Heat and Mass Transfer RKRajput

350
Heat and Mass Transfer
Graetz number, G = Pe
P At L3 Grashoff number, Gr = P ~ g p2 3. The following similarities for testing of 'heat transfer equipment' must be ensured between the model and the prototype: (i) Geometric similarity (ii) Kinematic similarity (iii) Dynamic similarity (iv) Similarity of fluid entry conditions (v) Siniilarity of boundary temperature field.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5 .
6.
r?
-
Forced Convection
7.1. Laminarflow over aflat plate: Introduction to boundary layer - Boundary layer definitions and characteristics - Momentum equation for hydrodynamic boundary layer over a flat plate - Blasius solution for laminar boundary layer flows - Von Karman integral momentum equation (Approximate hydrodynamic boundary layer analysis) - Thermal boundary layer - Energy equation of thermal boundary layer over a flat plate - Integral energy equation (Approximate solution of energy equation). 7.2. Laminar tube flow: Development of boundary layer - Velocity distribution - Temperature distribution, 7.3. Turbulent flow over aflat plate; Turbulent boundary layer - Total drag due to laminar and turbulent layers - Reynolds analogy. 7.4 Turbulent tubeflow. 7.5 Empirical correlations- Typical Examples- Highlights -Theoretical Questions - Unsolved Examples.
7. 8.
9.
10. 1 1 . 12.
THEORETICAL QUESTIONS What is dimensional analysis? What are the uses of dimensional analysis? Explain the term dimensional homogeneity. Describe the Rayleigh's method for dimensional analysis. Describe Buckingham's method or x-theorem to formulate a dimensionally homogeneous equation between the various physical quantities effecting a certain phenomenon. What are dimensionless numbers? Discuss the physical significance of the following dimensionless number Re, Nu, Pr, St, Gr. Show by dimensional analysis for forced convection, N u = (I (Re, Pr) Show by dimensional analysis for free convection, Nu = (I (Pr, Gr) What are the advantages and limitations of 'Dimensional analysis' ? What do you mean by 'Characteristic length or Equivalent diameter' ? For testing of 'heat transfer equipment' which of the similarities must be ensured between the model and the prototype ?
A. LAMINAR FLOW
7.1. LAMINAR FLOW OVER A FLAT PLATE 7.1.1. Introduction to Boundary Layer The concept of boundary layer was first introduced by L. Prandtl in 1904 and since then it has been applied to several fluid flow problems. When a real fluid (viscous fluid) flows past a stationary solid boundary, a layer of fluid which comes in contact with the boundary surface, adheres to it (on account of viscosity) and condition of no slip occurs (The no-slip condition implies that the velocity of fluid at a solid boundary must be same as that of boundary itself). Thus the layer of fluid which cannot slip away from the boundary surface undergoes retardation; this retarded layer further causes retardation for the adjacetit layers of the fluid, thereby developing a small region in the immediate vicinity of the boundary surface in which the velocity of the flowing fluid increases rapidly from zero at the boundary surface and approaches the velocity of main stream. The layer adjacent to the boundary is known as boundary layer. Boundary layer is formed whenever there is relative motion , the fluid exerts a shear stress on the between the boundary and the fluid. Since zo =
boundary and boundary exerts an equal and opposite force on fluid known as the shear resistance. According to boundary layer theory the extensive fluid medium around bodies moving in fluids can be divided into following two regions: ( i ) A thin layer adjoining the boundary called the boundary layer where the viscous shear takes place. (ii) A region outside the boundary layer where the flow behaviour is quite like that of an ideal fluid and the potentialflow theory is applicable.
'
' 4
7.1.1.1 Boundary Layer Definitions and Characteristics Consider the boundary layer formed on a flat plate kept parallel to flow of fluid of velocity U (Fig. 7.1) (Though the growth of a boundary layer depends upon the body shape, flow over a flat plate aligned in the direction of flow is considered, since most of the flow surface can be approximated to a Jlat plate and for simplicity).
352
Forced Convection
353
- The edge facing the direction of flow is called leading edge. - The rear edge is called the trailing edge. - Near the leading edge of a flat plate, the boundary layer is wholly laminar. For a laminar - boundary layer the velocity distribution is parabolic. - The thickness of the boundary layer (6) increases with distance from the leading edge x,
as more and mare fluid is slowed down by the viscous boundary, becomes unstable and breaks into turbulent boundary layer over a transition region.
boundary layer
I
- surface roughness, - pressure gradient,
- plate curvature, and

- temperature difference between fluid and bounary.
but in view of the very small thickness we can reasonably assume that velocity distribution is linear and so the velocity gradient can be considered constant.
(x) Though the velocity distribution would be a parabolic curve in the laminar sub-layer zone,
Laminar
Tr?nsi4
tlon Y
Turbulentboundary layer 1-
Fig. 7.1. Boundary layer on a flat plate.
For a turbulent boundary layer, if the boundary is smooth, the roughness projections are covered by a very thin layer which remains laminar, called laminar sublayer. The velocity distribution in the turbulent boundary layer is given by Log law of Prandtl's one-seventh power law. The characteristics of a boundary layer may be summarised as follows: (i) 6 (thickness of boundary layer) increases as distance from leading edge x increases. (ii) 6 decreases as U increases. (iii) 6 increases as kinematic viscosity ( v )increases.
I
Boundary layer thickness (6) : The velocity within the boundary layer increases from zero at the boundary surface to the velocity of the main stream asymptotically. Therefore, the thickness of the boundary layer is arbitrarily defined as that distance from the boundary in which the velocity reaches 99 per cent of the velocity of the free stream (u = 0.99U). It is denoted by the symbol 6 This definition. however. nives an approximate value of the boundary layer thickness and hence 6 is generally " termed as nominal thickness of the boundary layer. The boundary layer thicknpss for greater accuracy is defined in terms of certain mathematical expressions which are the metsure of the boundary layer on the flow. The commonly adopted definitions of the boundary layer thickness are: 1. Displacement thickness (6*) 2. Momentum thickness (0) 3. Energy thickness (6,).
,
m
Displacement thickness (a*) : The displacement thickness can be defined as follws: "It is the distance, measured perpendicular to the boundby, by whi is displaced on account of formation of boundary layer." Or
(iv)\,q,= p hence ro decreases as x increases. However, when boundary layer becomes turbulent, it shows a sudden increase and then decreases with increasing x. ( v ) When U decreases in the downward direction, boundary layer growth is reduced. (vi) When U decreases in the downward direction. flow near the boundary is further retarded. boundary layer growth is faster and is susceptible to separation. (vii) The various characteristics of the boundary layer on flat plate (e.g.. variation of 6, $ or force F) are governed by inertial and viscous forces: hence they are functions of either
[f)
"It is an additional "wall thickness" that would have to be added to compensate for the reduction in jlow rate on accounibf boundary layer formation. " The displacement thickness is denoted by 6*. Let fluid of density p flow past a stationary plate with velocity U as shown in Fig. 7.2. Consider an elementary strip of thickness dy at a distance y from the plate. Assuming unit width, the mass flow per second through the elementary strip ...( i ) = oudv
. .
u x or -. UL v
v
Mass flow per second through the elementary strip (unit width) if the plate were not there . ...(ii) = p U.dy
(viii) 1f UI < 5 x lo5 ... boundary layer is laminar (velocity distribution is parabolic).
___,
Boundary layer
If -> 5 x 10' ...boundary layer is turbulent on that portion (velocity distribution follows
ux
v
Log law or a power law).
(ir) Critical value of
v at which boundary layer changes from laminar to turbulent depends
on : - turbulence in ambient flow,
___,
Stationary plate
Fig. 7.2. Displacement thickness.
Heat and Mass Transfer Reduction of mass flow rate through the elementary strip
= p(U-u)dy [The difference (U - u ) is called velocity of defect] Total reduction of mass flow rate due to introduction of plate
S
Forced Convection
= J P ( uU-) d~
0
...(iii)
(if the fluid is incompressible) Let the plate is displaced by a distance S* and ,velocity of flow for the distance 6* is equal to the maidfree stream velocity (i.e., U).Then, loss of the mass of the fluidlsec. flowing through the distance S*
= pU6* Equating Eqns. (iii) and (iv), we get
Energy thickness is defined as the distance, measured perpendicular to the boundary of the solid body, by which the boundary should be displaced to compensate for the reduction in K,E. o f the . flowing - fluid on account of boundary layer formation. It is denoted by 6, , Refer Fig. 7.2. Mass of flow per second through the elementaIy strip = pudy K.E. of this fluid inside the boundary layer 1 1 =2 rn u2 - 2 (pudy)u2
J
7
K.E. of the same mass of fluid before 1 entering the boundary Iayer
= 7 (pudy) tJ2
...(iv)
u)dy
Loss of K.E. through elementary strip 1
pU6*
= j p(U0
A
=2 (pudy) u2- 5(pudy)u2 = ? p u (U -u 2) dy
.,.(i)
. ;
Total loss of K.E. of fluid = - -; pu A

0
I1
(u' - u2)dy ,
Momentum thickness (0) : Momentum thickness is defined as the distance through which the total loss of momentum per second be equal to if it were passing a stationary plate. It is denoted by 8. It may also be defined as the distance, measured perpendicular to the boundary of the solid body, by which the bounhry should be displaced to compensate for reduction in momentum of the flowing fluid on account of boundary layer formation. Refer Fig. 7.2. Mass of flow per second through the elementary strip = p u dy Momentudsec of this fluid inside the boundary layer = p u dy x u = pu2 dy Momentum/sec of the same mass of fluid before entering boundary layer = pu Udy Loss of momentudsec = puUdy - pu2dy = pu (U - u ) dy : . Total loss of momentudsec.
S
Let 8, = distance by which the plate is displaced to c o r n p i a t e for the reduction in K.E. Then loss of K.E. through 6,of fluid flowing with velocity 0 1 ...(ii)
= I (pU6.) u2
Equating Eqns. (i) and (ii), we have s
IcpusA 2 u2= J
+pu(u2-u2)dy
= J ~ " (-0u ) d ~
0
...(i)
Example 7.1. The velocity distribution in the boundoly layer is given by:
3 = i, where u
Let 8 = distance by which plate is displaced when the fluid is flowing with a constant velocity U . Then loss of momentudsec of fluid flowing through distance 8 with a velocity U ...(ii) =p8U2 Equating Eqns. ( i ) and (ii), we have
is the velocity at a distance y from the plate and u = U at y = 6, 6 being boundary layer thickness. Find: r*thickness, (ii) The momentum (i) The displacement thickness, (iii) The energy thickness, and u Y Solution. Velocity distribution : 11 = 6
(iv) The value of 8 '
...(Given)
(i) The displacement thickness, 6*:
II
...I Eqn. (7.111

The momentum thickness is useful.in kinetics.
(ii) The momentum thickness, I :

S
I =
j :
0
(l - :Idy
...[Eqn. (7.2)]
(iii)The energy thickness, 6, :
(iv) The value of
F . I
'
- - - '-I 2
I
'-
- 3.0 6/6
U
Example 7.2. The velocity distribution in the boundary layer is given by
-26
- -I y2 2 lj2'
6 being boundary layer thickness.
Calculate the following: (i) The ratio of displacement thickness to boundary layer thickness (ii) The ratio of momentum thickness to boundary layer thickness
6 - 120 Example 7.3. I f velocity distribution in laminar boundary layer over a flat plate is assumed to be given by second order polynomial u = a + by + c y , determine its form using the necessary boundary conditions. Solution. Velocity distribution: u = a + by + cyL The following boundary conditions must be satisfied: (i) At Y = 0, u=0
or
- ---
..
(ii) ~t
u = -3y Solution. Velocity distribution : U 26 (i) 6*/6:

6
Iy2 -262
..
...(Given)
(iii) At
u = a + by + cy2 O=a+O+O ;.a=O y = 6, u=U U = b6 + c6' y = 6, -du dy =o

=
...(i)
..
i
I
6 . ~ 1l--dy=[ o
( ):
d (a + by + cy2)= b + 2cy = b + 2c6 = 0 -
...(dl)
l - ? ~ + l d 26 2@)dy
Substituting the value of b (= - 2 ~ 6from(ii) ) in (i), we get U = (- 2c6)6 + cs2 = - 2cs2 + c6' - c6'
358
Heat and Mass Transfer . Forced Convection Then,

u au +velocity ax . dx = velocity of fluid flow at the right hand face C D (since the flow au changes in the X-direction at the rate of change given by ax and the
Hence form of the velocity distribution is change in velocity during distance dr will be Similarly, let, v = fluid velocity at the bottom face BC, then, v
- )I G
. dr .
av dy = fluid velocity at the top-face AD. +y

OY
7.1.2. Momentum Equation for Hydrodynamic Boundary Layer Over a Flat Plate Consider a fluid flowing over a stationary flat plate and the development of hydrodynamic boundary layer as shown in Fig. 7.3. (a). In order to derive a differential equation for the boundary layer, let us consider an elemental, two-dimensional control volume (dx x dy x unit depth) within the boundary layer region [enlarged view shown in Fig. 7.3 (b)]. Following assumptions are made: 1. The flow is steady and the fluid is incompressible. 2. The viscosity of the fluid is constant. 3. The pressure variations in the direction perpendicular to the plate are negligible. 4. Viscous-shear forces in the Y-direction are negligible. - 5. Fluid is continuous both in space and time. Refer Figure 7.3. (b). Let u = velocity of fluid flow at left hand face AB.
The mass flow rate along X-direction, m, = pu (dy ,X 1) = pu dy The change of momentum of the mass mx along X-direction is given by dM, = m, x change in vebcity in X-direction
...(7.4)
The mass flow rate along Y-direction, m, = pv (dr x 1 ) = pvdx The change of momentum of the mass my along Y-direction is given by
...(7.6)
= pv
au -. JY
h.dy
.
- p$]
( h x 1)
...(7.7)
_+
Velocity distribution Stationary plate
Total viscous force along the X-direction is given by F, = [(z + 6t) z] x area
au a = [Ips& + 3-(.-$).dy)
= p ---ia~ .dr.dy
a2~
...(7.8)
Assuming the gravitational forces are balanced by buoyancy forces for equilibrium of the element, we have Inertia forces = viscous forces Elemental control volume
:.
or or
p u -ax .h.dy+pv-.h.d a~ y = p 5 . d x . d a~ y
u-+ ax u-
au
au
azu
-ST
au
v-
au = p azu
a~
P ay
au a 2 ~ au ax + v -ay =
'v
...(7.9)
(substituting v = P 1
r ' d x
'
.t b c
(b)
'5
Equation (7.9) is known as equation of motion or momentum equation for hydrodynamic

boundary layer.
Fig. 7.3. Equation of motion for boundary layer.
7.1.3. Blasius Exact Solution for Laminar Boundary Layer Flows The velocity distribution in the boundary layer can be obtained by solving the equation of
Heat and Mass Transfer motion for hydrodynamic boundary layer [Eqn. (7.9)]. The following boundary conditions should be satisfied. (ii) At y = 0, v = 0 (iii) At y = =, u = U (i) At y = 0, u = 0 The Blasius technique for an exact solution of the hydrodynamic boundary layer lies in the conversion of the following differential equations into a single differential equation.
Forced Convection
The hydrodynamic equation for boundary layer: u Continuity equation:
au au a 2 ~ aX"5"p
...(Eqn. 7.9)
-du + - =dv o
ax ay
Here f is abbreviated as f (q)
)
h h a ~
Prandtl suggested that the solution of Eqn. (7.9) can be obtained by reducing the number of variables with the help of magnitude analysis of the boundary layer thickness and transforming the partial differential equation into ordinary differentials. The inertia forces represented by the left terms, in the Eqn. (7.9), must be balanced by the viscous forces represented by the right terms. As u 2 v, therefore, we may write as
Now,
a ' -.-( a &

ay
a y m
a& ( ? ?) I .
u 8f
...(7.18)
Also as u = U and - = - along A plate length L, therefore, we have L' Again,
au u ax
Similarly, @u
fl
d"f
I
I
i
1
From experiments it has been o b s e r v e W velocity profiles at different locations along the plate are geometrically similar, i.e., they differ only by a stretching factor in the Y-direction. u This implies that the dimensionless velocity can be expressed at any location x as a function U
of the dimensionless distance from the wall
6'
Substituting the value of 6 from Eqn. (7.1 1) in Eqn. (7.12), we obtain,
where, q = y g d e n o f e s the stretching factor. In order to account for the fact that the vertical camponent of velocity occurs in the boundary layer equation of motion (7.9)' it is essential to define a stream function \y such that,
-.
Inserting the values of u, (7.19) in Eqn. (7.9), we get
au au azu and v from Eqns. (7.15). (7.16), (7.17), (7.18) and a x 9 ay' a 2
V vx
'
or J7.14 (a)] The continuous stream function is the mathematical postulation such that its partial differential with respect to x gives the velocity in the Y-direction (generally taken as negative) and, its partial differential with respect to y gives the velocity in the X-direction:
4 3
8f
362
Forced Convection
363
Table 7.1. Laminar boundary layer solution for a flat plate
or 2f"'+ ff" = 0 ...(7.20) which is an ordinary (but non-linear) differential equation for f. The number of primes on f denotes the number of successive derivatives off (q) with respect toy. The physical and transformed boundary conditions are: Physical boundary conditions Transformed boundary conditions At ? =l 0. Atq =w,
(ii) At y = 0, (iii) At y = w
v=O u=U
f=O
g= f J =I
4
2. The graphlcurve I (i.e., the velocity distribution parallel to the surface) enables us to calculate the parameters : (i) Boundary layer thickness, 6 and (ii) skin friction coefficient,
(i) Boundary layer thickness, 6: The boundary layer thickness 6 is taken to. be the distance from the plate surface to a point
c,.
at which the velocity is within 1% of the asymptotic limit, i.e., U = 0.99; it occurs at q = 5.0 (Fig. 7.4). Therefore, the value of q at the edge of boundary layer O, = 6) is given by
7
Fig. 7.4. Velocity distribution in boundary layer on flat plate by Howarth
The numerical solution of Eqn. (7.20) with the corresponding values of u and v are plotted in Fig. 7.4, and the results are listed in table 7.1. The following results are of particular interest:
1. The single curve I1 shows the variation of normal velocity v It is to be noted that at the
outer edge of the boundary layer where q + -, this does not go to zero but approaches the value
u'
where
Re, = v is the local Reynolds number based on distance x from the leading
Ux
edge of the plate. (ii) Skin friction coefficient; Cf: The skin friction coefficient (Cf) is defined as the ratio of shear stress zo at the plate to the dyMmic head
I 5 p
~ caused ' by free stream velocity. Thus the local skin friction coefficient
Cfi at any value of x is
Forced Convection
Cfx =
1
To
Let ABCD be a small element of a boundary layer (the edge DC represents the outer edge of the boundary layer). 1 p2
...(7.23)
u 2
From Fig. 7.4, the gradient at 11 = 0 is
+
layer flat plate
0
365
Fig. 7.5. Momentum equation for boundary layer by Von Karman.
Mass rate of fluid entering through AD
Mass rate of fluid leading through BC The average value of the skin friction coefficient Zf can be determined by integrating the local skin friction coefficient Cfx from x = 0 to x = L (where L is the plate length) and then dividing the integrated result by the plate length
=o
ipudy 2lPudyJh
: .
Mass rate of fluid entering the control \ -1ume through the surface DC = mass rate of fluid through BC - mass rate of fluid through AD
where ReL is the Reynolds number based upon total length L of the plate.
7.1.4. Von Karman Integral Momentum equation (Approximate Hydrodynamic Boundary
The fluid is entering through DC with a uniform velocity U . Momentum rate of fluid entering the control volume in x-direction through AD
6
Layer Analysis) Since it is difficult to obtain the exact solution of hydrodynamic boundary layer [Eqn. (7.9)] even for as simple geometry as flat plate (moreover the proper similarity variable is not known or does not exist. for many practical shapes), therefore, a substitute procedure entailing adequate accuracy has been developed which is known as "Approximate lntegral Method" and this is based upon a boundary-layer momentum equation derived by Von Karman. -von - Karman -suggested a method based on the momentum equation by the use of which the1 growth of a boundry layer along a flat plate, the wall shear stress and the drag force could be determined (when the velocity distribution in the boundary layer is known). Starting from the beginning of the plate, the method can be used for both laminar and turbulent boundnry layers Figure 7.5, shows a fluid flowing over a thin plate (placed at zero incidence) with a free stream velocity equal to U . Consider a small length dr of the plate at a distance x from the leading edge as shown in Fig. 7.5 (a); the enlarged view of the small length of the plate is shown in Fig. 7.5 (b). Consider unit width of plate perpendicular to the direction of flow.
I pu2 dy
8
Momentum rate of fluid leaving the control volume in x-direction through BC

