Measurement of Radial Truck Tire Dry Cornering Characteristics

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Measurement of Radial Truck Tire Dry Cornering Characteristics


Pedro Yap
The Goodyear Tire 8 Rubber Co.

ABSTRACT A study was conducted to quantify the cornering characteristics of radial truck tire rib and lug tread designs. P, Calspan Tire Research Fadlity (TIRF) machinewasused to measure tire force and moment responses to load. inflation, slip angle, and mmber. The study condudedthat although tread design parameters are a factor, tire comerirlg characteristics are strongly dependent on load. The cornering performance of lug design tires was not necessarily different fromrib tires; the key tread designparameter ~ l a non-skid s depth. An empirical model was developedfor cornering and self-aligning toque stiffness as a functionof t~ead design parameters, load, and inflation.

To quantify the impact of these tread design parameters on tire comeling characteristics, a laboratory force and moment study conducted. Five rib and lug design11R22.5radial truck tires were selected. Tire casinq rubbercompoundand reirlforcingmaterials were all similar to prevent introduction of a casing stiiess variable. In addition, the tread rubber compound of the tires was the same. to limit the study ,to the tread design pararnaters describedearlier. Tread designparameter details are listed in Table 1 .
Table 1 -Tread Design Parameters
Ab Desgn
Design

"

Deagn

Cesgn

Ceagn

1
A vehide's handling behavior is, in part, determined by the cornering charactm'stics of its tires and their sensitivity to load and slip angle variation. The force and moments generated at the tirelroadway interlace by the roiling tire are key mechanical propertiesforquantifyingtire cornering performance. These mechanicalcharacteristics r~?sul from tire deformations aeated by load, torque, and steering inputs. For a given load and steer condition, the stiffness of the tire's casing and tread will influence the amount of deformation produced, and therefore the cornering characteristics of the tire. A tire's tread design is an important design consideration because ot its impact on several critical niechanicaland endurancerelatedtire performance prop erties (1)'. To efficiently meet vehicle application requirements, radial truck tire manufacturers have developed a wide variety of tread designs. These range from fairly simple circumferential rib to intricate lug designs. Tread designconsists notonly ofthoseparameters that definethe tire's unique tread pattern (such as the shape and arrangement of its tread elements) but also indudes non-skid depth, tread width, and net-to-gross ratio (openness of the tread pattern). These parameters are optimized during the tire developmer~t process based on the specific tire performance properties required.

No&

(cm)

151

1.43

2.06

1.75

1.75

Dep(h

'Indicates reference at end of paper.

CORNERING CHARACT'ERIZAIION The basis forcornparingcomering performanceof the tire designs were the measured freerolling force and moment responses of lateral force (Fy), self-aligning torque (Mz), and over-turning moment (Mx) (Figure 1). C o m p s o n s using the calculated tire cornering and sel-aligningtorque stiffness were also used. There are many tt?stmethods to acquire force and moment data on a rolling tire. Mobile dynamometers are available which run the tire over the road using a towed trailer rig. This has the advantage of providing data on actual highway surfaces. There are also stationary indoor laboratory machines featr~ring either drum, caniage, or flat belt roadways. These offer greater control over environmental conditions, but may have limited speed ranges or, in the case of drum type machines, might possibly introduce drum curvature effects (2). Data for this study

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1 .,e;;LLE
ACTUAL WHEEL

Figwe I - Tire F m s and Moments was collected in a laboratory using the Calspan Tire Research Facility (TIRF) machine. This test machine features a71 cm wide stainless steel belt roadway running over two .7 m diameter d ~ m (Figure s 2 ) .The advantage of this type of test equipment is that it simulates a flat roadway and has a wide range of road speeds available. The flat belt was covered wim a 3M "Safety Walk" grit surface. The roadway belt underthetire footprintload area is supportedby an air-bearingpad. A six-component strain gage balance was used to measure the forces and associated moments along the three principal axes. The force-sensing balance, along with the tireiwheel system, was located on a head assembly capable of steer, camber, and vertical motion.

