse e*periences a dela( which is linearl( proportional to the offset fro! the central frequenc(" 7 . $he pulse is said to be FFlinearl( chirped<<. .n
-

this case" a Gaussian pulse for an ideal !odeloc#in% presented in /i%. 3.? is replaced b( a Gaussian pulse linearl( chirped (/i%. 3.A). $he linear chirp can be ne%ati e or positi e (what this !eans e*actl(" we will discuss in 4hapter A). Ene can see fro! /i%. 3.A that for the positi e chirp" red co!ponents tra el faster than blue ones" in contrast to the ne%ati e chirp. $o produce pulses as short as possible" dispersion in the ca it( !ust be co!pen, sated for b( addin% optical ele!ents)t(picall( pairs of pris!s or %ratin%s and" especiall(" coated !irrors or a len%th of optical fiber. 5e will discuss these !ethods in 4hapter ;.

E(t )

GVD = 0

/i%. 3.?

.llustration of a Gaussian pulse for perfect !odeloc#in% (Gero chirped).