A PROJECT SUBMITTD FOR

C.B.S.E. PHYSICS PRACTCAL

EXAMINATION- 2014
ARYAMAN VIKRAM BIRLA INSTITUTE OF
LEARNING, HALDWANI.

LOGIC GATES
(OR GATE)

Submitted toDr. Gagan Majhi

Compiled BySHIRSHAK DAVE

XII A

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.

THIS PROJECT IS DEEPLY DEDICATED TO Dr. GAGAN MAJHI

WHO HAS GUIDED ME VERY WELL TO COMPLETE THIS PROJECT.
I THANK HIM FOR HIS SUPPORT AND GUIDANCE WHICH HE HAS
GIVEN ME.
I ALSO WANT TO THANK MY FRIENDS FOR THEIR HELP AND
ALSO MY PARENTS FOR THEIR INTENSIVE SUPPORT.
THANKS

A LO T..!!

BIBLOGRAPHY

PHYSICS NCERT
PRADEEPS FUNDAMENTAL PHYSICS
GOOGLE
WIKIPIDEA
SCIENCE ENCYCLOPIDEA
LOGIC GATES

INTRODUCTION:
A logic gate is an elementary building block of a digital circuit. Most logic gates have two inputs
and one output. At any given moment, every terminal is in one of the two binary conditions low
(0) or high (1), represented by different voltage levels. The logic state of a terminal can, and
generally does, change often, as the circuit processes data. In most logic gates, the low state is
approximately zero volts (0 V), while the high state is approximately five volts positive (+5 V).
There are seven basic logic gates: AND, OR, XOR, NOT, NAND, NOR, and XNOR.

The AND gate is so named because, if 0 is called "false" and 1 is called "true," the gate acts in
the same way as the logical "and" operator. The following illustration and table show the circuit
symbol and logic combinations for an AND gate. (In the symbol, the input terminals are at left
and the output terminal is at right.) The output is "true" when both inputs are "true." Otherwise,
the output is "false."

AND gate

Input 1 Input 2 Output

1
1
1

The OR gate gets its name from the fact that it behaves after the fashion of the logical inclusive
"or." The output is "true" if either or both of the inputs are "true." If both inputs are "false," then
the output is "false."

OR gate

Input 1 Input 2 Output

1

The XOR ( exclusive-OR ) gate acts in the same way as the logical "either/or." The output is
"true" if either, but not both, of the inputs are "true." The output is "false" if both inputs are
"false" or if both inputs are "true." Another way of looking at this circuit is to observe that the
output is 1 if the inputs are different, but 0 if the inputs are the same.

XOR gate
Input 1 Input 2 Output
1

A logical inverter , sometimes called a NOT gate to differentiate it from other types of electronic
inverter devices, has only one input. It reverses the logic state.

Inverter or NOT gate

Input Output
1
1

The NAND gate operates as an AND gate followed by a NOT gate. It acts in the manner of the
logical operation "and" followed by negation. The output is "false" if both inputs are "true."
Otherwise, the output is "true."

NAND gate
Input 1 Input 2 Output
1
1
1
1

1
1

The NOR gate is a combination OR gate followed by an inverter. Its output is "true" if both
inputs are "false." Otherwise, the output is "false."

NOR gate
Input 1 Input 2 Output
1
1
1
1

The XNOR (exclusive-NOR) gate is a combination XOR gate followed by an inverter. Its output
is "true" if the inputs are the same, and"false" if the inputs are different.

XNOR gate
Input 1 Input 2 Output
1
1
1
1

Using combinations of logic gates, complex operations can be performed. In theory, there is no
limit to the number of gates that can be arrayed together in a single device. But in practice, there
is a limit to the number of gates that can be packed into a given physical space. Arrays of logic
gates are found in digital integrated circuits (ICs). As IC technology advances, the required
physical volume for each individual logic gate decreases and digital devices of the same or
smaller size become capable of performing ever-more-complicated operations at ever-increasing
speeds.

Diode-Resistor AND Gate

AND
Gate

Some logic gates can be produced

with just diodes and resistors
(called diode resistor logic or
DRL).

Basic Gates

Diode-Resistor OR Gate

OR
Gate

Some logic gates can be produced

with just diodes and resistors (called
diode resistor logic or DRL).