WH~EL PLANE

Figure 3 - Tire Slip Angle The other primary operating test Variable was tire load. Data was cdlectedat eight loads, ranging from 160% to 20% of the tire's Tire 8 Rim Association - rated single load (5). Inflationpressure was limited to two levels. Tire & Rim Assodation single- and dual-rated pressures. lnlla tions were regufaed to maintain constant pressure levels during testing. Test vetodry was kept at 48.3 ldlometersper hour(30 rnph). A separate set of force and moment tests was performed to measure tire response to camber input Camber was swept between -4 and +4 degrees at a rate of 1 degree per second; slip angle was held at zero degrees. The overall tire study consisted of 20 test runs; a test run being defined as either a cornering or camber test at one infla on pressure and eight loads. All testing was performed on a dry surface. A 'I 0-minute warm-up at rated tire load, zero degree slip angle, and test veloaty was performed before each teat run. After the warm-up and before the start of a cotnering test run, a series of conditioning runs was performed to stabilize the tire tread surface condition and temperature. These cundioning runs consisted of three slip angle sweeps between -6 and +6 degrees, at rated tire load and test velocity. Tablo 2 detailsthe test conditions.

Figure 2 - Calspan TlRFMachine Cornering data was collected by steering the rolling tire and measuring the force and moment responses. The level of steer input was measured in terms of tlie tire's slip angle. As defined by SAE, slip angle is the ans~le between the center plane of the wheel and the path act~~ally traveled by the wheel (3), as illustratedin Figure 3 . For this study, . slip . angles were swept between -6 and +6 degrees, at a rateof 1 iegree persecond. Slipanglesweep ranaes were keot low to minimize wear to the tread and to collect force arid moment data within slip angle ranges nonnally sustained by a truck during non-emergency maneuvers (4).

I%-) Cdmbermb (degree) Load


Skargb I W n

D l ? 'lOt6.0 sneep (id l.Ode*rdJ -5.o


0.0

@r)

U.O.37.6.322,26.9,21.5,16.1,10.7,5.4 7.24.6.55

speed

Roadwav

D n
%Itod.Oswsep (d1.0-4
U.0.37.6.32.2.26.9.21.5.16.1.10.7,5.4 7.21.6.55

Load Inllalion

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912677
LATERAL FORCE At the interface between the tire and roadway, the t~~re develops lateral forces, Fy, in reaction to a slip angle input. Along the longitudinal axis of the tire contact area, lateral force progressively increases until the tirefroadway f~ictional limit is achieved toward the rear of the contact srea. Lateral forces afler this point rapidly decrease (Figure 4). The magnitude of the appliedload and slip angle determines the level of lateral force Fy developed by the r(3lling tire. At low levels of slip angle, the relationship between lateral force and slipangle was fairly linear. W i i i n this slip angle region, lateral forceincreased proportionally with slip angle. Past this linear region, the rate of change of lateral force with slip angle diminishes as a greater percentage of the tread in the contact area begins to slide relative to the roadway. Radial truck tiresgenerallydevelop peak lateral forces at 10-15 degree slip angles (Figure 5).
ACTUAL DIRECTION OF WHEEL PATH

9 . 2 0 -

-6

-4

-2 0 2 SLlP ANGLE (degrees)

Figure 6

- Effect of Tire Load on Lateral Force

open tread pattern). The maximum diierence found between designs was 1.9 kN (14%) at 6-degreeslip angle. The diierence between l:he two rib designs was 0.4 kN (3%). A larger diierenct? of 1.4 kN (10%) was found between the three lug designs. All tires exhibited similar response to load variation, except for rib tire A, which appeared to be slightly m'3resensitive to the higher loads (Figure 8).