r6
1
Momentum rate of fluid entering the control volume through DC in x-direction

r6
1
(':
velocity = I / )
: .
L" Rate of change of momentum of control volume

= momentum rate of fluid through BC - momentum rate of fluid through AD - momentum rate of fluid through DC.
Forced Convection
367
Euation (7.28) is known as Von Karman momentum equation for boundary layerflow, and is used to find out the frictional drag on smooth flat plate for both laminor and turbulent boundary u expresses the wall shear stress,% as a function of layers. Evidently, this integral equation (7.28) the non-dimensional velocity distribution U' u is a point velocity at the boundary layer and U is the velocity at the outer edge of boundary layer. The following boundary conditions must be satisfied for any assumed velocity distribution du u = 0, d Y = finite value y = 0, (i) At the surface of the plate:
-a
(ii) At the outer edge of boundary layer: y = 6, d

0
u=U
( p is constant for incompressible fluid)
As per momentum principle the rate of change of momentum on the control volume ABCD must be equal to the total force on the control volume in the same direction. The only external force acting on the control volume is the shear force acting on the side AB in the direction B to A (Fig. 7.56). The value of this force (drqg force) is given by
AFD=z0xdr Thus the total external force in the direction of rate of change of momentum =-,r0xdx Equating the Eqns. (7.26) and (7.27), we have
...(7.27)
The shear stress zo for a given velocity profile in laminar, transition or turbulent zone is obtained from Eqn. [7.28 (a)]or [7.28 (b)].Then drag force on a small distance dr of a plate is given by A FD = shear stress x area = zo x (B x dx) = zo x B x dr (where B = width of the plate) : . Total drag on the plate of L length L one side.
F D = j ~o ~ D = ] b ~ ~ ~ &
..(7.29)
- The ratio of the shear stress zo to the quantity 2 pu2 is known as the "Local coefficient
of drag" (or coeflcient of skin friction) and is denoted by Cfr
- The ratio of the total drag force to the quantity U called ~ 'Average coefficient of 2 ~ A is FD ...(7.31) Cf = 7 PAu2 2 p = mass density of fluid, where A = area of surfacelplate, and U = free stream velocity. It has been observed through experiments that for laminar boundary layer, the velocity along the plate are distribution is parabolic and the velocity profiles at different locations u
1.
drag' - and is denote by CD. e.,
...(7.28)
...[7.28 (a)]
geometrically similar. This means that the dimensionless velocity
u can
be expressed at any
But
!
6
(1
- $)dy = momentum thickness ( 8 )

...[7.28 (b)]
,
locatjon x as a function of the dimensionless distance from the wall, 6'
The constants can be evaluated by using the following boundary conditions:
Forced Convection
20
(i) At y = 0 (wall surface),
u = U and - = 0
a2~
+ 4A4 = 3CLI/ 6
a 9
K ' on simplification, we get
ay By applyiug boundary conditions the constants are evaluated which gives the velocity profile
as:
,,
(ii) At y = 6 (outer edge of the boundary layer),
au u = U and - = 0
p@ =o-
7iq'
0.646
Therefore, the local skin friction coefficient.
In order to determine the boundary layer thickness and average skin-friction coefficient for laminar flow over a flat plate, let us now use this above velocity profile in the Von Karman integral equation. Now putting the value of
U in Eqn. (7.28), we get
.,
Average value of skin friction coefficient, 1 J 0.646 dx E f - L 0 cfx*=L o d $ z i f i
- jL
--
where
ReL = k@! is Reynolds number based on total length L of the flate. u
or
To
39 d6 pu2 du 280
...(7.34)
Mass pow through boundary layer

The mass flow rate per unit width through the boundary layer is calculated assuming parabolic velocity distribution in the boundary layer as 3 1
Newton's law of viscosity, at solid surface, gives

=
($Izo 4% 3$)llv=o
3
p ( 6 )-
or
70
= 26
3CLLI
3pU % pu2dx - 26 39
...(7.35)
From equations (7.34) and (7.35), we have
= @.%fx 13 pu Since, 6 is a function of x only, integration yields
or
13pU By using the boundary condition 6 = 0 at x = 0, we obtain the integration constant C = 0. @ -B or 6 2 = 140x 2 x~ 2 13pU 13 PU This can be expressed in the non-dimensional form as
B -B+c 2
..
...(7.36)
where Re, =
x U
U r-
is the Reynolds number based on distance x from the leading edge of the plate.
Further, in order to estimate the value of zo, substituting the value of 6 Eqn. (7.36) in Eqn. (7.39, we get
-- 370
Forced Convection
Example 7.4. The velocity profile for laminar boundary is in the form given below:
Find the thickness of boundary layer at the endof the plate 1.5 m long and 1 m wide when placed in water flowing with a velocity of 0.12 d s . Calculate the value of coefJicienr of drag also. Take p for water = 0.001 Ws/rn2 Solution. Velocity distribution
U u - 2 6 ) -
(i) The maximum distance from the leading edge upto which laminar boundary layer exists, X: 12 x x Re, = Ux or 2 x lo5 = v 0.15 x lo4
The length of the plate, L = 1.5 m The width of the plate, B = 1 m Free stream velocity, U = 0.12 m/s p for water = 0.001 Ns/m2
br
(ii) The maximum thickness of boundary layer, 6 :

For the given velocity profile, the maximum thickness of boundary layer is given by 5.48 x =
...( Given)
Thickness of the boundary layer, 6: Reynolds number at the end of the plate (i.e., at a distance of 1.5 m from the leading edge) is given by
Since ReL < 5 x lo5, therefore, this is case of laminar boundary layer. Thickness of boundary layer at a distance of 1.5 m is given by
Example 7.6. A plate of length 750 mm and width 250 mm has been placed longitudinally in a stream of crude oil which flows with a velocity of 5 m/s. I f the oil has a specific gravity of 0.8 and kinematic viscosity of 1 stoke, calculate: ( i ) Boundary layer thickness at the middle of plate, (ii) Shear stress at the middle of plate, and (iii) Friction drag on one side of the plate. Solution. Length of the plate, L = 750 mm = 0.75 m Width of the plate, B = 250 mm = 0.25 m U = 5 mls Velocity of oil, Specific gravity of oil = 0.8 Kinematic viscosity of oil, v = 1 stoke = 1 x lod4 m2/s ( i ) Boundary layer thickness at middle of the plate 6:
Reynold number,
(
Coefficient of drag
Cf :
'.' At the middle of plate, x = 0.792 = 0.375 m)
Example 7.5. Air is flowing over a smooth flat plate with a velocity of 12 m/s. The velocity profile is in the form:
Since Re, < 5 x lo5, therefore, boundary layer is of laminar character and Blasius solution gives
The length of the plate is 1.1 m and width 0.9mJf laminar boundary layer exists upto a value of Re = 2 x 1 6 and kinematic viscosity of air is 0.15 stokes, find: (i) The maximum distance from the leading edge upto which laminar boundary layer exists, and (ii) The maximum thickness of boundary layer. Solution. Velocity distribution:
U
(ii) Shear stress at the middle of plate, T , : According to Blasius, the local coefficient of drag (C,J is given by
By definition,
Velocity of air, U = 12 m/s Length of plate, L = l.lm Width of plate, B = 0.9m Reynolds number upto which laminar boundary exists, Re = 2 x lo5 Kinematic viscosity of air, v = 0.15 stokes = 0.15 x lo4 m2/s
3x2
(iii) Friction drag on one side of the plate, FD:
As the boundary layer is laminar even at the trailing edge, therefore, the average drag (friction) coefficient,
Solution. Length of the plate, L = 5 m B = 2.5 m Width of the plate, . U = 4 mls Velocity of air, p = 1.208 kg/m3 Density of air, Kinematic viscosity of air, v = 1.47 x 1w5 m2/s (i) Length of plate over which the boundary layer i s laminar:
: .
Firction drag,
1 U2 x area of plate on one side FD = -' x 2P

I
Reynolds number
Re,
=uL V
4 7x 50 - ~= 1 . 3 6 1 ~ 1 @ 1.4 x1
1d
= 6.858 x
1 x (0.8 x 2
Ux is laminar and on the rear, it is turbulent. Hence on the front portion, boundary layer
1000) x 52 x 0.75 x 0.25
Re, =
= 12.86 N
(Note : If velocity profile is not given in the problem, but boundary layer is laminar then Blasius's solution is used.). Example 7.7. Atnzospheric air at 20C is flowing parallel to a flat plate at a velocity of 2.8 4 s . Assuming cubic velocity profile and using exact Blasius solution, estimate the boundary layer thickness and the local coeficient of drag (or skin friction) at x = 1.2 m from the leading edge of the plate. Also find the deviation of the approximate solution from the exact solution. Take the kinenmtic viscosity of air at 20C = 15.4 x lo4 m2/s Solution. Velocity of air, U = 2.8 m/s Distance from the leading edge of the plate, x = 1.2 m Reynolds number Blasius solution: Boundary layer thickness, Local coefficient of drag,
6=
=5x v
Hence the boundary layer is laminar on 1.837 m length of the plate. Thickness of the boundary layer (laminar), 6
&
0.664
(ii) Shear stress at the location where boundary layer ceases to be laminar, g : = O.CM0939 Local coefficient of drag, Cf, = 1 1 b = C f x X g p u ~ = o . w ~ ~ ~ ~~4~ x ~ x I . ~ o ~
K i F
6 2 18 x 1
= 0.01285 m = 12.85 mm
= 0.00907 ~ / m ~
(iii) Total drag force on both sides of plate, FD 1 :
= 0.001422 cfx = K = xlOI
Approximate solution (with assumption of cubic velocity profile):
1.328 where. Cf = average coefficient of drag (or skin friction) = 5 x 105 = 1.878 x l(r3
,
F~=Zf XC 2 X - ~ A U ~
and A = area of the plate = 1.837 x 2.5 = 4.59 m2 The approximate solution deviates from the exact solution by 12.85 - 11.92 Derivation for 6: x 100 = 7.34% 12.85 Drviation for Example 7.8. Air is flowing over a flat plate 5 m long and 2.5 m wide with a v&ocity of 4 m/s at 15C. I f p = 1.208 kg/m3 alzd v = 1.47 x 1 ~ 'm2/s, wlculate: ( i ) Length of plate over which the boundary layer is laminar, and thickness of thk'boundary layer (laminar). (ii) Shear stress at the location where boundary layer ceases to be laminar, andt,,.. : (iii) Total drag force on the both sides on that portion of plate where boundary layer is laminar.
i
..
Fo = 2 x 1.878 x
1 5 x 1.208 x 4.59 x 42 = 0.167 N
Example 7.9. Airflows over a plate 0.5 m long and 0.6 wide with a velocity of 4 d s . The u = sin -
:( i)
- If p = 1. Z l k g / d and v = 0.15 x 1
m2/s, calculate:
(i) Boundary layer thickness at the end of the plate, (ii) Shear stress at 250 mm from the leading edge, and (iii) Drag force on one side of theptate. L = 0.5 m Solution. Length of plate, B = 0.6 m Width of plate, U = .4 mls Velocity of air,
374
Heat and
Mass Transfer
Forced Convection
375
Density of air, Kinematic viscosity of air, Velocity profile,
p = 1.24 kg/m3
u = sin (i) Boundary layer thickness at the end of the plate, 6: Reynolds number, Rex = ux = 4 x 0e5 = 1 . 3 3 10s ~ V 0.15 x lo4 Since Rex c 5 x loS, therefore, the boundary layer is laminar over the entire length of the
, (f3
- '
v = 0.15 x
m2/s
distribution will be as shown in the Fig. 7.6. The zone or this layer wherein the temperature fiefd exists is called the thermal boundary layer. Due to the exchange of heat between the plate and the fluid, temperature gradient occurs/results. The thermal boundary layer thickness (6,,,) is arbitrarily defined as the distance y from the plate surface at which
plate. We know,
= 0.00657 m = 6.57 mm (ii) Shear stress at 250 mm from the leading edge, 5:
...[Eqn. (7.30)J
- " 7 f
I
It ! I
c-4
Temperature profile
But,
Cf.= -=-0.654
0.654
0.654 0.15 x
= 0.002533
F i g .7 . 7 . Thermal boundary layer formed during flow of
warm fluid over a cool plate.
(iii) Drag force on one side of the plate, F, :
Figure 7.7, shows the shape of the thermal boundary layer when the free stream temperature t, is above the plate surface temperature t,. The thermal boundary layer concept is analogous to hydrodynamic boundary layer; the parameters which affect their growth are however different. Whereas the velocity profile of the hydrodynamic boundary layer depends mainly on the fluid viscosity. the temperature profile of the thermal boundary layer depends upon the viscosity, velocity of flow, specific heat and thermal conducitivity of the fluid. The relative magnitude of 6 and 6thare affected by the thermo-physical properties of the fluid; the governing parameter, however, is h e non-dimensional Prandtel number,
pr =
1.33 x loS and A = area of the plate = L x B = 0.5 x 0.6 = 0.3 m2
where
CD =
1.31
- 0.003592
7.
..
1 FD = 0.003592 x 7 x 1.24 x 0.3 x 4' = 0.01069 N
( i ) 6th= 6 (iii) 6 , > 6
........ when Pr = 1; ........ when Pr < 1.
(ii)
4, < 6
........P r >
7.1.5. Thermal Boundary Layer Whenever a flow of fluid takes place past a heated or cold surface, a temperature field is set up in the field next to the surface. If the surface of the plate is hotter than fluid, the temperature Limit of thermal boundary layer
Free stream
t
r Plate surface (I,)
Laminar
t --*
Turbulent
I+
7.1.6. Energy Equation of Thermal Boundary Layer Over a Flat Plate Figure 7.8 (a) shows a hot fluid flowing over a cool flat plate, and development of the thermal boundary layer. In order to derive an energy equation, consider control volume (dr x dy x unit depth) in the boundary layer so that end effects are neglected. The enlarged view of this control volume is shown in Fig. 7.8 (b) in which the quantities of energy entering and leaving have been indicated. Involving principle of conservation of energy for the steady state condition, we have: Heat energy convected (E,,,,) through the control volume in X and Y directions + heat energy conducted (Econd,)through the control volume in X and Y directions + heat generated due to fluid friction (viscous heat generation) in the conuol volume = 0. But as the rate of temperature change in the X-directidn is small and can be neglected the conservation of energy becomes: Heat energy convected in X and Y directions + heat energy conducted in Y-direction + viscous S t heat generation = 0. ...(7.41) or d ( E ) , + d(EcOnv.), + d(ECod), + viscous heat generation = 0
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
F i g .7 . 6 . Thermal boundary layer formed during flow of cool fluid over a warm plate.
Heat and Mass Transfer Forced Convection
boundary layer Plate surface

(r,>
(iii) The heat conduction in tbe y-direction: - (~cotuf.h+dy d(Ecod), = (E~md.)~ at
Viscous heat generation
. t
(Ec~nv.!v +dy
...(7.44)
the element).
= [Shear stress (r) x area upon which it acts)] =

Fig. 7.8. Energies entering and leaving the control volume.
.x distance travelled
(dr x l)] x
[,$
($dy)
(i) The Energy convected in X-direction: (Econ,.)x = mass x specific heat x temperature = [pu(dy x l)] c,t = (pu dy) c,,t
Substituting the values in Eqn. (7.411, we get
...(7.46)
Form the continuity equation for two-dimensional flow, we have
... neglecting the product of small quantities .