Basic Gates

B.2.1 Voltage Dividers

When a voltage spans two resistors in series, the voltage measured at the point between the resistors is
divided in proportion to the ratio of the individual resistors and the sum of the resistances. As an example, see

Figure B.4(a).

The voltage across R1 is given by

, where V is the voltage across the series
resistors, R1 is the resistance between the power supply and the output node, and R2 is the

resistance between the ground and the power supply. R1 is often called the load or pull-up
resistor, while R2 is the pull-down resistor.
In the example, R1 = 900 ohms, R2 = 100 ohms, and V = 5 volts. The voltage drop across R1
is
Thus, the voltage measured between the output node and ground would be 0.5 V.
Alternatively, we could have arrived at this directly by calculating the voltage across R2,
namely
. By appropriately sizing the relative resistances, we can choose any
desired output -voltage.
Now suppose that R2 is a variable resistor with two basic settings: low resistance or very
high resistance. When the pull-down resistor has a sufficiently high resistance, it behaves
like an open circuit, as shown in Figure B.4(b). The output node reaches 5 V.
An electrical device that can switch between low resistance and very high resistance is
called a transistor, as we will see in Sections B.3 and B.4. A transistor is a three-terminal
device that establishes a low-resistance path between two terminals when a high voltage is
placed on the third terminal. When a low voltage is placed on this control terminal, the
remaining two terminals are separated by a high resistance. If R2 is replaced by a
transistor, it's easy to see that we obtain an inverter. When the input voltage is high, the
output voltage is low. When it is low, the output voltage is high.
But before we can examine transistors in more detail, we need to take a look at a simpler,
two-terminal device: the diode.

B.2.2 Diode Logic

A diode is a two-terminal electrical device that allows current to flow in one direction but
not the other. It is like a pipe with an internal valve that allows water to flow freely in one
direction but shuts down if the water tries to flow backward. The schematic diagram for a
diode is shown in Figure B.5.

The diode's two terminals are called the anode and cathode. In the diode symbol, the arrow
points from the anode (flat part of triangle) toward the cathode (point of the triangle).

The device operates by allowing current to flow from anode to cathode, basically in the
direction of the triangle. Recall that current is defined to flow from the more positive
voltage toward the more negative voltage (electrons flow in the opposite direction). If the
diode's anode is at a higher voltage than the cathode, the diode is said to be forward biased,
its resistance is very low, and current flows. The diode is not a perfect conductor, so there is
a small voltage drop, approximately 0.7 V, across it. If the anode is at a lower voltage than
the cathode, the diode is reverse biased, its resistance is very high, and no current flows.
We can construct simple gates with nothing more than two or more diodes and a resistor.
See Figure B.6.

At the left of the figure is a diode AND gate, and at the right a diode OR gate. Let's
examine the AND gate first. If one of the inputs A or B is grounded, current flows through
the diode and the output node X is at a low voltage. The only way to get a high output is by
having both inputs high. This is clearly a logical AND function.
Now we turn to the OR gate. Whenever one or the other of the inputs A and B are high,
current flows through the associated diode. This brings the output node Y to a high voltage.
This circuit clearly implements a logical OR.
Unfortunately, it is difficult to cascade circuits of this kind into multiple levels of logic
gates. The voltage drops across the diodes add up as they are cascaded in series, leading to
significantly degraded voltage levels.
For example, suppose we wire up five diode-resistor AND gates in series. If a string of
inputs are logic 0 and the series diodes are conducting, then the output from the final stage
should be recognized as a logic 0 as well. But because each diode adds a 0.7-V drop, the
measured output would actually be at 3.5 V. This is pretty far from any voltage that would
be recognized as logic 0.
One solution is to increase the power supply voltage, redefining the range that is recognized
as a logic 0 and logic 1. Of course, the higher the voltage, the higher the power consumed
and the more heat the circuit generates. And no matter what you set the power supply to,
there is still a limit to the number of logic levels that can be cascaded. This is hardly an
adequate solution.
Also note that it is not possible to construct an inverter with only diodes and resistors. AND
and OR functions by themselves are not a complete logic without NOT. Thus, there are

some logic functions that cannot be implemented in diode-resistor logic. Fortunately,

transistors solve all of these problems.