SENSORS AND ACTUATORS

Computer controlled systems continually

monitor the operating condition of today's
vehicles. Through sensors, computers
receive vital information about a number of
conditions, allowing minor adjustments to be
made far more quickly and accurately than
mechanical systems. Sensors convert
temperature, pressure, speed, position and
other data into either digital or analog
electrical signals.

A digital signal is a voltage signal that is
either on or off with nothing in between. A
switch is the simplest type of digital signal
sensor. The signal from the switch could be
0 volts when off and 12 volts when on. Analog
signals on the other hand have continuously
variable voltage. A good example is the
coolant temperature sensor. The coolant
temperature sensor may vary the voltage
signal anywhere between 0 volts and 5 volts
depending on the temperature of the engine.
SENSORS & ACTUATORS

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The digital signal is the easiest for the
computer to understand because it reads the
signal as either "on" or "off." The analog
signal must be conditioned or converted to
digital so the computer can understand it.
(This will be covered later.)
While a vehicle may have many different
sensors, there are three main categories:
voltage-generating, resistive and switches. A
voltage-generating sensor generates its own
voltage signal in relation to the mechanical
condition it monitors. This signal in turn
relays to the computer data about the
condition of the system it controls. A resistive
sensor reacts to changes in mechanical
conditions through changes in its resistance.
The computer supplies a regulated voltage
or reference voltage to the sensor and
measures the voltage drop across the
sensor to determine the data.
Switch sensors toggle a voltage from the
computer high or low, or supply an "on" or
"off" voltage signal to the computer. This type
of sensor may be as simple as a switch on
the brake pedal or as complex as a
phototransistor speed sensor.
The computer uses the sensor data to
control different systems on a vehicle
through the use of actuators. An actuator is
an electromechanical device such as a relay,
solenoid or motor. Actuators can adjust
engine idle speed, change suspension
height or regulate the fuel metered into the
engine.
This chapter describes several specific
sensors used in automobiles, such as
potentiometers, thermistors and
phototransistor / LED combinations. This
chapter also addresses actuators that
complete the control process by carrying out
the computer's instructions.
The Sensors and Actuators section is divided
into the following areas:
Resistive sensors:
potentiometers
thermistors
piezo resistive
Voltage generating sensors:
piezo electric
zirconia-dioxide
magnetic inductance
Switch sensors:
phototransistors and LEDs
speed sensors
G-sensors (Air Bag Impact Sensors)
Actuators:
stepper motors
solenoids
RESISTIVE SENSORS
Potentiometers
A potentiometer is a variable resistor that is
commonly used as a sensor. A
potentiometer has three terminals: one for
power input, one for a ground and one to
provide a variable voltage output. A
potentiometer is a mechanical device whose
resistance can be varied by the position of
the movable contact on a fixed resistor. The
movable contact slides across the resistor to
vary the resistance and as a result varies the
voltage output of the potentiometer. The
output becomes higher or lower depending
on whether the movable contact is near the
resistor's supply end or ground end.
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The vane type air flow meter on an EFI
equipped vehicle is a common location on a
Toyota for a sensor that uses a
potentiometer. This sensor converts the air
flow meter vane opening angle to a voltage
and sends it to the Electronic Control Unit
(ECU). This signal allows the ECU to
determine the volume of air that is entering
the engine.
Some models also use a potentiometer as
the throttle position sensor. The
potentiometer in this case is attached to the
throttle shaft of the throttle body. As the shaft
is rotated the voltage output of the
potentiometer changes. The voltage output of
the potentiometer supplies data to the ECU
about the throttle opening angle.
Thermistors
Thermistors are variable resistors whose
resistance changes in relation to
temperature. Thermistors can have either a
negative temperature coefficient (NTC) or a
positive temperature coefficient (PTC). A
thermistor with a negative temperature
coefficient will decrease in resistance as the
temperature is increased. On the other hand,
a thermistor with a positive temperature
coefficient will increase in resistance as the
temperature is increased. The thermistor has
two terminals, one for power and one for
ground. A reference voltage is supplied to
one terminal through a fixed series resistor
located inside the computer. The other
terminal of the thermistor is connected to
ground, usually back through the computer.
The computer monitors the voltage after the
internal fixed resistor and compares this