n a
,,
u- at + v-at =
ax
a~
n p ( ?= ' ay s + P . ,ay
--a2t
PC,
au av -+-=0:
thus the Eqn. (7.46) reduces to
...(7.47)
Equation (7.47) is the requid di#erential energy qUUt0n f0rflDw PaR a fLY p*1te. If heat genemhon is neglected [when the value of U is relatively 10" and difference of temperature swam and the plate is s d l (of the order of 40c)1, fhe energ Cqudlon reduces bewen the at k a2t 2t ...(7.48) u -at +,-=--=a ax ay PC, a 3
&=
(ii) The energy convected in Y-direction: The net energy cor+vectedin Y-direction,
"
.
L
fi may noted, the energy equation is similar to the momentum equation. Further the dimensions of kinematic viscosity v and thermal diffusivity a are the same. The auation (7.48) has been derived with the following assumptiom: 1. Steady incompressible flow. ts t, are constant. 2. m e properties of the fluids evaluated at the film temperature $ 2
278
Forced Convection
3. The body forces, viscous heating and conduction in the flow direction are negligible. Pohlhausen solution for the 'Energy equation': By using the following variables the energy equation u at ax into an ordinary differential equation as follows: (Stretching factor) = Y at = a-+ vJY
ay2 .
45,
"1
can be recast
.'
yf (StreaIn function) =
Pr (Randtl number) =
f (ll), and
Also, the values of the &locity components u and v already calculated earlier are:
u = u&
4
.
4
...[Eqn. (7.15)l
Thus the partial differential equation (7.48) has been converted into ordinary differential equation. The boundary conditions to the satisfied are: At t = t,, y-0 y=m At t = t, ...(7.55) At q = 0, e(q) = values in terms of new variable ~t q = em) = 1 The solution obtained by Pohlhausen for energy equation is given by:
...[Eqn. (7.19)J
Further, from temperature parameter 0 (non-dimensional) defined above. we have t = t,#+ (t, - t,) e at-- (t- - tJ ae = (tm - t#) ax ax atl ax at
\Wh=o surface where q = 0; its value can be obtained by applying the boundary condition at r\ = w, 801) = 1. Thus,
J7.50)
de The factor fr)
represents the dimensionless dope of the temperature profile at the
and or Also,
ax atae = (t- - t,) ", h - 0,. - ts) ay JY atl ay

at
,,
Evidently the dimensionless slope is a function of Prandtl number and the calculations made by Prandtl gave the following result : = 0.332 (PI)'" For 0.6 < Pr 15,
=o
Figure 7.9 shows the values of 0 (dimensionless temperature distribution) plotted for various values of Pr (Prandtl number). - The curve for Pr = 0.7 is typical for air and several other gases. - The curve for Pr = 1 is the same as that of curve I in Fig. 7.4. - These curves also enable us to determine the thickness of thermal boundary layer 6,hand, local average heat transfer coefficients h.
Thermal
or
8t - (1.. $2
u-+v-=aa~ ax
at at
bsening the above values in the energy equation, we get: a2t
tJ&e - 4) vxdq2
ay2
U -Z d28 -
vx 4 After simplification and arrangement of the above equation, we obtaL
= a (t, - t,)
...(7.53)
Heat and Mass Trapfpr
Fdrced Convection
Thickness of thermal boundary layer, 6, : Case I: When Pr = 1.
Substituting for Since y = 6, at the outer edge of thermal boundary layer, therefore,
7
in Eqn. (7.63). we obtain
:\'I'.
= hx i t s - tJ = 0.332
k 1i2 pr)in ; (t, - tm)(Rex)

...( 7.64
...(7.65)
or or This equation shows that for Pr = 1, the thickness of thermal boundary layer, 6, is equal to hydrodynamic boundary layer, 6. Case 1 1 . When Pr < 1.
, 7
hx = 0.332 ; ( ~ e ~ ) l(pr)'" "
2 X = 0.332 (Re,) 112 (pr)ln NU, = h k
... (In non-dimensional form)
[where
hx = local convective heat transfer coefficient; Nu. = local value of Nusselt number (... at a distance x from the leading edge of the plate]. The average heat transfer coefficient is given by
A
This equation shows that for Pr < 1, 6, > 6 Case 1 1 1 . When Pr > 1.
\
/
If we comparethe Eqns. (7.64) and (7.66), we find that h = 2hx

This equation shows that for Pr > 1, ath< 6 Pohlhausen has suggested that the following relation is general may be \the thermal and hydrodynamic boundary layers:
between
...(7.62) (PrV3 . , The local and average heat transfer coefficients: At the surface of the plate, since there is no fluid motion and the heat transfer can occur only through conduction, the heat flux may be written as
6, = -
valid for Pr > 0e5. ~ 1 the 1 results in Eqns. (7.64), (7.65) and (7.68) 7.1.7. lote& Energy aquation (Approximate ~olutionof e n e r a equation) volume shown in Fig. 7.10. Assume that p, cp and (thermo-plastic Consider a Hydrodynamic 7 boundary layer Qh Thermal boundary
u,t,
f I--From the relation 7.63, we may develop

4
I
#"#--
(i.e., surface temperature gradient) as
Control
.mlnrne
I ' I I I
I I
~-xoL.__)l
Qck
Thin flat plate
e I+----x
382
Heat and Mass Transfer. ,
Forced Convection over a flat plate (that has an unheated starting length xO),let US use cubic velocity and temperature distributions in the integral boundary layer energy equation as follows: he cubic velocity profile within the boundary layer is of the fom; ...[Eqn. (7.33)l
propertids) of fluid remain constant within the operating range of the temperature, and the heating of the plate commences at a distance xo from the leading edge of the plate (so that the boundary layer initiates at x = xo and develops and grows beyond that). For unit width of the plate we have: Mass of fluid entering through face AB = jo pu dy Mass of fluid leaving through face CD =
H
...(7.69)
4
H
pu dy
a "
U
The conditions which are satisfied by the temperature distribution within the boundary layer are: (i) At y = 0, t = ts
: .
[Io pu d y ] d r
...(7.70)
Mass of fluid entering the control volume through face BC

=
[jOH Pu dy + $ {joH pu dy) dx] - joH pu dy = $ [joH pu dy] dx

Q, = mass x specific heat x temperature
-47.71;
Heat influx through the face AB,
Heat efflux through the face CD,

-=--
W e temperature distribution takes the following fom:
...(7.79)
Heat (energy) influx through the face BC (which is outside thermal boundary layer and there the temperature is constant at t,),
B , , putting the proper values of velocity distribution and temperature distribution into the
Heat conducted into the control volume through face AD,
The energy balance for the element is given by
After simplification and rearrangement, we have
Equation (7.76) is the integral equation for the boundary layer for constant properties and constant free stream temperature t,. If the viscous work done within the element is considered, then Eqn. (7.76) becomes
integrind would be zero). After putting
6 t h a =
and earlying out the integration, Eqn. (7.80) gets reduced
...(7.81)
\-,, -
d r dy = viscous work done within the element ...Eqp. (7.8)] ay2 Usually the viscous dissipation term is very small and is neglected (and may be considered only when velocity of flow field becomes very large).
[when
PC,
Neglecting the term involving r4 (because 3 = 20 U (t,
c 6, r < 11, we have d
- t,) 5 (62)
Exp-ion for the convective heat transfer coefficient for laminar flow over a flat blab: In order to derive an expression for convective heat transfer coefficient for laminar flow
F u ~ h e r from , Eqn. (7.77). we kave
386

( v ) Thickness of the boundary layer,
Forced Convection
(vi) Local convective heat transfer coeflcient, (vii) Average convective heat transfer coeflcient, (viiil Rate of heat transfer by convection, (k) Total drag force on the plate, and (x) Total mass flow rate through the boundary. Solution. Given: U = 3mls. x = 280 mm = 0.28 m, p = 1.1374 kg/m3,k = 0.02732 W/mC, cP = 1.005 W g K , v = 16.768 x 10d m2/s.
Let us first amxtain the type of the flow, whether laminar or turbulent.
V 16.768 x lo4 = 5.0 x 104 Since Re, < 5 ' lo5, ~ hence flow in laminar.
(vii)Average convective heat transfer eoeff~cient,h:
(viii) Rate of heat transfer by convection, Qco,,:
Re, =
u x-
(0 Boundary layer thickness at x = 0.28 m, 6 :
(ix) Total drag force on the plate, FD: FD = q , x area of plate on one side upto 0.28 m = 0.01519 x 0.28 x 0.28 = 0.00119 N (Ans.) (x) Total mass flow 5 rate through the boundary, m :
m = - pU (6, - 61) 8
or
6=
(2) Local friction coefficient,
C'.:
5 x 0.28 7 = 0.00626 m or 6.26 mm 5 x lo4
=8
x 1.1374 x 3(0.00626 - 0) = 0.01335 kgls (Ans.)
or
(iii) Average friction coefficient, C'
4 = - 50.664 = 0.002969 x lo4
Example 7.11. Air at atmospheric pressure and 200C flows over a plate with a velocity of 5 d s . The plate is 15 mm wide and is maintained at a temperature of 120C. Calculate the thicknesses of hydrodynamic and thermal boundaiy layers and the local heat transfer coefficient at a distance of 0.5 m from the leading edge. Assume that /low is on one side of the plate. p = 0.815 kg/rn3; p = 24.5 x 1 r 6iVs/m2, Pr = 0.7. k = 0.0364 W/m K . (AMIE Summer, 1997)
cf=x=zF (iv) Shearing stress due to friction, To :

= 0.002969 x , : (v) Thickness of thermal boundary layer, &
or
= 0.005939
Pr = 0.7; k = 0.0364 W / m K.
Let us first ascertain the type of flow, whether laminar or tubulent.
32 = 0.01519 N / ~ ~
Since Re, < 5 x Id, hence flow is laminar. Boundary layer thickness at x = 0.5 m, 6 : 6 = 5x = 5 x 0.5 = 8.669 x lo-) m or 8.669 mm fie" 4iZE
--
(Ans.)
6 , =
(vi) Local convective heat transfer coefficient, 4 :

X
6 (Pr) 0.00626 -0.00705 m or (0.7)'"

Irn
Thickness of thermal boundary layer, at x = 0.5 m, St.:

...[Eqn. (7.62)
s t h = - -8.669 =
Local heat transfer coefficient, h, :
7.05 mm
( P ~ ) '/~ (0.7)"~
9.763 mm
(Ans.)
...[Eqn. (7.64)l
= 6.189 w/m2 K
k (Re,)'" (pr)'" hx = a332 -
...[Eqn. (7.64)]
= 0.332 x
-.- x (83l63)ln x (0.7)'"
(Ans.)
Example 7.12. Air at atmospheric pressure and 40C flows with a velociry of (I= 5 m/s over a 2 m long f k plde ~ whose surface is kept at a uniform temperature of 120C. Determine
Heat and Mass'Transfer
the average heat transfer coeflcient over the 2 m length of the plate. Also find out the rate of heat transfer between the plate and the air per I m width of the plate. [Air at 1 arm. and 80C,
v = 2.107 x 10- m2/s,k = 0.03025 W/m K, Pr = 0.69651 (AMIE Winter, 1998) Solution. Given :t, = 40C; U = 5 m/s; L = 2 m, t, = 120C; B = 1 m
Now, The properties of air at mean bulk temperature of
...assumed
v = 2.107 x 10- m2/s; k = 0.03025 W/m K ; Pr = 0.6965.

Average heat transfer coefficient, h :
Assuming Re,,= 5 x lo5, the flow is laminar. Using exact solution, the average Nusselt number is given by = 0.664 (~e,)'" ( ~ r )
5 = z x 1.16 x 2 x 0.00857 = 0.01242 k g h

8
(Ans.)
-.
or
...[Eqn. (7.68)]
hL k = 0.664 (4.746 x 1@)ln
(0.6965)'" = 405.48
X,
Note, ~f h e mass added in the boundary is to be calculated when h e fluid moves from 1 0 + along the main flow direction then it is given by S Am = : PU (8, - 8,)
are the boundary layer thicknesses at X l and q .
Rate of heat transfer, Q :
& -where 6 , and l
Q = ZA, ( t ,- t,)
(Ans.) Example 7.13. Air at 27C and I barflows over a plate at a speed of 2 m/s. (i) Calculate the boundary layer thickness at 400 mm from the leading edge of the plate. Find the massflow rate per unit width of the plate. For air p = 19.8 x 10- kg/ms at 27C. (ii)If the plate is maintained at 60C, calculate the heat transferred per hour. The properties of air at mean temperature of (27 + 6 0 ) d = 43.5' C are given below :
= 6.133 x (2 x 1 ) (120 - 40) = 981.28 W
(ii) Heat transferred -per hour, Q :
v = 17.36 x 10- m2/s; k = 0.02749 W/mC

c,=lOOBJ/kgK; R=287Nm/kgmK; Pr=0.7.
- 15'76 3600 = 416.74 kl/h

(M.U.)
1000
(Ans.)
Solution. Given :t = 27C; p = 1 bar, U = 2 m/s; x = 400 rnm = 0.4 m

(i) Boundary layer thickness, 6 :
Example 7.14. Air at 1 bar and at a temperature of 30C (Y. = 0.06717 kghrn)flows at a speed of I.2ds over a fiat plate. Determine the boundary layer thickness at distance of Somm and 500 mm from the leading edge of the plate. Also, calculate the mass entrainment bemeen
these m o sections. Assume the parabolic velocity distribution as: - = -
Boundary layer thickness, 6 = 4.64 x
(Ans.)
Solution. Given : t.. = 30c, )I = 0.06717 kglhm, U = 1.2 mls Boundary layer thicknesses: = 1.15 kg/m3 E-= 1 x lo5 The density of air, = RT 287 x (30 + 273)
4.64 x 0.4 = 0.00857 m or 8.57 mm 46869 The mass flow rate per metre width is given by,
6=
-= = = J- ,
Heat and Mass Transfer Boundary layer thickness,
Forced Convection
6, = 4.64~ 6, = 4.64 x 0.25
...[Eqn. (7.36)]
mm (Ans.)
. I 1 8 4 9 0 = 0.00853 m or 8.53
x 3600
Re, =
1.15 x 1.2 x 0.5 0.067 17
= 36981
..
Boundary layer thickness,
62 = 4.64 x 0.5 = 0.01206 m = 12.06 mm (Ans.)
Mass entrainment: The mass flow rate at any position in the boundary layer is given by
Gzi-
Q = 3; x A , ( t , "-t,) = 10.7 x (0.2 x 0.5) x (100- 20) = 85.6W (Ans.) Example 7.16. In a certain glass making process, a square plate of glass 1 m2 area and 3 mm thick heated uniformly to 90C is cooled by air at 2U'Cflowing over both sides parallel to the plate at 2 m/s. Calculate the initial rate of cooling the plate. Neglect temperature gradient in the glass plate and consider only forced connection. Take for glass : p = 2500 kg/m3 and cp= 0.67 W / k g K Take the following properties of air : - . p = 1.076 kg/mJ; cp = 1008 JAcg K, k = 0,0286 W/mOC and p = 19.8 x l(T6 N-$/mL. (N.U., 1997)
Solution. Given : A = 1 m2; t, = 90C; t, = 2QC, U = 2 d s .
.. ..
h = -' O0.2 2'
x 0.664 x (2.11 x 1 0 ~ ) " ~ (0.7)"~= 10.7
w/m2~c(Ans.)
7 Plate at 90C
Fig. 7.11
:.
The mass entrainment between the two sections be., at x = 250 mm and x = 500 mm.
Initial rate o f cooling : The average heat transfer - co-efficient for the air flow parallel to the plate is given by hL .[Eqn. 7.68)] (pr)'l3 Nu = K = 0.664 ( ~ e , ) " ~
= 3.045 x kg/s = 10.96 kg/h (Ans.) Example 7.15. Air at 20C is flowing over a flat plate which is 200 mm wide and 500 mm long. The plate is maintained at 100C. Find the heat loss per hour from the plate if the air is flowing parallel to 500 mm side with 2m4 velocity. What will be the efect on heat transfer if the flow is parallel to-200 mm side. The properties of dir at (100 + 20)D = 60C are: v = 18.97 x 1@ m2/s, k = 0.025 W/mC and Pr = 0.7. (M.U.) . --, Solution. U = 2 m/s, v = 18.97 x lo4 m2/s, k = 0.025 W/mC and Pr = 0.7. Heat loss per hour from the plate, Q: Case I. When the flow is parallel to 500 mm side:
(valid for Pr > 0.5)
Substituting the values in the abovgeqn, we get
hL= k 0.664 x ( 1 .087x 10")"~ x (0.698)]/~ = 194.19
where,
k uL Re, = V
N u = -hL -
- 0.664 (Re,)'"
(pr)'"
...[Eqn. (7.68)]
The heat flow (Q) from both sides of the platet is given by : ~ = 2 h A ( t , - t J = 2 ~ 5 . 5 5x~ (9 10 - 2 0 ) = 7 7 7 ~ The heat lost by the plate instantaneously is given by : Q=mc,,At=777 where
E
OS5 = 1 2 7 x lo4 18.97 x 10"
m = (area x thicknes$ x p
II
.. Q = ~ s ( t s - t , ) = 6 . 7 6 7 ~ ( 0 . 5 ~ 0 . 2 ) ( l W - 2 0 ) = 5 4 . 1 4 W(Am.) Case 11. When the flow is parallel to 200 mm side:

Re, = 2 x 0.2 = 2.11 x lo4 18.97 x lo6
Example 7.17. A flat plate, l m wide and 1.5 m Long is to be maintained at 90C in air with a free stream temperature of 10C. Determine the velocity with which air must flow over
392
flat plate along 1.5 m side so that the rate of energy dissipationfrom the plate is 3.75 kW. Take the following properties of air at 50C:
p = 1.09 kg/m3, k = 0.028W/mC, cp = 1.007 kJ/kgC, p = 2.03 x I @ kg/m-s Pr = 0.7.
(ii) Using approximate solution: -
or or k
&& = 0.646 (Re, )'" (pr)lD k

261.53
X 0.02894 = 3.44 Wlm2 2.2
= 0.646 (2.087 x 1 0 ' ) ' ~ (0.696)'" = 261.53

OC
(M.U.)
Solution, Given : L = 1.5 m, B = lm, t, = 90C, t, = 10C, Q = 3.75 kW Properties of air at (90 + 10)/2 = 50C : p = 1.09 kg/m3, k = 0.028 W/mC, cp = 1.007 kT/kgC, p = 2.03 x lo-' kg/m-s Free stream velocity, U: s ' The heat flow from the plate to air is given by . Q = j; A, (t, - t,) k where h = - x 0.664 (~e,)'" (pr)ln ...[Eqn. (7.68)] L
<
261.53 k h=-= L
r-
(i) The average skin friction, CI : Reynolds number, laminar in nature.
UL Re, = --$
- 1.8 x 0.75 = 84375 1.6 x lo4
or U = 100 m/s (Ans.) Example 7.18. Air at 20C and at atmospheric pressure jlows over aflat plate at a velocity of 1.8 4 s . If the length of the plate is 2.2 m and is maintained at 100C, calculate the heat transfer rate per unit width using (i) exact and (ii) approximate methods. The properties of air at mean bulk temperature of (100 + 20)D = 60C are: p = 1.06 kg/m3, cp = 1.OO5 kJ& OC, k = 0.02894 W/mC, Pr = 0.696 v = 18.97 x 106 m2/s Solution. Given :t, = 20C, t, = 100C, U = 1.8 mls, L = 2.2 m, B = 1 m Heat transfer rab per unit width: Reynolds number, Since Reynolds number is less than 5 x 10' hence flow is laminar. (i) Using exact solution: The average Nusselt number is given by Nu = 0.664 (Re, )In ( ~ r ) ' "
(ii) The average shear stress, T, :
rw = -2p u 2
=
Cf
& x 1.165 x 1.g2 x 0.004572 = 0.008629 ~ l m '(Ans.) L
(iii) The ratio of average shear stress to the shear stress at the trailing edge: The skin friction coefficient at the trailing edge (x = L), 0.664 ...[Eqn. (7.24)J Cfx =
...[Eqn. (7.68)J
; .
Shear stress at the trailing edge, r , = 5 p d Cgi