TlRE
RIB A

RIB B
LUG A LUG 3 LUG C

-------

DISTRIBUTION OF LATERAL FORCES

Figure 4 -Slip Angle Induced Lateral Tirs Forces

9
P =
-15
7.2 bar

-6

.4

-2

SLlP ANGLE (degrees)

Figure 7 - Effect of Troad Design on Lateral For-

I
25

.S

5 10 I5 SLlP ANGLE (degrees)

I0

TlRE
RIB A RIB B LUG P,
LUG B

Figure 5 - Typical Lateral Force Versus Slip Angle Curve

Increased tire load was found to produce increased levels of lateral force, especially at higher levels of slip angle. A maximumdifferenceof 13.7 kilo-Newtons (kN) (52%) was observed between the 10.7 and 43.0 kN load extremes at &degree slip angle (Figure 6). Lateral force versus slip angle curves for the five tires fell into two groups. The difference between the groups increased as slip angle increased (Figure 7). Tread design features of the tires in the lower laterall force group were either deep non-skid depth and/or low tread net-to-gross ratio (more

-------

LUG C

I
0 I0

P = 7.2 bar

I
45

15

20

25

30

35

40

LOAD (kN)

Figure 8

- Effect of fielead Design on Load Sensitivity

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A 0.69 bar reduction in inflation pressure resulted in slightly higher lateral force being generated by all five tires. The diierences were small, ranging from 0.1 to 0.5 kH (0.6-3.0%) at rated single load. The slightly longer footprint length created by the reduced inflation pressure enabled the tire to develop a higher level of lateral force. Lzuger reductions in inflation pressures, especially at higher loads where an overload condition may be created, st~ould result in reduced lateral force capability (4,6).

SELF-ALIGNING TORQUE Except for large slip angles, the distribution of lateral forces along the longitudinal axis of contact are generally non-symmetrical about the geometric center of the contact area. This non-symmetry typicalty causes the resultant lateral force vector (Fy) to pass through a point ju!;t aft of the contact area geometric center. The distance between the point where the resultant Fy acts and the center of the contact area is called the pneumatic trail (PT) (Fgure 9). The coupling of the lateral force vector and this pneumatic trail produces a moment, Mz, about the vertical axis. This characteristic, commonly called self-aligning torque, tends to unsteer the tire by reducing slip angle. Although self-aligning torque is an important cornering parameter for all tires, it is of greater importance to steer axle tires because of the cc~mpliance normally present in the steering system.

-5

10

I 1s

I
25

SLlP ANGLE (degrees)

Fgure 10

- Typical Sen-Alkniing Toque Vemus


Slip Angle Curve

F, =
P =

26.9 kN 7.2 bar

-----.-.-..-......

RIB A RIB B LUG A LUG B LUG C


I 2 I

-.------6

L 400 1
-6

-4

.2

SLlP ANGLE (degrees)

1
RESULTANT LATERAL FORCE (FY)

ACTUAL OIRECTION OF WHEEL PATH

Fgure 11

- Effect of Tread ,Designon Self-Aligning Torque

Q/--SLIP
ANGLE

found between the three lug designs. 45 N-m (10%). The influence of load on self-aligning torque levels was found to be very strong; increased load produced greater Mz levels. As illustrated in Figure 12, an 813 N-m increase in peakself-aligning torque was 0bse~ed witha32.3 kNload increase.

DISTRIBUTION OF LATERAL FORCES

figure 9 -Slip Angle Induced Tire Sen-Ali~ning Toque

Self-aligning torque response, Mz, to inaeasing tire slip angles was initially similar to the lateral force response. For low slip angles, Mz increased as slip angle increased. Peak Mz, however, was developed at lower levols of slip angle, approximately 4 to6 degrees. Once the peak was achieved. Mz decreased with further increases in slip angle because of the decrease in the moment arm PT. The reduction in self-aligning torque continued until a zero torque level was reached, after which Mz changed direction and began increasingin magnitude (Figure 10). The self-aligning torque behavior of the five buck tire:; was generally similar; only rib tire B exhibited slightly higher Mz beyond +I-3 degrees slip angle (Figure 11). The maximum difference in peak Mz was 110 Newton-meters (N-rn) (25%). A d~fference of 96 N-m (21%) was found behveen the two rib designs. A smaller difference was