voltage to the reference voltage to determine
the temperature of the thermistor. The
relationship between the two voltages
changes as the temperature of the thermistor
changes.
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The coolant temperature sensor and the air
temperature sensor in the air flow meter are
both NTC thermistors. Thermistors are also
used as sending units for temperature
gauges such as the coolant temperature
gauge. The TCCS ECU uses data from the
coolant temperature sensor and air
temperature sensor to help determine the
proper amount of fuel and how long to open
the fuel injectors. The ECU also uses this
data to determine how much the ignition
timing should be advanced as well as the
proper setting for the ISC to maintain the
proper idle speed. When either the air
temperature or the coolant temperature is
low, the respective thermistor's resistance
increases and the computer receives a high
voltage signal at the respective sensor wire.
Conversely, a high temperature at either
sensor results in a low voltage signal due to
the lower resistance of the thermistor.
Piezo Resistive
A piezo resistive sensor is a resistor circuit
constructed on a thin silicon wafer. Physically
flexing or distorting the wafer a small amount
changes its resistance. This type of sensor
is usually used as a pressure sensing
device such as a manifold pressure sensor,
although it may also be used to measure
force or flex in an object such as the
deceleration sensor located in the SRS air
bag center sensor.
One of the most important piezo resistive
sensors is the manifold pressure sensor
which monitors the air intake volume for
Electronic Fuel Injection (EFI). The signal it
sends to the ECU determines the basic fuel
injection duration and ignition advance
angle.
Within the sensor is a silicon chip combined
with a vacuum chamber. One side of the chip
is exposed to the intake manifold pressure
and the other side to the internal perfect
vacuum in the chamber.
A change in the intake manifold pressure
causes the shape of the silicon chip to
change, with the resistance value of the chip
fluctuating in relation to the degree of
deformation. An integrated circuit converts the
fluctuation to a voltage signal that is sent to
the ECU, where the air-fuel ratio is regulated.
The sensor has three external terminals: one
for power, one for ground and one to provide
the voltage signal to the computer. The
voltage signal varies with the pressure in the
intake manifold.
Another use for this same type of sensor is to
sense turbocharger boost. On turbocharged
engines, the sensor is used to measure
pressures that are higher than atmospheric
pressure and to supply corresponding
voltage signals to the ECU. To prevent
engine damage, the ECU can cut off the fuel
being injected if the manifold pressure
becomes too high.
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VOLTAGE GENERATING SENSORS
Piezo Electric
Piezo electricity is generated by pressure on
certain crystals, such as quartz, which will
develop a potential difference, or voltage, on
the crystal face. When the crystal flexes or
vibrates, an AC voltage is produced.
Knock sensors, which are becoming more
common, take advantage of this
phenomenon by sending the ECU a signal
that engine knock is occurring. The ECU in
turn retards the ignition timing to stop the
knocking. Knock sensors contain a piezo
electric element which, when deformed by
cylinder block vibration caused by knocking,
generates a voltage.
There are two styles of knock sensors used.
The mass type produces a voltage output
over wide range, but the signal is greatest at
a vibration of approximately 7 kHz. The other
style is the resonance type which only
produces a significant voltage signal when
exposed to a vibration of approximately 7
kHz. Since the voltage output from either
knock sensor varies continually, the system
is highly susceptible to electromagnetic and
radio interference. The computer can be
fooled by these stray electrical signals if they
get mixed with the knock sensor signal. For
this reason the signal wire running from the
sensor to the ECU is a special ground-
shielded type. The shield surrounds the
signal wire and is connected to ground so
any electrical interference is taken to ground.
If this shield is damaged or not grounded, the
electrical interference can reach the ECU and
cause it to retard the timing unnecessarily.
Oxygen Sensors
The oxygen sensor, located in the exhaust
manifold, senses whether the air-fuel ratio is
rich or lean, and sends signals to the ECU
which in turn makes minor corrections to the
amount of fuel being metered. This is
necessary for the three-way catalytic
converter to function properly.
There are two kinds of oxygen sensors:
zirconia and titania. The zirconia oxygen
sensor is constructed in a bulb configuration
from zirconia dioxide. A thin platinum plate is
attached to both the inside and outside of the
bulb. The inner area is exposed to the
atmosphere and the outside is exposed to
the exhaust. When the sensor is heated to
approximately 600F, electrically
SENSORS & ACTUATORS

