CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Theoretical Review 2.1.1 The Definition of Cohesion The term cohesive has been defined in various ways. Some researchers apply the term cohesion to the surface structure of the text. Cohesion sometimes been applied to smaller units of language in the text. Other researchers have defined cohesion as continuity in words and sentence structure. Cohesion may be crudely defined as the way certain words or grammatical features of a sentence can connect that sentence to its predecessors (and successors) in a text (Hoey 1991:3). A text is in part organized, in part created, by the presence in each sentence of these elements that require the reader to look to the surrounding sentences for their interpretation. Phenomena that had resisted satisfactory handling within sentence-bound grammars, such as pronominalization, ellipsis, and sentence conjunction, were found in such studies to be not only well handled once textual factors were taken into account but capable in turn of casting light on the nature of text itself. Halliday and Hasan (1976:4) state that the concept of cohesion is a semantic one; it refers to relations of meaning that exist within the text, and that define it as a text. Cohesion occurs where the interpretation of some element in the discourse is dependent on that of another. The one presupposes the other, in the sense that it cannot be effectively decoded except by recourse to it. When this

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happens, a relation of cohesion is set up, and the two elements, the presupposing and the presupposed, are thereby at least potentially integrated into a text. Halliday and Hasan (1976:5) also argue that cohesion is part of the system of a language. The potential for cohesion lies in the systematic resources of reference, ellipsis and so on that are built into the language itself. The actualization of cohesion in any given instance, however, depends not merely on the selection of some option from within these resources, but also on the presence of some other element which resolves the presupposition that this set up. For Halliday and Hasan, the organization of text (which they term texture) is made up (in large part) of relationships amongst items in the text, some semantic, some grammatical, which they refer to as cohesive ties.

2.1.2 Types of Grammatical Cohesion According to Halliday and Hasan (1976) cohesion can be divided into two types: grammatical cohesion and lexical cohesion. The previous refer to a combination of terms sentences that form grammatical aspect. The latter refers to a combination of terms between sentences that form lexical component. Grammatical cohesion can be divided into four kinds. They are reference, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction.

2.1.2.1 Reference Reference is a grammatical cohesion device in a text that can only be interpreted with reference either to some other parts of the text or to the world experienced by the sender and the receiver of the text.

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Thomas and Merier (1995:95) state that the term reference, as used by Halliday and Hasan is an extension of the term as used in philosophy and some types of semantics to mean an act of referring to entities outside the discourse (in the real world as it were, although we need to remember that real world can include imaginary worlds, such as we find in fiction or myth). Reference in this sense is not necessarily textually cohesive. For example, when out walking at night, a person might point to the moon and say to a companion, Look at that. In this case, that refers to an entity which is identifiable in the situation of utterance. The word that here is an example of noncohesive exophoric reference or reference outside the text. If, on the other hand, the speaker says, Look at the moon and the companion replies, I cant see it or Where is it? with it referring to the previously mentioned moon, and cohesion is established. The latter is known as endophoric reference or reference to something within the text (in this case the short exchange about the moon). Strictly speaking, of course, it is speakers or writers who refer to entities, using expressions for the purpose, but as a shorthand device we often talk about words or expressions referring to each other and say that endophoric reference occurs when two or more expressions refer to the same entity. Endophoric reference is classified into cathaphoric and anaphoric reference. Cataphoric is forward pointing, in the sense that in a text the unnamed expression, usually a pronoun or demonstrative, appears first and the named expression appears second, as in example below from a computer manual, where the cohesive tie is indicated in bold type.