1
x 1.165 x 1.8~ x 0.002286 = 0.004314 ~ 1 n - i ~
; .
Heat transfer rate from the plate,
Q = A, (t, - t,) = 3.536 x (2.2 x \l) (100 - 20) = 62234 W (Am.)
Heat and Mass TrAhsfer
Forced Convection
Example 7.20. Air at 3UCJlows with a velocity of 2.8 m/s over a plate 1000 mm (length)
x 600 mm (width) x 25 mm (thickness). The top sugace of the plate is maintained at 90C. I f
the thermal conductivity of the plate material is 25W/mC, calculate : (i) Heat lost by the plate; (ii) Bottom temperature of the plate for the steady state condition. The thermo-physical properties of air at mean film temperature (90 + 30)Q = 60C are: p = 1.06 kg/m3, c,, = 1.005 kJAg K, k = 0.02894 W/mC, v = 18.97 x I@ m2/s, Pr = 0.696. Solution. Given :t, = 30C, ts = 90C, U = 2.8 d s , kplate= 25 W/mC, L = 1000 mm = lm, B = 600 mm = 0.6 m, 6 = 25 mm = 0.025m. ( i ) Heat lost by the plate: Reynolds number at the trailing edge,
(i) Heat transfer rate from first half of the plate:
For first half of the plate,
Since Re < 5 x lo5 hence the flow is laminar. The local Nusselt number is given by, Nu, = 0.332 (~e,)'" ( ~ r ) " '
...IEqn. 7.651
But,
Since Reynolds number is less than 5 x lo5, hence flow is laminar throughout the length,
h~ Nu = 0.664 (ReL )'I2 (pr)'I3= k
...[Eqn. (7.68)]
Average heat transfer coefficient, = 2h, = 2 x 4.322 = 8.644 wlm' "C : . Heat transfer rate from first half of the plate, Q = h A, (t, - 2,)
= 8.644 x (0.45
0.664 ( ~ e , ) " ~ (pr)'l3 x k or Ti (average heat transfer coefficient) = Nu x k L L
x 0.45) (90 - 30) = 105 W (Ans.)
(ii) Heat transfer rate from full plate: For full plate, x = L = 0.9 m
= 6.542 w/m2 "C

Q = h A, (t, - t,) or Q = 6.542 x (1.0 x 0.6) (90 - 30) = 235.5 W (Ans.) (ii) Bottom temperature of the plate, t,: Heat lost by the plate Q (calculated above) must be conducted through the plate, hence exchange from top to bottom surface is
: .
Heat lost by the plate,
0.025 x 235.5 = 90.39"C (Ans.) 25 (1.0 x 0.6) Example 7.21. Air at 30C and at atmospheric pressure flows at a velocity, of 2.2 m/s over a plate maintained at 90C. The length and the width of the plate &re 900 mm and 450 mm respectively. Using exact solution, calculate the heat transfer rate from, (i)first half of the plate, (ii)full plate, and (iii) next half of the plate. The properties of a i r at mean bulk temperature (90 + 30)Q = 60C are: p = 1.06 kg/m3, y = 7.211 kghm, v = 18.97 x I@ m2/s, Pr = 0.696, k = 0.02894 W/mC. Solution. Given :t, = 30Q, U = 2.2 mls, t, = 90C, L = 900mm = 0.9m,B = 450 mm = 0.45 m.
tb = 90 +
The heat transfer rate - from entire plate, Q , = h A, (t, - t,) = 6.1 13 x (0.9 x 0.45) x (90 - 30) = 148.54 W (Ans.) (iii) Heat transfer rate from next half of the plate: Heat transfer rate from the next half of the plate = Q, - Q, = 148.54 - 105 = 43.54 W (Ans.)
Example 7.22. Castor oil at 25C flows at a velocity of 0.1 m/s past a flat plate, in a certain process. I f the plate is 4.5 m long and is maintained at a un@rm temperature of 9jC, calculate the following using exact solution: (i) The hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layer thicknesses on one side of the plate, (ii) The total drag force per unit width on one side of the plate, (iii) The local heat transfer coeflcient at the trailing edge, and (iv) The heat transfer rate. The thermo-physical properties of oil at mean film temperature of (95 + 25)R = 60C are: p = 956.8 kg/m3; a = 7.2 x I@ m2/s; k = 0.213 W/mC; v = 0.65 x I @ m2/s. Solution. Given : t, = 25"C, t, = 95"C, L = 4.5m, U = 0.1 mls.
&g
Reynolds number at the end of the plate,
Heat and Mass Transfer ( i ) The hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layer thicknesses, 6, tith:
Forced Convection
Since Reynolds number is less than 5 x lo5, hence the flow is laminar in nature. The hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness,
(iii) Local and average convective heat transfer coeflcients; (iv) Heat transfer rate from both sides for unit width of the plate, Iv) Mass entrainment in the boundary layer, (vi) The skin friction coefficient. Assume cubic velocity profile and approximate method. The thermo-physical properties of air at mean film temperature (60 + 2Oyr' = 40C are: p = 1.128 kg/rn3, v = 16.96 x 1@ m2/s, k = 0.02755 W/mC, PI = 0.699.
\ ,
Solution. Given: t, = 20C, t, = 60C, U = 4.5 mls.

= 0.2704 m or 270.4 mm (Ans.) ...[Eqn. (7.22)] The thermal boundary layer thidkness, according to Pohlhausen, is given by: or where Pr (Prandtl number) = (0'65 l o b 4 = 902.77 a 7.2 x lo4 0'2704 = 0.02798 m or 27.98 mm (Ans.) 6th = (902.77)'" (ii) The total drag force per unit width on one side of the plate FD: The average skin friction coefficient is given by,
Ux-
Re, x v 5 x = U =
id x 16.96 x lo4
4.5
(where x, = distance from the leading edge at which the flow in the boundary layer changes from laminar to turbulent). (i) Thickness of hydrodynamic layer, 6: m e thickness of hydrodynamic layer for cubic velocity profile is given by 4.64 x, ...[Eqn. (7.36)] 6 = 7
...[Eqn. (7.25)1
The drag force,
FD =
f
1 x-
u2x area of plate (for one side) 2 P

y x 956.8 x 0.12 x (4.5 x
1
(ii) Thickness of thermal boundary layer, The thermal boundary layer is given by 0.975 6
...[Eqn. (7.31)]
...[Eqn. (7.8911
or
FD = 0.01596 x
1 ) = 0.3436 N per meter width
6th =
\-- I
(iii) The local heat transfer coefficient at the trailing edge, h, (at x = L): h x = 0.332 (~e,)'" (pr)'I3 Nu, =
!?.975 0.01234 = 0.01355 m or 13.55 mm (Ans.) (0.699)"~

...[Eqn. i'1.65)I
= 0.332 x (6923)In (902.77)'" = 266.98 or
...[Eqn. (7.65)]
The Nusselt number at x = x, is given by ln pr)113 NIL = 0.332 (Re,) (
h, = 266.98
X
- 266'98
4.5
0a213= 12.64 wlm2 O C (Ans,)

Put
(iv) The heat transfer rate, Q: Q = A, (t, - t,) h = 2h, = 2 x 12.64 = 2 5 . 2 8 ~ l m ~ 0 ~ where Eqn. (7.6711 Q = 25.28 X (4.5 x 1) (95 - 25) = 7963.2 W (Am.) ,. Example 7.23. Air at 20C and at atmospheric pressure jlows at a velociry of 4.5 m/s past a jlat plate with a sharp leading edge. The entire plate sur$ace is maintained at a temperature of 60C. Assuming that the transition occurs at a critical Reynolds number of 5 x 1 6 , find the distance from the leading edge at which the flow in the boundaly layer changes from laminar to turbulent, At the location, calculate the following : (i) Thickness of hydrodynumic layer; (ii) Thickness of therml boundary layer;
Nu, =
h Xx, k
or
h, =
Nu, X k
XC
Average heat transfer coefficient,
x = L f hxak - - xc
h = 2hc = 2 x 3.05 = 6.1 w/m2'C (Am.)
(iv) H a t transfer rate from both sides for unit width of the plaki Q : Q = (us) At =. 6.1 ( 2 x 1.88 x 1) (60 - 20) = 917.U W (Am)
Heat and MassqTransfer

(v) Mass entrainment in the boundary layer, in:
Forced Convection boundary layer where u = U. Hence for U = 1, we have

u
Here, 6, = 0 at x = 0 and 6, = 0.01234 m at x = x, = 1.88 m 5 . m = x 1.128 X 4.5 (0.01234 - 0 ) = 0.039 kgls or 140.4 kglh (Ans.)
"
U
= 0.86
(Refer Table 7.1)
(vi) The skin friction coefficient,
C':
...[Eqn. (7.24)1
7.2 LAMINAR TUBE FLOW
0.646 = 9.136 X lo4 (Ans.) 5 x 10' Example 7.24. A stream of water at 20C ( p = 1.205 kg/m3, p = 0.06533 kg/hm)Jows at a velocity of 1.8 4 s over a plate 0.6 m long and placed at zero angle of incidence. Using exact solution, calculate: (i) The stream wise velocity component at the midpoint of the boundary layer, (ii) The maximum boundary layer thickness, and (iii) The maximum value of the normal component of velocity at the trailing edge of the plare. Solution. Given t, = 20C, p = 1.205 kg/m3, p = 0.06533 kghm, L = 0.6 m, U = 1.8 m/s (i) The stream wise velocity component at the midpoint of the boundary layer, u: The boundary layer thickness by exact solution is given by
CB = -d
7.2.1. Development of Boundary Layer In case of a pipe flow, the development of boundary layer proceeds in a fashion similar to that for flow along a flat plate. A fluid of uniform velocity entering a tube is retmded near the walls and a boundary layer begins to develop as shown in Fig. 7.12 by dotted lines. n e thickness of the boundary layer is limited to the pipe radius because of the flow being within a confined passage. Boundary layers from the pipe walls meet at the centre of the pipe and the entire flow acquires the characteristics of a boundary layer. Once the boundary layer thickness becomes equal to the radius of the tube there will not be any further change in the velocity distribution, this invariant velocity distribution is calledfully developed v e l c p r o ie., poiseulle flow (parabolic distribution).
Boundary Layer
1-
~ d l developed v
Obviously, the midpoint of the boundary layer y = - occurs at
i 3
The stream wise velocity component is obtained form the Blasius solution in tabular form (Refer table 7.1).
U = 0.736 = 2.5, we get U or u = 0.736 U = 0.736 x 1.8 = 1.325 m/s (Am.) (ii) The maximum boundary layer thickness, 6,: The maximum boundary layer thickness occurs at x = 0.6 m. Thus.
c--
k -
Entrance length (L,)
I
:
At
11 = y
Fig. 7.12. The development of a laminar velarity profile in the intake region L e of a tube.
According to Langhar (1942), the entrance length (L,) is expwscd
5 = 0.0575 Re where
D represents the inside diameter of the pipe.
7.2.2
Re, = puL - 1.205 x 1.8 x 0.6 = 71713, hence flow in laminar. p (0.06533/3600) ' The boundary layer thickness at the trailing edge, 5L a,=---!% <$
Velocity Distribution Fig. 7.13 shows a horizontal circular pipe of radius R, having laminar flow of fluid through it. Consider a small concentric cylinder (fluid element) of radius r and length dx as a free body. If z is the shear stress, the shear force F is given by F=zx2nr~du
Let p be the intensity of pressure at left end and the intensity of pmsum at the dght end
0.01 12m or 11.2 mrn 6 - -m-
5 x 0.6
(Am.)
(iii) The inaxilduni dalue of the normal component of velocity at the trailing edge, v : $ t The maximum value of the normal cornfionent of velocity occurs at the outer edge of the
'
Thus the forces acting on the fluid element are: 1. The shear force, T x 2zr x dn on the surface of fluid element.
4 m
2. The pressure force, p x n ? on the left-end.
(
3. The pressure force, p
For steady flow, the net force on the cylinder must be zero. Integrating the above equation w.r.t. 'r', we get
( +E ]
. dr n? on the right end.
@
1
---
-0--
Pipe
4 p dX
Where C is the constant of integration and its value is obtained from the boundary condition:
Substituting this. value of C in Eqn. (7.97),we get
it--.------
x2 -------3:
Fig. 7.13. Laminar flow through a circular pipe.
Equation 7.98 shows that the velocity distribution curye is a parabola (see Fig. 7.13).The maximum velocity occurs at the centre and is given by
From equation 7.98 and 7.99, we have
II
'
I
I
Equation (7.95)shows that flow will occur only if pressure gradient exists in the direction of flow. *. The negative sign shows that pressure decreases in the direction of flow. Equation (7.95) indicates that the shear stress varies linearly across the section (see Fig. 7.14). Its value is zero at the eentre of pipe ( r = 0 ) and maximum at the pipe wall given by
\ , -
Equation 7.100 is the most commonly used equation for the velocity distribution for laminar flow through pipes. This equation can be used to calculate the discharge as follows: The discharge through an elementary ring of thickness dr at radial distances r is given by
... [7.95 (a)]

Ffom Newton's law of viscosity, du 7=p....fi) dv --, In this equation, the distance y is measured fmm the boundary. The radial distance r is related to distance y by the relation y = R - r or d y = - d r The eqn. (i) becomes Total discharge
Q = ! ~ Q
Shear stress distribution
Velocity distribution curve
Comparing two values of T frm Eqns. 7.95 and 7.96, we have

Fig. 7.14. Shear stress and velocity distribution across a section.
Average velocity of flow, u = A =
"
R2
nR2
u,, =2
..-.
402
Forced Convection Elementary rine
Equation (7.101) shows that the average velocity is one-halfthe maximum velocity. Substituting the value of u,, from Eqn. (7.99), we have
ap is usually expressed in terms of a friction factor f, defined as The pressure gradient -
ax
pU where - is dynamic pressure of the mean flow and D is the tube diameter. 2 From Eqn. (7.102) and (7.103), we get the friction factor as a simple function of Reynolds number,
Qr + dr
~dnular element
Fig. 7.15. Analysis of energy in the tube flow.
which is valid for laminar tube flow, Re < 2300 Further, Eqn. (7.102) can be written as, 8p U = R2 The pressure difference between two sections 1 and 2 at distances, x, and x2 (see Fig. 7.12), is given by
Considering energy balance on the annular element, we obtain (Heat conducted in),,, = (Heat convected out),,, dQr - dQr+dr = (dQmn,)ne,
-ap
-.ax
dt = p (2nrdr)u c - dx
ax
- k (2nr.h) - + k (271 (r
at ar
+ dr)} dx
at dx [$ + $dr] = p (2nr.dr)u c ax at + k ( 2 n d r d x ) -a r at
Neglecting second order terms, we get at &.dr = p r u c --dx.dr Obviously the head loss hL over a length of pipe varies directly as the first power of the rate of discharge Q and inversely as the fourth power of the pipe diameter. 7.2.3. Temperature Distribution In order to estimate the distribution of temperature let us consider the flow of heat through an elementary ring of thickness dr and length dx as shown in Fig. 7.15. Considering the radial conduction (neglecting axial conduction) and axial enthalpy transport in the annular element, we have: Heat conducted into the annular element, at dQr = - k (271r.d~) ar Heat conducted out of the annular element,
ax
a
...(7.106)
or Inserting the value of u from eqn. (7.100), we get,
...(7.107)
at or
...(7.108)
Let us consider the case of uniform heat flux along the wall, where we can take Net heat convected out of the annular element,
, -
ax as a
at
constant. Integrating Eqn. (7.108) we have
404
Heat and Mass TrAnsfer
Forced. Convection
405
tb=sfo
2;
[I
-s]bs-k
2
'a k x{ g 16 - < + 4 L }16R2 ] r d r
Integrating again, we have 4
(where C; and C2 a& the constants of integration). The boundary conditions are:
ar At r = R, t = ts Applying the above boundary conditons, we get
At r = 0,
at =0
Substituting the values of C, and C2 in Eqn. (7.109), we have or
11 tb = t s - - 96
U*mR2-
at ax
The heat transfer coeflcient is calculated from the relation
For determining the heat transfer coeficient for fully developed pipe flow, it is imperative to define a characteristic temperature of the fluid. It is the bulk temperature (tb)or the mixing up temperature of the fluid which is an average taken so as to yield the total energy carried by the fluid and is defined as the ratio of flux of enthalpy at a cross-section to the product of the mass flow rate and the specific heat of the fluid. Thus,
l R p (2nr.dr)ucpt
tb =
O
From eqn. (7.1 lo), we have
lR p (2 nr . dr) u cp
0
...(7.111)
For an incompressible fluid having constant density and specific heat

lRurrdr tb =
O
...(7.112)
Io Rurdr
where D is the diameter of the tube. The Nusselt number is given by
The averagetmean velocity following definition:
(i) also known as the bulk mean velocity is calculated from the
This shows that the Nusselt number for the fully developed laminar tube flow is constant and is independent of the Reynolds number and Prandtl number. The first analytical solution for laminar flow for constant wall temperature was formulated at by Graetz in 1885. Since - is not constant, therefore, the analysis of constant wall temperature
u=
2 R 3 In u r d r
"
ax
Substituting this value of u in eqn. (7.1 12), we get
is quite cumbersome. The final result comes out to be
Substituting the value of u from eqns. 7.1 10 and 7.101 and that of t from eqn. (7.1 lo), we get
Example 7.25. For laminar flow in a circular tube of 120 mm radius, the velocity and temperature distribution are given by the relations:
406
Forced Convection
u = (2.7r - 3.2 ?) ; t = 85 ( I - 2.2r)OC where the distance r is measured from the tube surfnce. Calculate the following: (i) The average velocity and the mean bulk temperature of the fluid; (ii) The heat transfer coeficient based on the bulk mean temperature if the tube su$ace is maintained at a constant miform temperature of 90C and there occurs a heat loss of 1000 kJ/h per metre length of the tube. Solution. Given : u = (2.7 r - 3.2 3) ... Velocity distribution t = 85 (1 - 2.2 r)OC ... Temperature distribution. ( i ) Average velocity ( Z ) and mean bulk temperature (t,) : The average velocity is obtained by equating the volumetric flow to the integrated flow through an elementary ring of radius r and thickness dr.
Substituting, R = 0.12 m and ii = 0.193 mls, we get 170 (0.9 x 0.12 - 2.285 X 0.12' tb = 0.193
1.408 x 0.12)) = 68.290C (Ans.)
(ii) Heat transfer coefficient, h: Q - = hA (t, - tb)

where
Q = 1000 M h per metre =
looo looo = 277.77 Jls ; t, = 90C 3600
...Given
h=
277.77 = 16.97 W / m 2O C (Am.) (271 x 0.12 x 1 ) (90 - 68.29)
...(i)
=
R2
f0 R
(2.7 r
- 3.2 ?) rdr
Example 7.26. Lubricating oil at a temperature of 60C enters I cm diameter tube with a velocity of 3 d s . The tube su$ace is maintained at 40C. Assuming that the oil has the following average properties calculate the tube length required to cool the oil to 45OC. p = 865 kg/&; k = 0.140 W/m K: cp= 1.78 kJ/kgC. Assume flow to be laminar (and fully developed) Nu = 3.657
(AMIE Summer, 1997)
Solution. Given : ti = 60C, to = 45'C; D = 1 cm = 0.01 m; U = 3 m/s, t, = 40C; p = 865 kg/m3; k = 0.14 W/m K ; cp= 1.78 kJ/kgC.
Substituting R = 0.12 m, we have
u = 1.8 x 0.12 - 1.6 x 0.12' = 0.193 m/s (Am.) The mean bulk temperature is given by
tb =
lRu t r d r lRu r d r
0
0
Now,
jR u t r d r = J~ 0 n
(2.7r - 3 . 2 q x 8 5 ( 1 - 2 . 2 r ) r d r
.
40C
Fig. 7 . 1 6
Length required, L : Q = m cp(ti- to)