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charged oxygen ions form on the platinum
plates. The amount of oxygen to which each
plate is exposed determines how many ions
form on the plates. When there is a
difference in the number of ions on the
plates, a difference in potential or voltage
occurs between the two plates. The less
oxygen there is in the exhaust, the greater the
voltage produced. When the air-fuel mixture
is lean, the voltage created is low.
Conversely, when the mixture is rich, the
voltage is high.
The titania oxygen sensor does not produce
a voltage. Instead, it undergoes a change in
resistance in relation to the oxygen content in
the exhaust. This type of oxygen sensor is
referred to as a thick film sensor. It consists
of a piece of titania with two wires connected
to it located at the end of an insulator. The
sensor is not exposed to the atmosphere
only to the exhaust. Because the operating
temperature must remain constant, the
sensor has an electric heater. After the

sensor is at operating temperature, the
amount of oxygen to which the titania is
exposed. will change the physical resistance
of the sensor. The ECU supplies a reference
voltage to the sensor and monitors the
voltage at the signal wire, similar to a
thermistor.
Magnetic Inductance
Magnetic inductance sensors consist of a
coil of wire around an iron core plus a
permanent magnet. The magnet can be
either stationary or movable. If the magnet is
the moving member, as it passes the coil the
magnetic lines of force cut through the coil
and a voltage is produced. Since the north
and south poles of the magnet alternate as
they pass the coil, the voltage polarity also
alternates. As the speed of the magnet
rotating past the coil is increased a larger
voltage is produced and the frequency of the
voltage polarity changes is increased. This
same type of sensor can also work if the
magnet is stationary and attached to the core
of the coil. When a toothed reluctor, or rotor
(made from a magnetic material) is rotated
past the coil and magnet, the magnetic lines
of force move and cut through the coil. The
lines of force cutting through the coil will
produce the same type of voltage output as
when the magnet was moving.
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This type of sensor is commonly used as a
wheel speed sensor on ABS equipped
vehicles. This sensor is also used in the
distributor to determine RPM and crankshaft
position. Since the voltage output of this
sensor is varying continually and is low at
low speeds, the computer must be able to
sense the small voltage. If electrical
interference is allowed to combine with the
signal voltage, the computer could be fooled.
To prevent stray electrical interference, the
signal wire usually has a ground shield
formed around it like the knock sensor.
SWITCH TYPE SENSORS
Phototransistor and LED
As discussed in the previous chapter, a
phototransistor is a transistor that is
activated or turned on by light. When
combined with a LED and a rotating slotted
wheel in a vehicle speed sensor, a
phototransistor can supply vehicle speed
data to a computer.
In this type of sensor the LED is aimed at the
phototransistor. When the slotted wheel is
rotated by the speedometer cable, it breaks
the beam of light. The beam of light is
interrupted 20 times per revolution. The ECU
supplies a reference voltage to the collector
of the phototransistor and the emitter is
connected to ground. Each time the light hits
the phototransistor, it turns it on just like a
toggle switch. Each time the phototransistor
is turned on, the wire from the ECU is
connected to ground and the voltage is pulled
down to 0 volts. The ECU can count these
pulses and calculate vehicle speed.
This type of sensor is also used as a G
Sensor or deceleration sensor on the Celica
All Trac and Trucks equipped with ABS. This
sensor has two LEDs aimed at two
phototransistors that are separated by a
slotted plate on a fulcrum. When the vehicle
is decelerated, the plate pivots on the fulcrum
and the slots in the plate line up with one or
the other or both of the LEDs and
phototransistors-depending on the rate of
deceleration. These signals are sent to the
computer so it can determine the
deceleration rate for ABS to operate properly.
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Reed Switches
The reed switch is commonly used as a
speed sensor or position sensor. It consists
of a set of contacts that open when adjacent
to a magnet. In the speed sensor
application, the magnet is attached to the
speedometer cable and rotates with the
cable. Each time one of the poles of the
magnet passes the switch the contacts open
and then close. A voltage is supplied to one
contact on the switch and the other contact is
connected to ground. Each time the points
close, the voltage is pulled down to 0 volts,
just like the phototransistor speed sensor.
ACTUATORS
Stepper Motor
Essentially, stepper motors are digital
actuators; in other words, they are either on
or off. They move in fixed increments in both
directions, and can have over 120 steps of
motion.
Stepper motors are commonly used to
enable the ECU to control idle speed. In most
fuel injection systems, the stepper motor
controls an idle air bypass built into the
throttle body.
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In an idle speed control valve (ISCV), (located
in the air intake chamber) a stepper motor is
built into the ISCV where it rotates a valve
shaft either in or out. This in turn increases
or decreases the clearance between the
valve and the valve seat, thereby regulating
the amount of air allowed to pass through.
The ISCV stepper motor allows 125 possible
valve opening positions.
Solenoids
Like stepper motors, solenoids are digital
actuators. One terminal is attached to battery
voltage while the other is attached to the
computer which opens and closes the
ground circuit as needed. When energized,
the solenoid may extend a plunger or
armature to control functions such as
vacuum flow to various emission-related
systems or fuel injection. Most actuators are
solenoids.
Solenoids are controlled two ways: pulse
width or duty cycle. Pulse width control is
used when the frequency is not consistent.
An example of pulse width is a fuel injector
which is turned on for a determined length of
time and then shut off. Duty cycle control is
used when the frequency does remain
constant. A duty cycle solenoid in ABS is
designed to be on and off for a specific time
according to a selected ratio-on for 20% of
the time and off the other 80%.
Idle speed control valves can be constructed
with a solenoid instead of a stepper motor. In
this case, the function is the same: the ECU
sends a signal to the ISCV to control the
intake air.
Solenoid valves are also used in ECT
transmissions. Shifting is controlled by the
solenoid as it opens or closes a hydraulic
passage to control oil flow to the shift valves.
SENSORS & ACTUATORS

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SENSORS & ACTUATORS

ASSIGNMENT NAME:
1. Describe the term Digital Signal and provide an example.
2. List three types of Resistive senors and provide an example of each.
3. List three types of Voltage generating sensors and provide an example of each.
4. List three types of Switch sensors and provide an example of each.
5. List two types of Actuators and provide an example of each.
6. Describe the operation of both types of thermistors and draw an example of the
electrical circuit.
7. Explain the operation of a Piezo Resistive sensor.
8. Explain how a Piezo Resistive sensor differs from a Piezo Electric sensor.
9. Describe the operation and construction of the two basic types of Oxygen Sensors.
10. Outline the construction and common uses of a Magnetic Inductance sensor.
11. Outline the construction and common uses of a Phototransistor switch.
12. Explain the operation of a Reed switch and how they are used.
13. Describe the basic operation of a stepper motor and how they are used.
14. Explain two ways in which solenoids can be controlled.