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To see how it works, type VER and press ENTER. You will see this on your screen:

MS-DOS Version 6.00

This forms a cohesive tie with the message MS-DOS Version 6.00. In this case of cataphoric reference, the reader does not fully understand the sense of this until he or she has read on to the next line in the text. The second type of endophoric reference, and by far the most common, is called anaphoric reference. This type is backward looking in the sense that the named item appears first and the pronoun appears second. Examples: (1) All this years students passed. It was very gratifying. (2) Jill washed the clothes and then ironed them. The word It in the first sentence refers to All this years students passed and in the second sentence them refers to the clothes. Halliday and Hasan (1976:37) state that there are three types of reference: personal, demonstrative, and comparative. Personal reference is reference by means of function in the speech situation, through the category of person. Demonstrative reference is reference by means of location, on a scale of proximity. Comparative reference is indirect reference by means of identity or similarity. What is known as personal reference is dependent on the use of personal pronouns (I, she, he, it, they, me, etc) possessive adjectives (my, your, their, etc), and possessive pronouns (mine, yours, theirs). Demonstrative reference is dependent on the use of determiners (this, these, that, those) and adjuncts (here, now, then, there), and comparative reference uses adjectives like same, other,

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identical, better or their adverbial counterparts identically, similarly, less, and so on, to forge links with previously mentioned entities. (1) Personal reference West African dwarf sheep are found roaming about the towns and villages in many southern parts of West Africa in small flocks. They thrive and breed successfully in areas of trypanosomiasis risk. Their coat colour is either predominantly white with irregular black patches, or black marked with white patches. (2) Demonstrative reference Be careful of wasp, bees and hornets. These are dangerous pests. (3) Comparative reference Beecher Stowe gives a moving account of the horrors of slavery. Clemens treatment of the issue in the classic novel Huckleberry Finn is lighter but more subtle.

2.1.2.2 Substitution Substitution is used where a speaker or writer wishes to avoid the repetition of a lexical item and is able to drawn on one of the grammatical resources of the language to replace the item. Halliday and Hasan (1976:88) define substitution in simplest terms as the replacement of one item by another. According to them substitution is a relation between linguistic items, such as words or phrases and a relation on the lexicogrammatical level, the level of grammar and vocabulary, or linguistic form.

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Substitution, on the other hand, is a relation within the text. A substitution is sort of counter which is used in place of the repetition of a particular item. For example, in (1) My axe is too blunt. I must get a sharper one. (2) You think Joan already knows? - I think everybody does. one and does are both substitutes: one substitutes for axe, and does for knows. The example would be entirely possible to replace one by axe and does by knows. It follows that, as a general rule, the substitutes item has the same structural function as that for which it substitutes. In the above example one and axe are both Head in the nominal group; and does and knows are both Head in the verbal group. Since substitution is a grammatical relation, a relation in the wording rather than in the meaning, the different types of substitution are defined grammatically rather than semantically. The criterion is the grammatical function of the substitute item. The substitute may function as a noun, as a verb, or as a clause. To these correspond the three types of substitution: nominal, verbal, and clausal. The following is a list of the items that occur as substitutes; the list is very short: Nominal : one, ones; same Verbal : do

Clausal : so, not In nominal substitutes, one, ones and same can stand in place of Nominal Groups and Head Nouns, as in examples: (1) Would you like some sandwiches?

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Please pass the ones with cucumber in. (2) Im having chicken and rice. Ill have the same. (3) In an experiment, some children were given six cardboard discs each in a different colour. They were then asked to choose the colour they like best. The majority chose the blue one. The verbal substitute is do. This operates as Head of a verbal group, in the place that is occupied by the lexical verb; and its position is always final in the group. Here are two examples: (1) I dont know the meaning of half those long words, and, whats more, I dont believe you do either. (2) We met in Brazil. Do you remember? Yes, we must have done. Here do in the first sentence substitutes for know the meaning of half those long words. And done in the second sentence substitutes for met in Brazil. There is one further type of substitution in which what is presupposed is not an element within the clause but an entire clause. The words used as substitutes are so and not. In clausal substitution the entire clause is presupposed, and the contrasting element is outside the clause. For example, Is there going to be an earthquake? It says so. Here the so presupposes the whole of the clause theres going to be an earthquake, and the contrastive environment is provided by the says which is outside it.