= (PA# cp 0,- to)
(where U = average velocity, Af= flow area)
... From eqn. (i)]
I j
Also,
~=hA0,
where A = heat transfer area = nDL, and
Heat and Mass Transfer Forced Convection
B. TURBULENT FLOW
...(Given)
Now,
Q=5441.7=51.2XmLx 10.82
5441.7 = 312.7 m (Ans.) 51.2 x n x 0.01 x 10.82 Example 7.27. When 0.5 kg of water per minute is passed through a tube of 20 mm diameter, it is found to be heated from 20C to 50C. m e heating is accomplisted by condensing steam on the sulface of the tube and subsequently the surface temperature of the tube is maintained at 85OC.Detennine the length of the tube required for fully developed flow.
..
L=
7.3. INTRODUCTION The flow in the boundary layer, in majority of practical applications in the convective heat transfer, is turbulent rather than laminar. In a turbulent flow the irregular velocity fluctuations are mainly responsible for heat as well as momentum transfer. As the mixing in the turbulent flow is on a macroscopic scale with groups of particles transported in a zig-zig path through the fluid, the exchange mechanism is many times more effective than in laminar flow. Consequently. in turbulent flow, the rates of heat and momentum transfer and the associated friction and heat transfer coefficients are several times larger than that in laminar. Since the nature of turbulent flow is complex, therefore, it is difficult to solve the problems relating turbulent flow analytically. The heat transfer data can best be calculated by laboratory experiments; the other method of study is the analogy between heat and momentum transfer. A. Forced Convection-Flow over a Flat Plate 7.3.1. Turbulent Boundary Layer Refer Fig. 7.17. As compared to laminar boundary layers, the turbulent boundary layers are thicker. Further in a turbulent boundary layer the velocity distribution is much more uniform, than in a laminar boundary layer, due to intermingling of fluid particles between different layers of the fluid. The velocity distribution in a turbulent boundary layer follows a logarithmic law i.e. u log y, which u log y can also be represented by a power law of the type 0.99 U
Take the thermo-physical properties of water at 60C as : p = 983.2 kg/m3, cp = 4.178 kJ/kgK, k = 0.659 W/mC, v = 0.478 x 1@ m2/s Solution. Given :m = 0.5 kglmin, D = 20 mm = 0.02 m, ti = 20C, to = 50C
Length of the tube required for fully developed flow, L:

'The mean film temperature, rj = , Let us first determine the type of the flow.
f /8fi +
2o
50)
/
=6 O O C
19) 1 where n = - (approx) for Re < 1o7 7 but > 5 x 105

Laminar sublayer
R e = -D - U - 0.02 x 0.0269 = 1125.5 V 0.478 x lov6 Since Re < 2000, hence the flow is laminar. With constant wall temperature having fully developed flow,
Reynolds number,
..
~1"
...(7.120)
Smooth flat plate
hD = 3.65 Nu = k
This is known as one-seventh power law.

...[Eqn. (7.11 8)]
Fig. 7.17. Turbulent boundary layer.
The Eqn. (7.120). however, cannot be applied at the boundary itself because at y = 0,
The rate of heat transfer, Q = A, h (t, - t,) = m cp (to - ti) Here,

t, = 20
- [El ;
=
\-' /
~ 6 - l y4'7 ' ~ = OJ.This difficulty is circumvented by considering the velocity in the viscous
+ 50 = 35C = t,
2
laminar sublayer to be linear and tangential to the seventh-root profile at the point, where the laminar sublayer merges with the turbulent part of the boundary layer. Blasius suggested the following relation for viscous shear stress:
(for Re ranging from 5 x 10' to or

L
lo7)
for the velocity distribution given by Eqn. (7.120)
--
377.8
- 2.76 rn (Ans.)
i . ,
Let us now find the values of 6, z,, Cfi,
i n ,
410

(i) Boundary layer thickness, 6:
Forced Convection
Substituting the value of
in Von Karman integral eqn. [7.28 (a)], we have or
6 -- 0.371
X
(Re,)'"
(ii) Shear stress, 70 :

b
...[Eqn. (7.12111
Substituting the value of 6 from eqn. (7.123), we get

= 0.0225 pu2
P
p ux-
371i (Re,) ' I 5
[In the expression, above, the limits have been taken from 0 to 6 instead of 6' to 6 since the laminar sublayer (6') is very thin]
Now equating the eqns. (7.122) and (7.121), we have
or or
1/4 1 -d6 - 0.0225 [A] x-
(iii)'~ocal skin friction (drag) coefficient, CB:

c
72 dx
PU
@)'I4
(cancelling puZon both sides).
We know Also r0=

1 cfX x1 .p d
[Eqn. (7.124)l [Eqn. (7.30)l
d6 = 0.0225 x
Now equating the eqns. (7.124) and (7.30), we have Integrating both sides, we have
4 6'14 5
= 0.2314
J; (-
+c
(where C = constant of integration)
Let boundary layer be assumed to be turbulent over the entire length of plate. \Hence, at x = 0, 6 = 0 C=0
: .
(iv) Average value of skin friction (drag) coefficient, Cf :
= 0.0371
[&)
1/5
0.37 1~ x x =(Re,)'"
413 Forced Cohvection
...(ii)
This is valid for 5 x lo5 < Re, - < lo7. For Reynolds number between lo7 and lo9 the following relationship suggested by Prandtl and Schlichting holds good,
1.328 x,
+
0.455 L (loglo
~"4 -. (Re,)"' '~
7 . 3 . 2 . Total Drag Due to Laminar and Turbulent Boundary Layers

When the leading edge is not very rough, the turbulent boundary layer does not begin at the leading edge, it is usually preceded by the laminar boundary layer. The point of transition from laminar to turbulent layer depends upon the intensity of turbulence. The distance xc (Fig. 7.18) of the transition from the leading edge can be obtained from critical Reynolds number which normally ranges from 3 x lo5 to 3 x lo6.
Assuming that transition occurs at Re, = 5 x 10';
___+
+ u,t,
I
Also,
Leading edge
pi-
- LBpu2 1 c xU C~f x 2 2 ~ A = [where cf= average value of skin friction (drag) coefficient]
Ftotal=
f
~ a m i layer y
Turbulent layer
Equating the above two equations, we have 1670 0.455 cf = (loglo ~ e , ) ' . ~ Re, ~ The above relation in general may be rewritten as
...(7.129)
Fig. 7.18. Drage due to laminar and turbulent boundary layers.
Drag force (FD = F) for the turbulent boundary layer can be estimated from the following relation:
= (Fturb.)total- (Fturb.) x, where (Fturb,)total = the drag which would occur if a turbulent boundary extends along the entire length of the plate, and (Ftu,.)xc = the drag due to fictitious turbulent.bundary layer from the leading
Fturb.
edge to a distance x,. Let us assume that the pikeis long enough so that Reynolds number is greater than lo7, then the turbulent drag is given by
Fturb. =
0.455 Ooglo~
pu2 x-x(LxB)-2~ )
0072 1 5x ~(Re,) 1 ~
2 x B) ~ x (xc~
pu2
...( i )
L = length of the plate, B = width of the plate, and U = free stream velocity. The laminar boundary layer prevails within the length xc and its contribution to drag force is given by
Fig. 7.19. Skin friction (drag) coefficient for smooth flat plates.
where
414
Forced Convection
415
where the value of A depends upon the value of critical Reynolds number Re, (at which the laminar boundary layer transforms to turbulent boundary layer). The values of A for Re,, lo5, 5 x lo5 and 10, are 360, 1670, 3300 respectively. versus Reh Fig. 7.19 shows a log-log plot of Example 7.28. A flat plate 5 m long and 0.75 m wide is kept parallel to the flow of water which is flowing at a velocity of 5 d s . If the average drdg coeficient for turbulent flow past
this flat plate is expressed as:
This being very small, contribution to total drag from laminar boundary layer is negligible; hence
cfis given by
A = ?rDL = n x 5 x = 785.4 m2 1 I FD = x 5p ~ d = 0.001765 x x 1030 x 785.4 x 8'
cf
Area,
cf=
: .
Drag force,
cf
0'455 (log,, Re,)
2,58
find the drag force on both sides of the plate.
Take v = 0.011 x I@ m2/s Solution: Given : L = 5 m, B = 0.75 m, U = 5 d s , v = 0.01 1 x 10'' Drag force on both sides of the plate: The Reynolds number at the end of the plate is given by
Hence total power required to overcome boundary friction, m2/s
This confirms that the nature of flow is turbulent. The average drag coefficient is expressed as 0.455 c- [log,, ~ e
d ~ . ~ ~
Example 7-30. Find the ratio of friction drag on the front half and rear half of the f2ot plate kept at zero incidence in a stream of uniform velocity, i f the boundary layer is turbulent over the whole plate. Solution. The average coefficient of drag for turbulent boundary layer is given by
(cf)
For the entire plate,
UL ReL = v
Ux U L For the first half of the plate, Re, = v =2v
: .
The drag force on both sides of the plate,

FD = 2 x c f x [ ; ~ A U ' )
[where A = area of one side]
Drag force per unit width for the entire plate is, - pu2 FD = Cfx 2 x area per unit width
= 2 x 2.642 x
x 1 x 1000 x (5 x 0.75) x 5'1 = 247.68 N

L
IT
(Ans.)
\
/
Example 7.29. A submarine can be assumed to have cylindrical shape with rounded nose. Assuming its length to be 50 m and diameter 5.0 m, determine the total Dower reauired to overcome boundary friction if it cruises at 8 rn/s velocity in sei water at 20C (p = 1030 kg/m3), v = I x lo4 m2/s. Solution. Length of submarine, L =50m Diameter of submarine, D = 50 m Velocity of submarine, U =8d s Density of sea water, p = 1030 kg/m3 Kinematic viscosity of sea water, v = 1 x lo6 m2/s Total power required to overcome boundary friction, P :
Reynolds number. The length over which boundary layer wilf be laminar is given by Ux -=5x1050rx= v 5 x 1 6 ~ ~
'
Similarly the drag force per unit width for the front halfportion of the plate is
FD, -
: .
Drag force for the rear half portion of the plate is
Hence,
FD, -FD2
1 ?x(2)l" 1 1 -- 1 2
- 0S74 = 1.347 (Ans.) 5 - 0.574
Example 7.31. A stream-lined train is ZOO m long with a typical cross-section having a perimeter of 9 m above the wheels. If the kinematic viscosity of air at the prevailing tempemture . 5x m2/s and density 1.24 kg/m3, determine the su$ace drag (friction drag) of the train is 1 when running at 90 km/h.
416
417 Heat and Mass Transfer
Forced Convection
Make allowance for the fact that boundary layer changes from laminar to turbulent on the train surface. Solution. Length of the train, L = 200 m Perimeter of cross-section of the train above wheels, P = 9 m : . Surface area, A = L x P = 2 0 0 x 9 = 1800m2 Kinematic viscosity of air, v = 1.5 x lo-' m2/s Density of air, p = 1.24 kg/m3
Free stream velocity,
Maximum boundary layer (laminar) thickness, 8:
(ii) The total drag force FD :
3600 Friction drag, FD : The Reynolds number with length of the train as the characteristic length,
U = 90 kmh = 9ox 1000 = 25 ds
The average coefficient of drag,

...[ Eqn. (7.1291
uL. - 25 200 Re, = = 3.333 x 108 v 1.5x10-~ Obviously the boundary layer is turbulent. Assuming that the abrupt transition from laminar to turbulent flow occurs at a Reynolds number of 5 x lo5, the average coefficient of drag,
: .
surface of the barge, 1 Drag force on the bottom 1
FD =
Cfx 5 ~
A = U 0.002M6 ~ x
5x 998 x 300 x (0.6)~
0.455 1670 [log,, (3.333 x 108)12." - 3.333 x lo8 = 0.001807 - 5.01 x = 0.0018 The approximate friction drag over the train surface,
(iii) The power required, P: The power required to push the bottom surface through water at the given velocity, P = FD x U 142.6 x 0.6 = 85.56 W (Am.)
1 1 X 1.24 x 1800 x 25'= 1255.5 N (Ans.) FD = Cf x 2 ~ A V 0.0018 ~ = x2 Example 7 . 3 2 . A barge with a rectangular surfne 30 m long x 10 m wide is travelling down a river with a velocity of 0.6 m/s. A laminar bouna'ary layer exists upto a Reynolds number equivalent to 5 x IO'and subsequently abrupt transition occurs to turbulent boundary layer. Calculate: (i) The maximum distancefrom the leading edge upto which laminar boundary layer persists and the maximum boundary layer thickness at that point. lii) The total drag force on the flat bottom s u ~ a c e of the barge, and (iii) R e power required to push the bottom surfoce through water at the given velocity. For water p = 998 kg/m3 and v = I x I@ m2/s. Solution. Length of the bottom surface, L = 30 m Width of the bottom surface, B = 10 m .'. Area, A = L x B = 3 0 x 10=300m2 Velocity, U = 0.6 d s Density of water, p = 998 k g h 3 Kinematic viscosity, v = 1 x 10" m2/s (i) The maximum distance up to which laminar boundary layer persists, x,:
( ~ t ? = ) ~ "C ~ V
Example 7 . 3 3 . Ambient air at 2oDC flows at a velocity of 10 m h parallel to a wall 5 m wide and 3 m high. Calculate the heat transfer rate if the wall is maintained at 40C. The critical Reynolds number is equal to 5 x 1@. fie properties of air at the mean film temperature may be taken as :k = 0.0263 W / m K, v = 15.89 x 1@ m2/s and Pr = 0.707. B the entire boundary layer is assumed turbulent, what will be the percentage error in the computation of heat transfer rate ? Comment on the comparable values of the two results. Appropriate correlation from the following may be used :
N = 0.0375 R e f 8 pr'13
NU = 0.0375 [ ~ ep 232001 ~ pr113
(AMIE, Summer, 1999)
Solution. Given : t- = 20C; U = 10 m/s; L = 5 m; B = 3 m; t, = 40C; R,, = 5 X lo5 k = 0.0263 W/m K; v = 15.89 x lom6 m2/s; Pr = 0.707.
Wind
t, = 2O0C,
(t, = 40C)
Wall
B=3m
U = 10 mfs
( + -
-- 5 x lo5
L = 5 m ------*I Fig. 7 ; 2 G
418
Forced Convection
Percentage error in computation of heat transfer rate :
dt Q = - c p A 2O du
Separating the variables and integrating within the limits: At the plate surface: u = 0 and t = t, At the outer edge of boundary layer; u = U and t = t,
i.e., > R,, Using the following equation, we get hL k == 0.0375 k
- 23200 PI.'"
...(Combination of laminar and turbulent flow)
..
- 23200 pr'l3
I I
= 0.00019725 (157860.4 - 23200) x 0.8908 = 23.66 w/m2 O C
Heat transfer rate,
But and
=23.66~(5 ~ 3x (40-20) ) =To98 w If entire boundary is assumed turbulent,
ha (ts-t,)
-
zo = , C x
5p d
e c
..[Eqn. (7.23)l
- hL Nu = -= 0.0375 R e p 8 ~ r ' " k
Making these substitutions in eqn. (7.132), we 1 get
h,= C i , x ~ p d x $ = $ ( P c p U )
...(7.133)
...dimensionless fom.
hx is called the Stanton number SG. It represents the Nusselt number divided by the P cpu ~roducto f the Reynolds and Prandlt numbers, i.e.,
. Percentage error = 8322 - 7098 x 100 = 17.24% (Am.) 7098 Comments. The difference between the two values is nearly 17%. Further the correlation for turbulent heat transfer are empirical, which may have a variation of 25%. Hence, the rate of heat transfer in such cases may be calculated for all purposes, by assuming the boundary layer to be entirely turbulent.
Nu, --
Re,. Pr
- st,
5 2
-
7.3.3. Reynolds Analogy Reynolds analogy is the inter-relationsh@ between f l u i d w o n and Newton's law of viscosity. du We know, zo = p ...(i) dy
Equation (7.134) is called the Reynolds analogy. By using this interrelationship we can infer heat transfer data from shear stress measurement. hxb Note: The physical significance of Stanton number is : St = p cpU At actual heat flux to the fluid heat flux capacity of the fluid flow Further in case of laminar boundary layer on a flat plate, we have hxx (pr)'" Nu, = -= 0.332 ( ~ e , ) " ~ k Dividing both sides of the above equation by Re, (pr)lt3,we get
...[Eqn. (7.94)]
[Heat flow along Y-direction
... Fourier equation]
...(iii)
when Pr is unity temperature and velocity [profiles are identical (For most of the gases, 0.6 < Pr < 1.0)] By combining eqns. (i), (ii) and (iii), we get
Nux 0.332 --Re, (pr)'13 ( ~ e , ) " ~
The L.H.S. of the equality can be rewritten as - Nu, . ( P ~=Jq~( ~~ ~ r ) ~ ~ ~ Re, (pr)'13 Re Pr
420
Heat and Mas6 Transfer
~~roe Convection d
...interrelationship bemeen heat and momentum transfer. Equation (7.137) has been designated as Colburn analogy. For Pr = 1 the Reynolds and Colburn analogies are the same. Heat transfer parameters for turbulmt flow: The heat transfer parameters for turbulent flow may be derived, by using Colbum analopv. as follows: From Colburn analogy
w.,
Assuming that the transition occurs at critical Reynolds number, Re, = 5 X lo5, we get k h =: ( ~ r ) ' "10.664 (5 x lo5)'" + 0.036 (R~J"' - 0.036 (5 X 10')~.'1
and
IL
or
Nu, 0.0288 ~ (Re,)-'" Pr Re, ( ~ r= )