Figure 12 -Effect of Tire i-oadon Self-Aligning Toque

OVER-TURNING MOMEMr Deformation of the tire casing and tread due to a steering input not only aflected the shear forces (Fy) generated in the contact area, it also affected the distribution of vertical tire cc~ntact forces. The amount and direction the verlical contacl forces are skewed across the width of the contact area depend on slip angle magnitude and direction. Also affecting the distributionof these forces is camber angle, which will be disarssed later. The resultant vertical force vectcr (Fz) is offset slightly laterally fromits non-steeredlocation because of the non-symmetry of the force distribution. The coupling of this lateral offset

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and the resultant Fz force vector produces an over-turning moment, Mx, acting aboutthelongitudinal axis throughthe mid-point of the contact h t d w i (Figure 13).

Figure 13

- Over-Turning Moment

The over-turning rnornent response of the five truck tires toslip angle appearedto be linear; Mx increased as slip angle increased (Figure 14). The magnitude of the moments was about half of thoseobse~edforself-aligning tolrque. At &degree slip angle, the largest Mx difference between designs was 138 N-m. A maximum diifference of 77N-m (70%) was fwnd between ihe two rib designs. For the three lug designs, the mnximumdiifferencewas 85 N-m ( S T / . ) . lire load had a much stronger effect than tread design, especially at higher slip angles. Increased load re:sulted in greater over-turning moments. The 10.7 and 43.0 kN load extremes produced a maximum diifference in Mx of 927 N-m (Figure 15). The strong sensitivity was largely dueto the increased resultant verticalcontactforce. Fz, produced by greater load levels.

CORNERING STIFFNESS Tire cornering stiffness is a key element in determining the responseof atruckto low-level maneuvers (4). For a given load a i d slip angle, the greater the cornering stiffness, the g~sater the level of lateral force generated by the rolling tire. This tire characteristic is determined by running a first order curve fii through the quasi-linear region of the lateral force versus slip angle data, +/-I degree slip angl,erange. The slope of this line is the tire cornering stiffness. Below the ratedload, cornering stiffness was found to increase proportionally with load. Generally, once beyond rated tire load, the rate of change of cornering stiffness diminished. Differences were observed between some of the radial truck tires tested. At the rated tire load of 26.9 kN, the maximum difference found between designs was about 0.70 kN1degree(26%) (Figure 16). Rib tire A generated 1:hehighest cornering stiffness, while lug tire A generated the lowest level. Lug tread pattern tires were not alwzys lower in cornering stiffness thanrib patterntires. Lug t i r , Bexhibitedcomeringstiffness ~ levels that were within the ringeof rib tires. It appearedthat deeper non-skid depth or lower net-tegross directionally had a negativeimpacton corneringstiffness.A0.69 bar (10 psi) reduction in inflation was found to increase comering stiffness slightly. Over the range of loads tested. the average increase was raifier small. from 0.03 to 0.12 kN1degree.

_---RIB A RIB B LUG A LUG 8 LUG C

RIB A RIB B

-----._.-

-------

. . . '

LUG 8

=
F, = 26.9 kN P = 7.2 bar

lo

,,
TIREi LOAD (kN)

4b

5:

Figure 16 - Effect of Tread Design on Cornering SfiUhess


2
4

1 3

.)oo

/ 4
-4
-2
0

SLIP .ANGLE (degrees)

figure 14 -Effect of TreadDesignon Over-Turning Moment


Z

I-

900-

i
$

*
.goo 4

o
4

K
-2

i
I I

I
6

2 SLIP ANGLE (degrees)


0

Fgure 15 - Effeci of lire Load on Over-Turning Moment

Another important aspect of cornering stiffness is load transfer sensitivity. A truck undergoing a cornering maneuver can produce a considerable amount of sideteside load transfer. Load on the outside tires in the turn increases, decreasinag on the inside tires. The magnitude of the load transfer is dependent on several factors, such as t ~ c suspension k stiffness, truck center of gravity, maneuver severity, 13tc.Because of the non-linear behavior of truck tire cornering stiffness with respect to load, the net tire cornering stiffness for an axle during a maneuver could be less than straight line driving (Figure 17). Given an arbitrary load ltransfer of 8.9 kN from a static load of 18.9 kN. the net loss of cornering stiffness of the tires studied averaged about 6%. The loss ranged from -0.26 to -0.34 kN1degree (Table 3).