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2.1.2.3 Ellipsis In the same cohesive class as substitution, we find ellipsis, or the omission of words, groups or clauses (referred to by Halliday as substitution by zero). When we talk of ellipsis, we are not referring to any and every instance in which there is some information that the speaker has to supply from his own evidence. That would apply to practically every sentence that is ever spoken or written, and would be of no help in explaining the nature of a text. We are referring specifically to sentences, clauses, etc whose structure is such as to presuppose some preceding item, which then serves as the source of the missing information. An elliptical item is one which, as it were, leaves specific structural slots to be filled from elsewhere. This is exactly the same as presupposition by substitution, whereas in ellipsis nothing is inserted into the slot. That is why we say that ellipsis can be regarded as substitution by zero. For example, Joan brought some carnations, and Catherine some sweet peas. The structure of the second clause is Subject and Complement. This structure normally appears only in clauses in which at least one element, the Predicator, is presupposed, to be supplied from the preceding clause. Note that there is no possible alternative interpretation here; the second clause can be interpreted only as Catherine brought some sweet peas. Where there is ellipsis, there is a presupposing, in the structure, that something is to be supplied. This is not quite the same thing as saying that we can tell from the structure of an item whether it is elliptical or not. In other words, we can take as a general guide the notion that ellipsis occurs when something that is

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structurally necessary is left unsaid; there is a sense of incompleteness associated with it. Ellipsis takes place in similar grammatical environments to substitution. Thus, we have nominal, verbal and clausal ellipsis. The grammar of Nominal Ellipsis permits the omission of Head Nouns in a Nominal Group as in example below where two in the final clause means two cucumber sandwiches. Have you got the cucumber sandwiches cut for Lady Bracknell? Yes, sir. (Algernon inspects them and takes two.) Verbal ellipsis is common in all short form answers and responses as is exemplified in example below where there are two examples of verbal ellipsis in responses. In both cases the tie is with save you in the first sentence of the verbal exchange. In these instances, it is the lexical verb that is omitted. Ill help you. Ill save you. You cant. [Ellipsis] I can. [Ellipsis] And the other example below illustrates clausal ellipsis; the word dont stands in place of dont open the door. Get up quick and open the door. If you dont, they will break it down.

2.1.2.4 Conjunction The fourth and final type of cohesive relation that we find in the grammar is that of conjunction. Conjunction is rather different in nature from the

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other cohesive relations. Conjunctive elements are cohesive not in themselves but indirectly, by virtue of their specific meanings; they are not primarily devices for reaching out into the preceding (or following) text, but they express certain meanings which presuppose the presence of other components in the discourse. With conjunction, on the other hand, we move into a different type of semantic relation, one which is no longer any kind of a search instruction, but a specification of the way in which what is to follow is systematically connected to what has gone before. Conjunction is the term used to describe the cohesive tie between clauses or sections of text in such a way as to demonstrate a meaningful relationship between them. It is also possible to perceive this process as the linking of ideas, events or other phenomena. This linking or joining is achieved by the use of conjunctive adjuncts, which are sometimes called cohesive conjunctives (for example, then, for this reason, on the other hand). These are words or expressions that have two textual functions: they indicate conjunction and at the same time usually indicate the type of relationship that operates between the elements being joined (Thomas and Merier 1995:98). Halliday and Hasan (1976:238) handle conjunctive adjuncts under four main headings: additive, adversative, causal and temporal. Additive conjunction serves to further the discourse topic. It differs from the paratactic relation of coordination by introducing the new clause as an extra piece of information, perhaps reinforcing what has already been said. For example,

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The party got to the summit and had their lunch. And they had time for a rest afterwards. Here the first and coordinates the propositions the party got to the summit and had their lunch. The second and, however, introduces a supplementary idea. Adversative conjunction is explained as introducing an item of information which is contrary to expectation. The expectation may be derived from the content of what is being said, or from the communication process, the speaker-hearer situation. For example, All the figures were correct; theyd been checked. Yet the total came out wrong. Causal conjunction marks the relationships of reason, consequence and purposes. He didnt pass this time, so he will have to resit. Temporal conjunction specifies the time sequence relationship which exists between sentences. First he forgot his money, then he forgot his keys. Previously he had never absent for a day.