L
velocity of 50 d s . The local skin friction Example 7.34. Airflows over a heated plate at a co-egident at a point on a plate is 0.004. Estimate the local heat transfer coefficient at this point. The following property data for air are given :
Nu, = 0.0288 (ReJ4" (pr)ln
The average value of heat transfer coefficient is given by,
. L
s t prl" =
C $
(U.P.S.C., 1993)
Solution. Given : U = 50 m/s; cp= 0.004; P = 0.88 kg/m3; P = 2.286 x lo-' kg m/s;
cP= 1.001W/kg K: k = 0.035 W/m K.
Local heat transfer coefficient, h, :

p . C 2.286 x ~randtl number, Pr = k =
X (1.001 X 1000) = o,654 0.035
or and
= 0.036
(i)
...(Given)
(Re3U5 ( ~ r ) ~
NU = hL. = 0.036 (Red" (Prim k Heat transfer parameters for combination of laminar and turbulent flow: An expression for the average heat transfer coefficient over a plate of length L when bnh laminar and turbulent boundary layers are present can be derived by evaluating the following integral:
Example 7.35. The crankcase df an LC. engine measuring 80 cm x 20 crn may be idealised as a flat plate. The engine runs at 90 k m h and the crankcase is cooled by the air flowing past it at the same speed. Calculate the heat loss from the crank surfoce maintained at 8SC, to the ambient air at 1S0C.Due to road induced vibrafion, the boundary layer becomes turbulent from the leading edge itselJ: 90 x 1000 Solution. Given : = 90 k f i = 3600 = 25 mls, t, = 85OC, t.. = 15OC, L = 80 cm =
L -
The properties of air at tf =
85 + 15 = 50C are: 2
k = 0.02824 WlmC, v = 17.95 x lo4 m2is, Pr = 0.698 ... (From tables)
422
Forced Convection The Reynolds number at the end of the plate is UL 70x1.2 = 8 . 8 4 ~ 1 0 5 Re, = - 9 5 x 10-6 v
Heat loss from the crankcase, Q :
uL = 25x0.8 The Reynolds number, Re, = v 17.95 x lo4 =1.114x1o6 Since Re, > 5 x lo5, the nature of flow is turbulent. For turbulent boundary layer,
This shows that both laminar and turbulent boundary layers are present and, Hence,
- hZ Nu =
= 1045 i?u = L0.036 (8.84 x 10')'.~ - 8361 (0.625)'.~~~
~r)'."~ = 0.036 (1.1 14 x lo6)'.' ( 0 . 6 9 8 ) ' . ~ = ~ 2196.92 ~ = 0.036 ( ~ e , ) ' .(~
k or h = - x 2196.92 = O 02824 x 2196.92 = 77.55 w/m2'c L 0.8
(Am.) Example 7.36. Air at 20C and 1.013 bar flows over a flat plate at 40 m/s. The plate is I m long and is maintained at 60C. Assuming unit depth, calculate the heat transfer from the plate. Use the following correlation: (M.U.) NuL = (~r)'.~' [0.037 ( ~ e , ) ' ,~8501 Solution. Given : t, = 20C, U = 40 qds, L = Im, B = I m, t, = 60C, Properties of air at (60 + 20)/2 = 40C, from the tables: p = 1.128 kg/m3, c, = 1.005 kJkgC, k = 0.0275 W/mC, v = 16.96 x 10d m2/s, Pr = 0.699 Heat transfer from the plate, Q:
Reynolds number,
: .
Q = h~ (t, - $3 = 77.55 x (0.8 x 0.2) (85 - 15) = 868.56 W
Heat loss,
Q = ;A At
= 65.31 x (1.2 x 0.8) x (950 - 280) = 42007.4 W = 42 kW (Ans.)

Example 7-38, Air at 20C and 1.013 bar jlows over a rectangular container, with top suIface 750 mm long in direction of flow and 1 m wide, at 35 nu's. Determine the heat transfer from the top suface maintained at 60C Use thefollowing properties of air at average temperature 9f 40% p = 1.906 x I@ kg/ms, c,, = 1.007 kJAg0C and k = 0.0272 W/mC, and the following co-relationsfor finding average heat transfer coeficient: .. (i) * ~rif ReL ) ~5 5 ~x~ I@ i u = 0.664 ( R ~ J( ~ ~ . .(ii) ~ ReL ~ > 5 X I@ i u = I0.037 ( ~ e f l ' 8501 ( P ~ ) O * ff
(P*U
Solution. Given : p = 1.013 bar, L = 750 mm = 0.75 m, B = 1 m U = 35 d s , Mean film 60 + 20 = 4O0C temp. t, = 60C, t. = 20C, t( =
-
..
Heat transfer from the to6 surface, Q:

Q =
i ;A, (5 - ).I
= 92.55 x ( 1 x 1 ) (60 - 20)

Using the gas equation for air, we have p = pRTorp=$ Air flow
= 3702 W or 3.702 kW (Ans.) Example 7.37. In a gas turbine system hot gases at 95PCflow at 70 i d s over the sugace of a combustion chamber which is at a uniform temperature of 280C. Determine the heat loss from the gases to the combustion chamber which can be idealised as a flat plate measuring I20 cm x 80 cm. The flow is parallel to the 120 cm side and transition Reynolds number is equal to 5 x 16. Take the properties of gas as: p = 0.494 kg/m3, k = 0.075 W/mC, v = 95 X 10d m2/s, Pr = 0.625. Solution. Given: L = 120 cm = 1.20 m, B = 80 cm = 0.8 m, Re, = 5 x lo5, U = 70 m/s. Heat loss from the gases to the combustion chamber: The average Nusselt number for a flow over ?,flat plate when both laminar and turbulent boundary layers are present is given by
I f transition occurs at Re, = 5 x lo5, then the above expression reduces to
__+
Since Re > 5 x lo5, we shall use eqn. (ii) for finding average heat transfer coefficient.
Eu = [0.036
(wO,' - 8361 (~r)'.'~'
Forced Convection
(ii) Drag force on the wing.
..
= 0.03627 (3489.96 - 850) x 0.8915 = 85.36 w / m 2 ~ c = h, 0, - t,) = 85.36 x (0.75 x 1) (60- 20) = 2560.8 W (Ans.)
m e properties of air at 10C
Example 7.39. A flat plate 1 m wide and 1.5 m long is to be maintained at 90C in air when free stream temperature is ](PC. Determine the velocity at which air must flow over the plate so that the rate of energy dissipation from the plate is 3.75 kW.
1
Use :
fiu = hL = 0.664 ( ~ e d ' '(~~ r ) " ~ k

N U = -hL --
65 The pressure of the air at flight altitude = p = 5x 1.013 = 0.866 bar
(i) Heat loss from the wing:
...for
laminar flow
From the characteristic gas equation, we have
[0.036(ReL)Od - 8361 (pr)'I3 ... for turbulent flow k Take the following air properties at 50C: p = 1.0877 kg/m3, k = 0.02813 W/mC, c, = 1007.3 J7kgC, p = 2.029 x I@' kg/ms and Pr = 0.703. (pou) Solution. Given: L = 1.5 m. B = 1 m, ! ,= W0C, t, = 10C, Q = 3.75 kW, Mean film temperature, t, = (90 + 10)/2 = 50C Velocity o f flow, U:
= h, - (5 - t,) = ( L x B) (t, 3.75 x lo3 = h x (1.5 x 1) x (90 10)
The Reynolds number for the entire wing is
Assuming that the critical Reynolds number is 5 x lo5, we have Uxc 125xxc Re, = 5 x lo5 = ; - = 14.16 x lo4 or
xc = 5 x 10' x 1 4 . 1 6 ~ l a 6 = 0.0566 125
- t,)
Thus we assume the flow is either a combination of laminar and turbulent or only turbulent. Considering the former, we have
The value indicates that the flow must be turbulent. Considering the flow to be parallel to the length of the plate, we have
Re, = Re, =
*
C1
(~~~)1'0'8
= 1246790
= 1246790
Heat lost, Q = h A At = 263.89 x (6 x 1.2) x(19 - 1) = 34200 W = 343 k W (Ans.) (ii) Drag force on the wing, FD: The average friction coefficient is given by = 2.676 x 0.072 167 0.072 ' f = (=-~e,"] '[(lO.S x l ~ ~ )(10.59 ~ . x~ lo6)
; .
Drag force on one side of the wing, 1 FD = x ; i PA@ (where A = one side area of the wing)
cf
Example 7-40. An aeroplaneflies with a speed of 450 k M at a height where the surrounding air has a temperature of 1C and pressure of 65 cm- of Hg. The aeroplane Wing idealised as a jlat plate 6m long, 1.2 m wide is maintained at IQC. If thexow is made parallel to the 1.2 m width calculate: (i) Hear loss from the wing;
Example 7.41. A square plate maintained at95OC experiences a force of 10.5 N when forced & - \ a t2SC flows over it at a velocity of 30 d s . Assuming the flow to be turbulent and using - Colburn analogy calculate: (i) The heat transfer coeficient; (ii) The heat loss from the plate surface.
42B
Forced Convection
427
Properties of air are: . p = 1.06 kg/m3, cp = 1.005 W/kg K, v = 18.97 x 1@ m2/s, PP,= 0.696. Solution. Given :FD = 10.5 N , t, = 95OC, t, = 25OC, U = 30 m/s (i) The heat transfer coefficient, % : For turbulent flow, the drag force is given by
(ii) The percentage error if the boundary layer is assumed to be of turbulent nature from the very leading edge of the plate. Assume unit width of the plate and critical Reynolds number to be 5 x ld. 20 = 1 6 0 ~as ~) : Take the properties of air (at
3Wl
k = 0.03638 W/mC, v = 30.08 x lo4 m2/s, Pr = 0.682. Solution. Given: L = 800 mm = 0.8 m, U = 45 m/s, t, = 300C, t, = 20C. (i) The heat transferred from the entire plate, considering both laminar and turbulent boundary layers: The Reynolds number for the entire plate,
The critical distance xc from the leading edge at which transition occurs is Re, v
x, =
or
L =
(g)1'1'8
= 2.478 m
The Reynolds number at the end of the plate,
Laminar boundary layer region: Average heat transfer coefficient,
- =0072 Average skin friction coefficient; Cf (Red0.'

From Colburn analogy, we have
...[Eqn. (7.137)]
The heat transfer from - the laminar portion, Q,,. = hA (2, - t,) = 44.99 x (0.3342 x 1 ) (300 - 20) = 4209.98 W (per metre width) Turbulent boundary layer region: Average heat transfer coefficient,
pcu h=-x-jf (pr12"
= 70.32 w/rnZOc(Ans.) (ii) Heat loss from the plate surface, Q : Q = KA At = 70.32 x (2.478 x 2.478) x (9T- 25) = 30226 W = 30,226 kW (Ans.) Example 7.42. Air at 20CJ20ws past a 800 mm long plate at a velocity of 45 nds. If the surjace of the plate is maintained at 300C, determine: (i) The heat rransferred from the entire plate length to &ir taking into consideration both laminar and turbulent portions of the boundqry layer.
= 0.002812 x 36618.7 x 0.88 = 90.6 w / m 2 " c The heat transfer from - the turbulent portion, Qtuh. = hA (ts - t-1 = 90.6 x [(0.8 - 0.3342) x 11 (300 - 20) = 11816.41 W Hence, total heat transferred from the plate, Qtotal= Qlam. + Qturb. =4209.98 + 11816.41 ~r 16026 W
Alternatively : Overall average heat transfer coefficient, k h = l0.036 (Re,)" - 8361 ( ~ r ) ' "
..
Q ,
= hA(t, - t,) = 7 1 . 9 x (0.8 x 1) X (300 - 20) = 16025 W
428
'
Forced Convectibn or
429
(ii) The percentage error: If the boundary layer is turbulent from the very beginning, then average heat transfer coefficient,
NUU= 0.023
(pr)'"
...I 7.151)
I
The above expressions are valid for
(Q,td)tuh, = hA (t, - t,) = 105 x (0.8 x 1) (300 - 20) = 23520 W lm6 .: Percentage error = 23520x 100 = 46.76 % increase (Ano.) 16026 B. Forced Convection Internal Flow
7.4. TURBULENT TUBE FLOW Some of the important relations for fully developed turbulent flow (Re > 2300) ~hrough pipes and conduits are: (i) The velocity distribution : -= local average velocity, and u,, = velocity at centre line, R = radius of the pipe, and y = distance from the wall = (R - r). J d fLii2 (ii) The head loss :hL = P 2g (where f = friction factor, u = average flow velocity] ... equally valid for turbulent flow. In case of turbulent flow through tube, it is difficult to derive simple analytical expressions for heat transfer coefficient and Nusselt number. But such expressions can be easily found out by using empirical relations. Thefricrion factor, for turbulent flow, is well represented by the following empirical relations: f = 0.316 for 2 x lo4 < Re< 8 x lo4 ...(7.146) f = 0.184 for lo4 < Re < lo5 ...(7.147) f = 0.005 + 0.396 (Re)'.' for 2 x lo4 < Re < 2 x lo6 ..(7.148) (iii) The wall shear stress, 2,: where u =
The properties of fluid are evaluated at film temperature. Example 7.43. A tube 5 m long is maintained at 100C by steam jacketing. A fluid flows through the tube at the rate of 175 kg/h at 30C. The diameter ofthe tube is em. Find Out average heat transfer coeflcient. Take the following properties of the jZuid: (MJJ) p = 850 kg/m3, c, = 2000 J/kgC, v = 5.1 x I @ mws and k = 0.12 w'mOC. Solution: Given: L = 5 m, D = 2 cm = 0.02 m Average heat transfer - coefficient h:
. The mass flow per second is given by
Since Re > 2300, the expression (i) holds good. Substituting the values, we get
2 ,
f 2 8 PUmm
...(7.149)
(iv) From Colburn analogy (0.5 < P, < 100)

...( 7.150) Substituting the value off from Eqn. (7.147) in Eqn. (7.150), we get following equations for heat transfer coefficients:
St
(mY3 =f 8
430
Forced Convection
'l'he thermo-physical properties of water at 30C are : W/mC, v = 0.805 x lo4 m2/s, p = 995.7 kg/m3, cp = 4.174 kJ/kgC, k = 61.718 x Pr = 5.42. (i) The heat transfer coefficient from the tube surface to the water: VD 12 ~ 0 . 0 6 - 0.894 x lo6 Reynolds number, Re = - = v 0.805 x lo4 Since Re > 2500, hence nature of flow is turbulent. For the turbulent flow hD ...[Eqn. (7.151)] (~r)'.~~~ Nu = = 0.023 k
Length of the tube required, L :
Q = hAS e m
where A, = nD,L, = n x 0.025 x L = 0.0785 L m2
...(i)
Also,
Q = m cp (to- ti)
The properties of water should be taken at
1
25OC
= 23959.6 w/rn2'c (Ans.) (ii) The heat trawferr9, Q:
I
Fig. 7.22
he heat transferred,
= 4230345 W (iii) The length of the tube, L:
Q = h A (t, - t,) 4230345 = 23959.6 x (71 x 0.06 x L) (70 - 30) or 4230345 = 23.4 m (Ans.) L= 23959.6 x 71 x 0.06 (70-30) Example 7.45. Water I S jlowing at the rate of 50 kg/min through a tube of inner diameter 2.5 cm. The inner surj4ace of the tube is maintained at 100C. I f the temperature of water increases from 25C and 55C find the length of the tube required. The following relation may be used : Nu = 0.023 (~r)'.~. The properties of water can be taken from the following table :
t ("c)
For find h we have to use the given empirical relation. The mass flow rate is given by,
71 71
h= 0.8333 = - D~~x V X p = - x 0.025~x V x 977.8

4 4
(Am.)
p 405 x x 4187 = 2.54 pr= 9= k 66.72 x 10-
Now substituting the values in the given empiiical formula, we get
CP
GX
pxld
@dm3)
40 50 60 70 80 992.2, 988.1 983.2 977.8 971.8
(JAg-K)
4174 4178 4182 4187 4195
(W/m-K)
63.35 64.74 65.90 66.72 67.41
(kg/m-s)
652 550 470 405 335
(B.U. Winter, 1998)