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INSIDE TlRE 4 t

STATIC LOAD

OUTSIDE TlRE

'

than lug pattern design tires with either deep non-skid depth or more open tread pattern. Since the deep non-skidAownet-to-gros:; lug tires are typicallyin non-steer axle positions, differences found in sen-aligning torque stiffness characteristics my not be of critical importance. CAMBER EFFECTS Force and moments are also created by the tire casing deformation produced by an inclination angle (Figure 19). A separate !;et of tests was performed on the tires to determine their response to camber. Tire camber was swept between-4 and +4 degrees camber angle, while maintaining a zero degree slip angle. The lateral force created by camber anglet is known as camber thrust. This force response was found to be almost linear over the swept values. Camber thrust typically increased with increased load and carnber angle, although measured levels were under 1.3 kN even at the 160% rated load and 4-degree camber angle test conditions. Relative to the lateral forces developed by comering, the camber thrust sensitivityof these radial 1:rucktires to either load or camber angle was low (using rib tire A data, Figure 20).

i , 0

I_
5 10

!
I
15

I
I 20 25
I

P = 7.2 bar
30

35

TIRE LOAD (kN)

Figure 17- Effect of Load Transfer on CorneringStiffness

Table 3 -Effect of Tread Design on Cornering Stiffness Loss Due to Load Transfer
Ikmering.Who (Mudegree) 18.9kN Static 10.0 k N
Ulur)edue to 8.9 W Load Transfer