2.1.3 The Definition of Abstract An abstract is a brief but accurate representation of the contents of a document. A true abstract, while it may include words occurring in the document, is a piece of text created by the abstractor rather than a direct quotation from the author (Lancaster 1998:94). It means that an abstract is a brief summary of a research article, thesis, review or any in depth analysis of a particular subject or discipline, and is often used to help the reader quickly ascertain the papers

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purpose. When used, an abstract always appears at the beginning of a document, acting as the point of entry for any given scientific document or paper. An abstract is a self contained, short, and powerful statement that describes a larger work. Components vary according to discipline; an abstract of a social science or scientific work may contain the scope, purpose, results, and contents of the work. An abstract of a humanities work may contain the thesis, background, and conclusion of the larger work. An abstract is not a review, nor does it evaluate the work being abstracted. While it contains key words found in the larger work, the abstract is an original document rater than an excerpted passage (www.unc.edu). There are two types of abstract: indicative (sometimes called descriptive) and informative. They have different aims, so as a consequence they have different components and styles. Lancaster (1998:95) says that indicative abstract simply describes (indicates) what the document is about, whereas the informative abstract attempts to summarize the substance of the document, including the result. That is, an indicative abstract might mention what types of results are achieved in a study but the informative abstract would summarize the result themselves. Cremmins in Lancaster (1998:96) explains that indicative abstracts may contain information on purpose, scope, or methodology but will not present results, conclusions, or recommendations. On the other hand, the informative abstract may include information on purpose, scope, and methods but must also contain results, conclusions, or recommendations. For some purposes, a good informative abstract might act as a reasonable substitute for reading a document.

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An indicative abstract is unlikely to serve as a substitute in this way. Its main purpose would be to indicate to readers of the abstract whether or not they would be likely to want to read the original. For obvious reasons, informative abstract tend to be longer than indicative. They are also more difficult to write. Indeed, while it will usually be possible to write an informative abstract for an experimental study, it may be almost impossible to do so for a theoretical study or an opinion piece. For this reason, informative abstracts occur more frequently in science and technology than they do in the social sciences or humanities.

2.2 Applied Research Review The idea on writing this thesis based on some linguistics books that supply relevant information to the topic. The writer refers to some related analysis based on the cohesion in discourse. 1. Kunto (2009) has analyzed cohesion on editorial of Deutschlands magazine. He found the existence of grammatical cohesion and lexical cohesion in the magazine. Grammatical cohesion is classified into four kinds; they are reference, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction. The reference consists of 82 sentences (68.33%), substitution consists of 4 sentences (3.33%), ellipsis consists of 2 sentences (1.66%), and conjunction consists of 32 sentences (26.66%). Lexical cohesion is classified into four kinds; they are repetition, synonymy, hyponymy, and antonymy. Repetition consists of 21 sentences (17.5%), synonymy

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consists of 2 sentences (1.66%), hyponymy consists of 3 sentences (2.5%), and antonymy consists of 3 sentences (2.5%). 2. Arfanti (2002) has analyzed cohesion in Melayu Serdang folklore. She analyzed three types of Melayu Serdang folklore; they are Panglima Bukit Cermin (legend), Puteri Burung Kuau (myth), and Anak Orang Miskin (tale). The result shown that grammatical cohesion devices are more dominant than the lexical cohesive devices in the three types of the folklore. Endophoric pronoun reference is the most dominant grammatical cohesive device in the three folklores.

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