50 Solution. m = 50 kg/min = -= 0.8333 k d s ; Di = 2.5 cm = 0.025 m; 60
Now substituting the values in (i), we get 104671 = 9268.2 x 0.0785 L x 58.7 104671 L= = 2.45 m (Ans.) 9268.2 x 0.0785 x 58.7 Example 7.46. Water at 25C jlows across a horizontal copper tube 1.5 cm OD with a velocity of 2 d s . Calculate the heat transfer rate per unit length if the wall temperature is maintained at 75C. Given properties of water : p = 988 kg/m3 k = 0.648 W/m K
432
Forced Convection
Heat transfer per unit length of the tube:
(AMIE Summer, 1997) Solution. Given : Al = 75 - 25 = 50C; D = 1.5 cm = 0.015 m, U = 2 m/s;
p = 988 kg/m3; k = 0.648 W/m K ; p = 549.2 x

cp= 4.174 M/kg K. Heat transfer rate per unit length, &.
N dm2;
L'
Reynolds number, Re = Prandtl number,
pUD = 988 x 2 x 0.015 = 53969.4 p 549.2 x

pc 549.2 x = k
Pr =
x 4.174~ lo3 = 3.5376 0.648
Heat transfer per unit length of the tube, Q = Z A , A ~= Z X ( n x ~ 1 ) ~t = 62.8 x (n x 0.0254 x 1) x 20 = 100.22 W (Ans.) Bulk temperature increase (At)b, over a 3 m length of the tube:
Q = mcp (At), = (PAW cp (At),
(3 x 100.22) = (1.493 x
or
(At)b =
x 0.02,
x 10) x 1025 x (At),
3 x 100.22 x 4 = 38.77"C (Ans.) 1.493 x n x (0.0254)' x 10 x 1025 Example 7.48. A fluid is flowing in a pipe which is 300 mm in diameter, 3.5 m long and whose sulface in maintained at a constant temperature. The temperature of the wall surface at the inlet section of the pipe exceeds the fluid temperature by 40C. What is the rise in the fluid temperature at the end section of the pipe?
The Reynolds analogy holds good which is given by St = 8 where friction factor f = 0.022. Solution. Given: D = 300 rnm = 0.3 m, L = 3.5 m, f = 0.022, (t, - ti) = 40C Rise in fluid temperature at the end section of the pipe (to ti) : The energy balance yields Q = h A (t, - t,) = m cp (to - ti)
NOW
Q=7i;xmX~t L = 12938.4 x n x 0.0 15 x 50 = 30485.4 W/m or 30.485 kW/m (Ans.)
or
h ( n ~ ~ ) [ t , -= y ]
Example 7.47. Air entering at 2 bar pressure and bulk temperature of 200C is heated as
it flows through a tube with a diameter of 25.4 mm at a velocity of 10 m/s. Calculate the heat transfer per unit length of the rube if constant h e a t f l u condition is maintained at the wall and wall temperature is 20C above the air temperature all along the length of the tube. How much would the bulk temperature increase over a 3 metre length of the tube? , Take the properties of air as: p = 1.493 kg&, p = 2.57 x lr5 ~ s / m ' , k = 0.0386 W/mC, c,, = 1025 J/kgC Use the relation : Nu = 0.023 ( ~ e ) (" ~ ~r ) " ~ Solution. Given: D = 25.4 mm = 0.0254 m; U = 10 mls
Dividing throughout by npVc, D, we have
...substituting, St = f 8
Inserting the values, we get
Forced Convection
or or or
0.0048 [(t, - to) + 401 = 0.075 [40 - (t, - to)] 0.0048 (t, - to) + 0.192 = 3 - 0.075 (t, - to) (t, - to) (0.0048 + 0.075) = 2.808
or
to = 63.06OC
Rise in bulk temperature of air = 63.06 - 40 = 23.06OC (Ans.) Q = 0.0157 x (1.009 x lo3)x (63.06 - 40) = 365.3 W/m (Ans.)
: .
(Ans.) Example 7.49. Air at 2 bar and 40C is heated as it jlows through tube of diameter 30 mm at a velocity of 10 rnk Calculate the heat transfzr per unit length of the tube when wall temperature is maintained at 100C all along length of the tube. How much would be the bulk temperature increase over one metre length of the tube ? Use the following relation : Nu = 0.023 ~ 8P P. . ~ ~
The rise in the temperature of the fluid at the end, (to - t,) = 0, - ti) - 0, - to) = 40 - 35.18 = 4.82OC
7.5. EMPRICAL CORRELATIONS FOR FORCED CONVECTION The following dimensionless numbers are used for the usual forced convection problems: hL P LV (ii) Reynolds number, Re = (i) Nusselt number, Nu = -; k P (iii) Prandtl number, Pr = PC k ' h (iv) Stanton number, St = P cnv
r
The properties air at loo 2
= 70C are :
In order to determine the value of convection coefficient h, the following conventional generalised basic equations are used: Nu = f, (Re, Pr) = C, (Re)m(Pr)" ; St = f2 (Re, Pr) = C2 (Re)a ( ~ r ) ~ The values (numerical) of the constants and exponents are determined through experiments. The properties of thefluid are evaluated on the basis of bulk temperature (unless stated otherwise).
~ = 2 0 . 6 x 1 0 N- ~ dm2; Pr =0.694; cp= 1.009kJ/kgC; k=0.0297kg/mC; (M.U., 1992) Solution. Given :p = 2 bar = 2 x 1 6 ~/rn'; ti = 40C, D = 30 mm = 0.03 m;
A. Laminar Flow 7.5.1. Laminar Flow over Flat Plates and Walls ( a ) The local value of heat transfer coeficient is given by h .x ~ ~ r ) ' . ~ ~ ~ ...Blasius equation = 0.332 ( ~ e , ) ' . ( Nu, = k The average value of heat transfer coeficient is given by
v= 1 0 d s ; t,= 1oo0c
We know that
...(7.153)
p = pRT
or
P 2' ~
Pr = 0.696
...(Given)
t, (= 40C)
Nu = 0.023 ( ~ e ) '(,~ ~r ) ' . ~

= 0.023 (32417)O.~ (0.696)O.~ = 80.79
Fig. 7.23
Ux PC Re, = -, ReL = UL and Pr = v v k The above equations are valid for the following: (i) All fluids (Pr 2 0.6) except liquid metals; (ii) Reynolds number Re 2 40000;
where,
(iii) The fluid properties are evaluated at the mean film temperature, (b) For liquid metals, the following correlation has been proposed: Nu, = 0.565 (Pe,)
Q = hA (AMTD)= m x cp (to- ti)
t, + L tf = 2 .
...(7.155)
where m = - D ~ = V - x~ 0.03~ x 10 x 2.226= 0.0157 kg/s 4 4
71
71
where Re, = Re,. Pr The above equation is valid for the following : (i) Pr I 0.05 (ii) The fluid properties are evaluated at the film temperature.
7.5.2. Laminar Flow Inside Tubes (a) For fully developed flow : 64 f =Re ..(7.156)
436
,
Forced Convection
437
(b) For uniform heat flux : Nu = 4.36 ...(7.157) (c) For constant wall temperature : ...(7.158) Slug flow : Nu = 5.78 ...(7.159) Fully developed flow : Nu = 3.66 (4 For average Nusselt number for flow inside tubes, the following correlations, have been developed:
This equation is valid (i) for constant wall temperature and fully developed flow, (ii) when properties are evaluated "at the bulk temperature, (iii) tube length is much greater than- pameter, (iv) when Re and Nu are calculated on the basis of pipe diameter as the length parameter. (v) when 0.5 < Pr < 100.
(iii) 0.7 I Pr 5 160 (iv) Fluid properties are evaluated at the mean bulk temperature. 2. Colburn suggested the following correlation : Nu = 0.023 (pr)" ...(7.165) ...(7.166) St = 0.023 ( ~ e ) - ' .(~ ~ r ) ~ ~ ... in terms of staton number It is valid for the following : (i) St is evaluated at the mean bulk temperature. (ii) Re and Pr are evaluated at the mean film temperature. L (iii) 5 2 60, Re 2 lo4 , 0.7 < Pr < 160.
,
3. The Mc Adams and Colburn correlationsl are fairly accurate for small to moderate temperature difference (lOC in case of liquids and 50C for gases). For larger temperature differences, Sieder and Tate proposed the ioll~wing correlafion:
= 0.023 This equation is valid for the following:
(pr)"
...(7.167)
This equation is valid for

(i) short tubes
[$> 2)
(ii) Re < 2100
ii) 0.48 < Pr < 16700 (iv) 0.0044 < (~'CL,) < 9.75 (v) In this equation all properties except p, are evaluated at bulk temperature; pJis evaluated at surface temperature.
B. Turbulent Flow
7.5.3. Turbulent Flow Over Flat Plate The local and average Nusselt numbers, from Colburn analogy, are given by: Nu, = 0.029 (pr)lt3 = 0.036 (pr)ll3 where the properties are evaluated at the mean film temperature. When the flow lies in the transition range, Nu = 0.036 [ ( ~ e , ) ' .~
(i) - > 60, Re 2 lo4, 0.7 I Pr I 16700 D (ii) All fluid properties except ps are evaluated at the mean bulk temperature, psis evaluated at the surface temperature. 4. Desman and Sams suggested the following equation for very large temperature difference (t, -"tb) with air: Nu = 0.026 (~r)'.~ ....(7.168) The equation is valid for the following:
ts (i) - upto 3.55 (ii) Re 2 lo4 tb (iii) Re is evaluated at mean film temperature (iv) Nu and Pr are evaluated at mean bulk temperature.
...(7.162)
7.5.5. Turbulent Flow Over Cylinders 1. The following empirical correlation is widely used for turbulent flow over cylinders.
...(7.163)
AVP~)"~
hD = c ( ~ e ) (pr)'" " Nu = -
...(7.169)
where
A = 18700Lwhen Re, 4 x lo5 A = 23100 when Re, = 5 x lo5

c
where C and n are constants and have the values as given in the table 7.2 below:
7.5.4. Turbulent Flow in Tubes The following correlations for fully developed turbulent flow in circular tubes have been proposed : 1. Mc Adams has proposed the following general correlation on the basis pf Nu = @ (Re, Pr) for heating and cooling of all fluids with some limitations as given bdow : Nu = 0.023 (Pr)" ...(7.164) where n = 0.4 ... for heating n = 0.3 ... for cooling
(i)
Table 7.2. Constants for Eqn. (7.169) for Flow across Cylinder (Hilpert, 1933; Knudsen, 1958)
S. No.
1.
2.
Re
C
0.989 0.911 0.683 0.193 0.027
0.4 to 4 4 to 40 40 to 4 x lo3 4 x lo3 to 4 x 4 x lo4 to 4
0.330 0.385 0.466 0.618 0.805
3. 4. 5.
lo4
lo5
1 60
(ii) 1 x lo4 < Re < 12 X 104
All properties are evaluated at the film temperature.
438
Forced Convection
2. Churchill and Bernstein have suggested the following empirical correlation which covers the entire range of Re and wide range of Pr :
This equation is valid for the following:
The average heat transfer coefficient is given by
(i) Re . Pr > 0.2 (ii) All properties are to be evaluated at the film temperature.
7.5.6. Turbulent Flow over Spheres 1. For flow of gases over spheres, Mc Adams suggested the following correlation: ...(7.171) ...for 25 < Re < 1 x lo5 Nu = 0.37(~e)O.~ Fluid properties are to be evaluated at the film temperature. 2. Kramers proposed the following correlation for flow of liquids past spheres: ...(7.172) Nu = [0.97 + 0.68 ( ~ e ) ~ . ~ ] ( ~ ... r for ) ~ I. < ~ Re < 2000 The fluid properties are to be evaluated at the film temperature. 3. Whitaker has proposed a single equation for flow of gases and liquids past sphere; his correlation is
Heat transfer from both sides of the plate, per metre width, Q = 2 [ Z A , (t,-t,)] = 2l18.88 x (0.35 x 1 ) (605 - 15)] = 7797.44 W (Ans.) Example 7.51. A surface condenser consists of two hundred thin walled circular tubes (each tube is 22.5 mm in diameter and 5 m long) arranged in parallel, through which water flows. I f the mass flow rate of water through the tube bank is 160 kg/s and its inlet and outlet temperatures are known to be 21C and 29OC respectively, calculate the average heat transfer coeficient associated with flow of water. Solution. Given: D = 22.5 mm = 0.0225 m, L = 5 m, t, = 21C, to = 2gC. Average heat transfer coefficient, h:
for 0.71 < Pr < 300; 3.5 < Re < 7.6 x lo4; 1.0 < (&I&) < 3.2 All properties except c(, are to be evaluated at t,. Example 7.50. Air at a temperature of 15OC flows at a velocity of 6.5 m/s across a flQt plate maintained at a temperature of 605OC. Calculate the amount of heat transferred per metre width from both sides of the plate over a distance of 350 mm from the leading edge. The following relation holds good in the case of large temperature difference between the plate and the fluid:
ti + to - 21 + 29 t , =- 250C 2 2 The thermo-physical properties of water at 25C are: p = 996.65 kg/m3; p = 0.862 x kglms; k = 0.6079 W/mC; c, = 4.178 kJkgC
The mean bulk temperature, Prandtl number, The mass flow rate of water through each tube,
Nu, = 0.332 (pr)'I3 (Re)u 2
($"."'
where TTF and T, are the absolute temperatures of the plate sugace and free stream respectively and all fluid properties are evaluated at the mean $film temperature. Solution. Given: T, = 15 + 273 = 288 K, T, = 605 + 273 = 878 K, x = 350 mrn = 0.35 m. Amount of heat transferred per unit width : 605 + 15 = 310C The mean film temperature, tf = 2 The thermo-physical properties, at 3 1OC are: p = 0.614 kg/m3; c,, = 1.046 kJ/kgC k = 0.04593 W/mC; p = 29.7 x lo4 kglms; Pr = 0.675 0.614 x 6.5 x 0.35 Re, = pux = 47032 Reynolds number, CL 29.7 x lo4 The Nusselt number is given by
As Re >> 2500, therefore, the nature of flow is turbulent. Since the water is being heated in condenser, hence we may use McAdams correlation Nu = 0.023 ( ~ e ) ' ( .~r)'.~ ...[Eqn. (7.164)] = 0.023 (52518.26)O.~ (5.9241O.~ = 279.9 or
Nu = hD = 279.9 k
Nu, = 0.332 (pr)'I3(Re)lJ2
Example 2.52. Water at 20C with a flow rate of 0.015 kg/s enters a 2.5 cm ID tube which is maintained at a uniform temperature of 90C. Assuming hydrodynamically and thermally fully developed flow determine the heat transfer coeficient and the tube length required to heat the water to 70C. [Water properties at 20C : p = 1000.5 kg / d , cp = 4181.8 J/kg K,
i
442
Forced Convection
443
The thermo-physical properties o f air at 90C are : cp = 1.009 kT/kgC p = 0.972 kg/m3; v = 22.1 x m2/s k = 0.03127 W/mC; Pr = 0.69 p = 22.14 x lo4 kgtms; Reynolds number,
For calculating the tube side heat transfer coeficient use the Dittus-Boelter equation and for the shell side heat transfer coeficient, the average value may be taken as 10760 w/m2 K. Data : Properties of water at 30C. k = 0.659 W / m K; cp = 4.180 kJ/kg K;
p = 979.8 kg/m3
p=0.4044
XI&'
pa s
(AMIE Summer, 1998)

Solution. Given : thl = th2= t,,, = 8 0 V , t,, = 20C; tc2= 40C;
As Re >> 2500 the flow is turbulent. (i) The heat loss from the duct over its 4.5 m length, Q: Q = m cp At = 0.06 x (1.009 x lo3) (110 - 70) = 2421.6 W (ii) The heat flux and duct surface temperature at a length of 4.5 m: The heat flux at x = 4.5 m is calculated from the relation: n ~t ~t
(Ans.)
V, = 1.4 m/s; h, = 10760 w / m 2 K
kw= 0.659 W/mC; p, = 979.8 kg/m3; cp, = 4.18 kJ/kg K ; pw = 0.4044 x (i) The number of tubes, N : Pas
..... at
30C
Q = mwCpw (4.2 - tcl)

where, h, = 6.5 W / ~ ~ " C hi (inside convection coefficient)is calculated from the correlation Nu = 0.023 (~r)'.~~~ = 0.023 (19169.5)0.8( 0 . 6 9 ) " ~ = ~54.22 ~
...(Given)
Also,
= 15.277 x 4.18 x lo3 (40 - 20) = 1277157 W mw= pw x flow area x velocity
..
(where N = no. o f tubes)
N=
x (0.0134)' x 1.4
: .
Thermal resistance,
1 1 1 1 Z Rth = -+hi ho = 9.42 + 6.5 = 0.26
15.277 x 4 = 78.97, i.e., 79 979.8 x n x (0.0134)~ x 1.4 (ii) The length of each tube, L : For two through tubes,
(Ans.)
Hence, heat flux From the resistance network, Using Dittus-Boelter equation, we have
9.42 Example 7.55. A horizontal tubular 1-1 condenser is used to condense saturated steam at 80C. The condenser is a shell and tube one with brass tubes (k = 110 W/mC) of 1.59 cm OD and 1.34 cm ID. Steam is outside tubes and cooling water enters the tubes at 20C with a velocity of 1.4 d s and leaves at 40C. I f the rate of cooling water supply is 55000 kg/h and the latent heat of condensation of steam at 80C is 2304 kJ/kg, calculate : ( i ) The number of tubes; (ii) The length of each tube.
or
250 t = 70 - -= 43.46OC (Ans.)
-- 0'659 x 0.023 (45453)O.' 0.0134
(2.565)'" = 8774 w/m2 K
(Ans.)
444
Forced Convection From (i) and (ii), we get 9869.1 1 L = 4480
NOW, where
Q = uaoO,
0, =
'1
-2 '
- (80- 20) - (80 - 40)
In (@,/I2)
i n [ :
IZ]
- 0.4055
20
- 49.320C, and
- 0.454 m (Ans.) 9869.11 Example 7.57. A square channel of side 20 mm and length 2.5 m, in a heat transfer problem, carries water at a velocity of 45 d s . The mean temperature of the water along the length of the channel is found to be 30C while the inner channel sur$ace temperature is 70C. Calculate the heat transfer coeflcient from channel wall to the water. Use the correlation:
or
L=--
Substituting the values in the above eqn,, we get 1277157 = 4158.7 x (79 x n x,0.0159 x L) x 49.32 1277157 = 1.578 m (Ans.) L= 4158.7 x 79 x n x 0~0139 X 49.32 Example 7.56. Liquid mercury flows at a rate of 1.6 kg/s through a copper tube of 20 mm diameter. The mercury enters the tube at 15C and after getting heated it leaves the tube at 35C. Calculate the tube length for constant heat flux at the wall which is maintained at an average temperature of 50C. For liquid metal flowing through a tube, the following empirical correlation is presumed : to agree well with experimental results Nu = 7 + 0.025 ( ~ e ) ' . ~ where Pe is the Peclet number; Pe = Pr.Re Solution. Given : D = 20 mm = 0.02m, m = 1.6 kgls, ti = 15"C, to = 35C. Tube length, L: 15 + 35 t, = = 25C The bulk temperature, 2 The thermo-physical properties of mercury at 25OC are: p = 13582 kg/m3; k = 8.69 W/mC m2/s; Pr = 0.0248 c, = 140 JlkgC; v = 1.5 x pVD p A V D Re=--------- mD - 4m - 4m The Reynolds number, CL $D2r n : D ~E ~ ( P
i'le thermo-physical properties are evaluated at the mean bulk temperature except Pr, . Pr, is evaluated at the channel sur$ace temperature. Take 'epui9alent diameter as the characteristic length of the channel. The thermo-physical properties of water at 309iZ"i&e: * p = 995.7 kg/m3; k = 0.6175 W/mC; v = 0,805 x I@ rn2/s; Pr = 5.42;PrS at 700C = 2.55. Solution. Given: V = 4.5 rnls, tb = 30C, r, = 70C Heat transfer coefficient, E: The equivalent diameter of the channel,
j J
"/,
(where A = cross-sectional area of channel, P = perimeter of the channel). Reynolds number Nusselt number is given by
...(Given)
"'
V )
..
Nu = 7 + 0.025 (Pr . ~ e ) ' . ~