m L ! z d
F l b Design A Rib Design 0
lug b s g n A
LuJDe=gnB 258 2.39 2.08 257 228

~~~
-1.05 0.97 4.80 0.97 0.82

I n *

27.8 W Ouw 0.73 0.M


0.54

Net Change
K

Lu]DesgnC

0.63 0.53

-0.32 -0.33 -026 -0.34 429

:SELF-ALIGNINGTORQUE STIFFNESS Self-aligning torque stiiness is the slope of a first ,order curve fit developed from the self-aligning torque ,versusslip angle data, for slip angles between +/-I degree. 'The self-aligning torque stiffness response to load ,appearedto be almost linear; stiffness increased with load. Tierences between 'ead designs, especially at the lighter loads, were very small. At the heaviest test load, the ~naximum diierence was 64 N-rntdegree (26%) (Figure 18). At greater than rated load, the circumferential rib [patterntires exhibited higher self-aligning torque stiffness
400

Figure 19 - Camber Angle Induced Lateral Fwce

ANGLE

43.0 kN

RIB A RIB B

-w

LUG A LUG 8
LUG C

-------

I -

P = 7.2 bar

I
A
. ?

-7 .

.1

I 1

I 2

I
4

AhICLE (degrees)

Figure 20

- Comparison Between Camber and Slip Angle


Inducal Lateral Forces

10

is

20

25

30

35

40

45

TlRE LOAD (kN)

Figure 18 Effect 01 Tread Design on Self-Aligning Torque Stiffness

Considering the moments, Mz and Mx, resulting from camber, only the over-turning moment. Mx, was strongly influenced. This was largely because of the influence camber has on the distribution of vertical tire contact forces, Fz, aaosls the contact width. Over-turning moments increased with either an increase in camber angle or load. Self-aligning torque levels (Mz) were low, generally under 68 N-m. 'The Mx and Mz response to load and camber appeared to be linear (Figure 21). These curves were representativeof the behaviorof thefive radial trudc tires.

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The empirical mtdel developed for cornering stiffness was:

I cs. co + (~16 +, (caF14+oI )


rvhere:

CS
Fr TSF

-=

CwneliqSInsrr

limLod
TdSmnsssFw(a Q:WTOM(SD

WW)

=
0 -100

2 0

z
E

TW
MG NSD

.
= =

&~sI&u&*~
TdWh

TmadRllemNe(+GmsRiGo TmadNo~rSddDopm

ww (4
(em)

C(n)
-200 4
3 2 t o 2 3 4

kgmsiqrn-

CAMBER ANGLE(degrees)

Figure 21 Effect of CemberAngle on Over-Turning Moments and Self-Allgning Torque

The constants CO. C1. M , and C3 am listed in Table 4. The fit of the modell was good with R2= 0.95. Table 4 -Statistics and Cwrstants for Cornering <ilifmesp Model
DEP VARIABLE:

EMPIRICAL MODEL FOR STIFFNESS The trends observedwith respect to cornering and selif-aligning torque stiffness seemed to suggest that tread designparameters are afactor. Tire non-skid depth and the openness of the tread pattern (ratio of tread net-to-gross area) appeared to be the key tread design parameters. A simple empiricalmodel was created for both comering and self-aligning torque stiffness as a function of load, inflation, and a tread element stiffness factor. The tread element stiifness factor was developed by considering the tread in the contact area during cornering to be under unilateral shear. It was next assumed that the tread elements in this contact region behaved like a rubber block bonded to two parallel plates, with one plate being the tire casing and the other plate being the roadway. A shear stiffness per unit fmtprint length term, called tread stitfness factor, was calculated using nowskid depth, tread width. and tread nel-to-grossratio tire parameters(Figure 22). Tread rubber shearmodulusof 1.5 MPawas assumed. Using the80data points generated from the 10 corneringtest runs, amultiple regression was performed to determine cornering and self-aligning torque stiflness as a function of tire load, infl.ation, and the tread stiffness factor.

B
kausamaY1(EE
SUM OF

SOURCE

DF

SNUKS

SWARE

YEAN

FVALUE

P!X%F

AOOT MSE

Oiw.1945
2527582

DEPMEAN C . V .

1~~

1 9 J M

0 09469

8.118215

STMDIRD

T FOR HO. FmNEr-

pRoe>m

Inflation pressure was fo~lndnot to be a significant parameter, due possibly to havinglimited data Had either a larger spread between the two inflations been used w additional inflation pressures been included, t h i s parameter could have been significant Graphs of predicted tire cornering stifmess using ECI (1) showed that load had the greatest influence (Figure 23). Wmin the range of values tested, the strongest Wad design parameter found was tread non-skid depth (Figuro 24).

LINEAR SHEAR
STIFFNESS
WHERE:

= K = (GeA) I T

G SMEARMODULUSOFRUBBER 4 = EFFECTIVE 4REA PER UN!T LEUGTH

I
Figure 23

(rw-"70)

TW = TREAD WIDTH NTG = NET.10-GROSS RATIO NSO = NON.SKID DEPTH

F ~ r 22 n

- TreadSMfnessFactor

- Effect of Lcadand TIeadSMmssFacior on


Gomeriq~ Siinness

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Figure 24 -Effect of NonSkid Deplh and Net-MrossR& of Canering Stimless

Figua 25 Effect of L M and ~ Tread Sthaw Factor on Sen-Alig~iing Toque SMmss

The ernpirid model developed for self-aligning torque stiiess was:

hum:

ATS Fz P TSF
0

--

Set-Mgring TorrproMnesr lim bad T I l r l h b n Resslm T m d Snmosd Fa& WrmoyNsD

0
(4
@")
~ F(p3

( N * ) FN)

TW
NTG
NSD

=
=

~ r Tmadmdm T m d Pabm M-bOmssRatio TnudNms+d Deplh


Regesion-

The constanis AO, At, A2. A3, and A4 are listed in Table 5. The fitof this model was also good with R2= 0.99. E:ven with the limited data, inflationpressure was found to ts a significant parameter. As found on cornering stiffness. tire loadhad thestrongest influenceonpredictedself-aligning torque stiiess (Figure 25). Of the three tread design Firmeters,non-sldd depth effects were the strongest.

Table 5 -Statistics and Comtanls for

Sen-Aligning Toque Stiffnesr Model


IDEP V A w 4 E t E

p ANALYSlSOFVARMCE
SNARES

SOURCE

OF
4 75 79

SUMOF

=UAE

MEAN

F V M U E
1705.051

P W F
0.0001

MODEL FRROR CTOTM

b4521827 709529817 652313.57


9 . 7 -

161304.57 94.6@397563

HOOT MSE DEP MEAN C.V.

145EG39
6.67C917

PAWMETER

RSWARE ADJ RS(I

09891 09W5

STANDARD TFCRW PARAMErERO PROBfl

SUMMARY The radial truck tires studied covered a variety of over-theroad tread design types, ranging from simple rib steer to combination ribnug drive tires. Depending on the particular cornering respnse, diierences between tread design types could t ksmall, as in the case of lateral force, self-aligning torque, and over-turning moment cornering responses. Had a wider nmge of design parameter values been used,larger differerws in cmming responses may ~ b have been observed. However, the selected parameter ranges were representative of over-theroad linehaul service tires. Usually, non-sldd depth, net-to-gross ratio, and treadwidthranges for radial trudc tires tend to be rather narrow because of their (3ffecton other tire performance properties, such as roCngresistance, treadwearcharaderistics, and wet traction. Significant Meritnces among the designs were observedwithrespecttocornering and self-aligningtoque stiffness.The key tread df?sign parameters were non-skid depth and net-tegross ratio (openness of the tread pattern). Lug tire cornering stiffness was not always worse than rib tires, provided non-skid depth and net-to-gross ratio differences were not ,100 great. The less rigid the tread elements, due either to deeper non-skid andtor a more open tread pattern, the lo~uerthe cornering and self-aligning torque stiffness. Non-skid deptheffectswillalsochange the cornering characteristics of the truck tire over ti&, mrnering stiiess inaeasingas tire wear level increases. Tire cornering performaf~ce was found to be strongly dependent on load; incrc3ased load resulted in the tire generating higher levels cf cornering force and moments. Depending on the magnitude of the load variation, its impact on tire cornering characteristics could exceed even the e&emes of tread design effects. An empirical model was developedforthetwo:stiiess responsesas afunction of load, non-skid depth, net-to-grossratio, tread width, and inflation. Camber effects on the force and moment responses of these radial truck tires was foundto be minimal. The only exception was over-turning moments, which increased linearly with camber angle. The cornering characteristics measured for this study were for dry roadrcays. Future investigations will need to address wet conditions where water depth and roadway speed are critical factors.

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REiFERENCES 1. Ford, T.L. Charies, F.S., Heavy Dufy T m k Tire Engineering, Paper SP-729, Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc., February 1988. 2. Clark, S.K., ed. Mechanics of Pneumatic lires, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Transportation, 1982. 3. Vehicle Dynamics Terminology. SAE J670e, Wanendale. PA: Society of AutomotiveEngineers, Inc., 1978. 4. Fancher, P.S., Ervin, R.D., WinWer, C.B., Gillespie, T.D., A Factbook of the Mechanic Properties of the

Heavy Components for Singhs-Unit and Ammwlated Tnr&s, Report No. DOT-HS-807-125, Washington. DC: U.S. Department of Transportation, 1986. 5. 1991 Yearbook,Akron, OH: The Tire and Rim Assodation, lnc., 1991. 6. Gohring, E., Von Glasner, E.C.. The Impact of Tyre Characteristics on the llraldng and Steering Perfom ance of Commercial Vehicles, Paper 885108. Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc., 1988.

APPENDIX Read Dtwlgn lnflatlon Pressure (bar)

Tlre Load

(W

Cornerlng stiffness (kNldegW

Celt-Allgnlng Torque (H-m/degw)

RIB-A

RIB-B

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Tlre
mad Ddgn Load (kN)

Comerlng Stmness (kwdegree)

Self-Allgnlng Toque (N-mtdegree)

LUG-A

LUG-A

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