=7
+ 0.025
(0.0248 x 49997)0.8= 14.46
The heat gained by mercury due to convection, Q = X A , At = 6282.87 x (n x 0.02 x L) (50 - 25) = 9869.11 L
...(i)
k h = - x 573.4 = x 573.4 = 17703.7 w / I ~ ~ " c (Ans.) D , 0.02 Example 7 3 . Water is heated while flowing through a 1.5 cm x 3.5 cm rectangular tube at a velocity of 1.2 m/s. The entering water temperature is 40C and tube wall is maintained at 85C. Determine the length of the tube required to raise the temperature of water by 35C. Use the following properties of water : p = 985.5kg/m3; k = 0.653 W/m K; v = 0.517 x m2/s; c, = 4.19 kJ/kg K. (N.M.U.,1998) Solution. Given : x = 3.5 cm = 0.035 m; y = 1.5 cm = 0.015 m; V = 1.2 m / s ; t, = 40C; to = 75OC. Length of tube required, L : Q = hA, 8 , = mc, (to- ti) ...(i) where A, is the surface area of the tube.
or
446
Forced Convection
(where A, = area of cross-section).
l = 3 . 5 cm
0.621 ~ ( 4 . 1 103)x35 9~ = 6.57 m (Ans.) 5946.3 x 0.1 x 23.3 Example 7.59. 3.8 kg of oil per second is heated from 20C to 40C by passing through a circular annulus with a velocity of 0.3 m/s. The hot gases at 400Care passed through the inside tube of 100 mm diameter and are cooled to 100C. Find the length of the pipe required for the above heat transfer process assuming the gas is flowing in opposite direction to the oil ? Take the following properties of oil and gases at mean temperature : Oil Gases
L=
c~ k 0.2 W/mC 0.035 W/mC Solution. Given :m, = 3.8 kg/s; t,, = 20C; tC2 = 40C; V, = 0.3 m/s;
t,,, = 400C; th2= 100C; d = 100 mm = 0.1 m [The suffix c stands for cold (i.e., oil) and suffix h stands for hot (i.e., gases)]. Length of the pipe required, L : The diameter of the annulus is calculated as follows :
Fig. 7.26 = 0.035 x 0.015
800 kg/m2 8 x ~ O m2/s - ~ 3350 J/kg K
0.8 kg/m3 32.8 x 1 r 6m2/s 1050 W/K
(P.U.)
x 1.2 x 985.5 = 0.621 kg/s
The heat transfer co-efficient h for the given configuration is given by :
Nu =
5 = 0.023 (I?e)O.' (~r)"" k

LC= -=
4 4 P 4 ( 1 x b ) -- 21b 2 (1 + b) - (1 + b)
[Eqn. (7.151)]
For oil : For annulus,
D , , = (D - d)
...[Eqn. [6.28)1
Characteristic length,
Nu = 0.023 (~e)'.' (pr)'l3

= 0.023 (2764)O.' (107.2)~'~ = 61.9
...[Eqn. [7.151)]
x (4.19 x lo3)= 3.27 P-Ce =PC pr= A = 985.5x0.517 x k k 0.653 Substituting the values in (ii), we get 0'021 = 0.023 (0.487 x 105)0.8 (3.271." = 191-23 0.653
Now substituting the values in (i), we get
For gases : Heat lost by gases = heat gained by oil mh x I050 x (400 - 100) = 3.8 x 3350 x (40 - 20) mh = 0.808 kg/s .. The velocity of hot gases (Vh)can be calculated as follows :
448
Forced Convection
449
Solution. Given : D = 19 mm = 0.019 m; V = 0.061 m/s; L = 1.5 m

( 1 Pas = 1 N-s/m2)
Overall heat transfer coefficient,

x, (velocity depth) = 0.05 ReD= 0.05 x 1720.4 x 0.019 = 1.634 m
Log-mean temperature difference,
xt (temperature depth) = x,
x P,
= 1.634 x 6.5 = 10.62 m
The tube length L is less than x,, as well as x,, so both depths are developing.
(Ans.)
Example 7.61. Liquid metal flows at a rate of 270 kg/min through a 5 cm diameter stainless steel tube. It enters at 415OC and is heated to 440C as it passes through the tube. The tube wall tenzperature is 20C higher than liquid bulk temperature and a constant heat flow is maintained along the tube. Calculate the length of the tube required to effect the transfer. For constant wall temperature, ...(i) Nu = 5 + 0.025 (pe)08 For constant heat f l u , ...(ii) Nu = 4.82 + 0.0185 (pe)Og2'
Use the following fluid properties : p = 1.34 x I O - ~kg/m-s, cp= 149J/kgK, and
Example 7.60. Gasoline at the mean bulk temperature of 27Ocjows inside a circular tube of 19 mm inside diameter. The average bulk velocity is 0.061 i d s and the tube is 1.5 m long. The $ow starts at the heated tube inlet (no upstream developing section) and the tube sur$ace temperature is constant at 38OC. Determine the average heat transfer co-eficient over 1.5 m length of the tube. Are the temperature and velocity profies developing or developed in the 1.5 m length of the tube ? Take the following fluid properties : CL, = 5,223 x 1 F 4 Pas; pb= 5.892 x 1 F 4 PU S; kb= 0.1591 w/mOc;
pb = 874.6 kg/m3; cpb= 1757 J/kg K; Ph = 6.5 Use the following formula :
Pr = 0.013, k = 15.6 W/m K.
(P.U. Winter, 1997)
Solution. Given : h = u 60 0= 4.5 kg/s; D = 5 cm = 0.05 rn; At = 440 - 415 = 25OC Length of the tube required, L : The temperatures of the wall and flowing metal along the tube are shown in Fig. 7.27. We have to use the eqn. (ii) as it is a constant heat flux condition to the tube. Q = h c p A t = 4 . 5 x 149x25
= 16762.5 W
460C 440C
435C 415C
Fig. 7.27
x, (entry length for fully developed velocity profile) = 0.05 Re.D, and
x, (entry length for fully developed temperature profile) = x,, . Ph
f
(M.U., 1997)
450
Heat and Mass Transfer Now,
Forced Convection
Nu = 4.82 + 0.0185 (Pe)0.827 = 4.82 + 0.0185 (1094.6)O.~~~ = 10.85

-hD
i.e.,
- 10.85
Further, z.e.,
Q = hA (At)= 16762.5
16762.5 = 3385.2 x (nx 0.05 x L) x 25
(calculated above)
Nu = 0.44 (~e)"' For 10 <Re < I d Nu = 0.22 ( ~ e ) ' . ~ For I d < Re < 2 x ld The thermo-physical properties are evaluated at t, (30C) and are given as: k = 0.02673 W/mC; v = 16 x I@ m2/s Solution. Given : D = 25 mm = 0.025 m, t, = 30C, U = 2.5 d s , t, = S C , p ,, = 0.0175 x lo4 ohm-m31m. (i) The heat transfer coefficient from the surface to the air:
Reynolds number Since Re = 3906, so the second relation will be applicable. Thus,
Example 7.62. Assuming that a man can be represented by a cylinder 350 mm in diameter and 1.65 m high with a sulface temperature of 28C. Calculate the heat he would lose while standing in a 30 km/h wind at 12C. Solution. Given : D = 350 mm = 0.35 m, L = 1.65 m, t, = 28"C, t, = 12C.
(ii) The permissible current intensity for the bus bar, I: Heat dissipation to air = h A, (t, - t,) = 33.6 x (n x 0.025 x 1 ) (85 - 30) = 145.14 Wlm The heat generated in the bus bar
Heat lost by the man, Q :

28 + 12 - 2ooc t - ----f 2 The properties of air at 20C are: k = 2.59 x W/mC, v = 15.0 x lo4 m2/s, Pr = 0.707. UD 8.33 0.35 Reynolds number, Re = -= = 1.94 105 v 15.0~ lo4 Using Eqn. (7.169), we have
The film temperature,
From ( 1 ) and (2), we have 35.65 x lo4
= 145.14
k h = - . C (Re)" (pr)'I3 D where C = 0.027 and n = 0.805 (From table 7.2) Substituting the value in the above equation, we get
h A, (t, - t,) = 32.15 x (n x 0.35 x 1.65) (28 - 12) or Q = 933.26 W (Ans.) Example 7.63. A copper bus bar 25 mm diameter is cooled by air (in cross-flow) at 30C and flowing past the bus bar with a velocity of 2.5 d s . the sugace temperature of the bar is not to exceed 85OC and resistivity of copper is 0.0175 x 1Qd ohm-m3/m, calculate the following: (i) The heat transfer coeflcient from the sutjGace to the air; (ii) The permissible current intensity for the bus bar. The following empirical correlations may be applicable for a single cylinder placed in cross-flow :
Heat lost by the man,
Q =
: .
Example 7.64. Air stream at 24OC is flowing at 0.4 d s across a 100 W bulb at 130C. & the bulb is approximated by a 65 mm diameter sphere, calculate: (i) The heat transfer rate, and (ii) The percentage of power lost due to convection. Solution. Given: t, = 24C t, = 130C, D = 65 min = 0.065 m, U = 0.4 mls (i) The heat transfer rate, Q:
The film temperature, The properties of air at 77C are: k = 0.03 W/mC; v = 2.08 x lo-' m21s, Pr = 0.697 UD 0.4 x 0.065 = 1250 Reynolds number, Re=-= 2.08 x l o 5 Equation (7.171) gives the Nusselt number as
hD % = 0.37 ( ~ e ) ' = .~ T
452
Forced Convection
453
-- 0'03 x 0.37 (1250)'.~= 12.32

0.065
w/~"c
: .
The heat transfer rate, Q = % A , (t,-t,)
=Lx7
x ~(tS-t,) ~
layer on the four walls is turbulent, the heat transfer takes place only from the four suq4aces and the wall surjGace of the truck is maintained at 10C. Neglecting heat transfer from the front and back and assuming the flow to be parallel to I0 m longside, calculate the following: (i) The heat loss from the four surj5aces; (ii) The tonnage of refrigeration; (iii) The power required to overcome the resistance acting on the four sudaces. The properties of air (at ) i =2 = 30C) are: p = 1.165 kg/m3, cc = 1.005 kUkgC, k = 0.02673 w/m2"c, v = 16 x
50 + 10
lod
m2/s, Pr = 0.701.
(ii) The percentage of power lost due to convection: %age of power lost = 17'33 x 100 = 17.33% (Am) 100 Example 7.65. Compare the heat transfer coeflcients under the following conditions, assuming that there is no change in the temperatures of the liquid and the tube wall and the flow through the tube is turbulent in character. (i) Twofold increase in the diameter of the tube; the flow velocity is mintairied constant by a change in the rate of liquidflow; (ii) Two-fold increase in the flow velocity, by varying mass flow rate. Solution. In case of turbulent tube flow, the average heat transfer coefficient is given by
-
Solution. Given : U = 90 kmlh = 903600 loo0 = 25; d s , tr., = 50C, ts = 10C, L = 10 m ,

B = 4m, H = 3m. (i) The heat loss from the four surfaces: The Reynolds number at the end of the side,
Evidently the boundary layer is turbulent for which hL Nu = - = 0.036 (Re)'.' ( ~ r ) ~ . ~ ~ ~ k
...[Eqn. (7.141)]
hD x u = - = 0.023 (Re)08( ~ r ) ' . ~ ~ ~ k
...[Eqn. (7.151)]
h = 0.023
0.33 (Pr)
(WO'~
(D)0.2
( i ) When the flow velocity and the fluid properties remain unchanged:
Heat loss from the four surfaces, Q = 5 A At = 48.64 [2(4 + 3) x 101 x (50 - 10) = 272384 W = 272.384 kW (Ans.) (ii) The tonnage of refrigeration (TR) : 272.384 x 3600 = 70 TR (-: 1 TR = 14000 Wlh) The cooling capacity required = 14000 (iii) The power required to overcome the resistance, P: Average skin friction coefficient
: .
This shows that the heat transfer coeflcient decreases to 0.87 when there is a twofold increase in the diameter of the tube. (ii) When the tube diameter and fluid properties remain the same: h
..(uO'
Drag force,
F, =
cfx 1 pAu2
2 5 ~
..
This shows that the heat rransfer is increased to 1.74 times when there is a hvo-fold increase in flow velocity. Example 7.66. A refrigerated truck is moving on a high way at 90 km/h in a desert area where the ambient air temperature is 50C. The body of the truck may be considered as a rectangular box measuring 10 m (lengrh)x 4 m (width) x 3 m (height). Assume that the boundary
1 x ~ 1.165 x x [2 ( 4 + 3) x lo] ~ = 2.62 x = 133.54 N P = FD x U = 133.54 x 25 = 3338.5 W = 3.3385 kW (Ans.)
Example 7.67. 800 kg/h of cream cheese at 15C is pumped through a tube 100 mm in diameter, 1.75 m long and maintained at 95C. Calculate : ( i ) The temperature of cheese leaving the heated section; (ii) The rate of heat transfer from the tube to the cheese. Use the following correlation for larninarflow inside a tube :
Forced Convection
455
I f 12 percent of the power dissipation is lost through the insulated end pieces of the cylinder, calculate the experimental value of the convective heat transfer coeflcient. Compare this value with that obtained by using the correlation :
L\
The thermo-physical properties of cheese are: p = 1150 kg/m3; p = 22.5 kg/ms k = 0.42 W/mC; cp = 2.75 kJ/kgC Solution. Given: m = 800 kg&, D = 100 rnm = 0.1 m, L = 1.75 m, t, = 95"C, t, = 15C. (i) The temperature of cheese leaving the heated section, tz : Velocity of cheese flowing through the tube,
where all thermo-physical properties except Pr, are evaluated at the mean bulk temperature lfree stream) of air. Pr, is evaluated at the average temperature of cylinder. The thermo-physicAl properties of air at 25C are: k = 0.0263 W/mC; v = 15.53 x I@ m2/s; Pr = 0.702 Pr, at 130C = 0.685.
Reynolds number Obviously the nature of the flow is laminar and the given correlation is valid for the given flow situation. Prandtl number,
Solution. Given: t, = 25"C, U = 16.5 m/s, Power dissipation by heater = 100 W, D = 20mm = 0.02 m. (a) Heat flow from the heater to the air flowing past it is given by Q = h ~ At,
or 100
[1-g)
-
=hx
(71
x 0.02 x 0.12) x (130 - 25)
= 111.16 W / ~ ~ " (Ans.) C

(b) Rcynolds number Using the correlation given, we have
- t l +tz 15 + t2 Mean bulk temperature of cheese, tb = -- 2 - 2 Now, heat gained by cheese = convective heat flow from the tube to cheese, or or t2 = 29.82"C (ii) The rate of heat transfer from the tube to the cheese, Q : Q = 71 A, (t, - tb) = m cp (t2 - t l )
Nu = 0.26 ( ~ e ) ' . ~
h =
0'0263 x 90.93 = 119.57 w / ~ ~ ~ c (Ans.) x 90.93 = D 0.02
HIGHLIGHTS Important Formulae A. Laminar Flow I. Flow over flat plate:

If
v < 5 x los v
...boundary layer is laminar (velocity distribution is parabolic)

follows log law or a power law)
(Ans.) Example 7.68. The following data relate to a metallic cylinder of 20 mm diameter and 120 mm in length heated internally by an electric heater and subjected to cross flow of air in a low speed wind tunnel: Temperature of free stream = 25C; Velocity of free stream air = 16.5 m/s; Average temperature of cylinder su$ace = 130C; Power dissipation by heater = 100 W.
= 9056.67 W
If
Ux - > 5 x lo5 ...boundary layer is turbulent on that portion (velocity distribution
(i) Displacement thickness, (ii) Momentum thickness,
6* =
0=
0
462
The thermo-physical properties are evaluated at the mean bulk temperature except Pr,; Pr, is evaluated at the channel surface temperature. Take equivalent diameter as characteristic length of the channel. The thermo-physical properties of water at 30C are : p = 995.7 kg/m3,k = 0.6175 W/mC; v = 0.805 x lo4 m2/s; Pr = 5.42; Pr, at 70C = 2.55 [Ans. 25456.6 w/m2 OC]
31. A copper bus bar 20 mm diameter is cooled by air (in cross-flow) at 30C and flowing past the bus bar
Free Convection
8.1. Introduction. 8.2. Characteristic parameters in free convection. 8.3. Momentum and energy equations for laminar free convection heat transfer on a vertical flat plate. 8.4. Integral equations for momentum and energy on a flat plate - velocity and temperature profiles on a vertical flat plate - solution of integral equations for vertical flat plate - free convection heat transfer coefficient for a vertical wall. 8.5. Transition and turbulence in free convection. 8.6. Empirical correlations for free convection. 8.7. Simplified free convection relations for air. 8.8. Combined f r e eand forced convection. Typical Examples . - Highlights - Theoretical Questions - Unsolved Examples.
with a velocity of 2 m/s. If the surface temperature of the bar is not to exceed 80C and resistivity of copper is 0.0175 x lo4 ohm-m3/m, calculate the following: ( i ) The heat transfer coefficient from the surface to the air; (ii) The permissible current density for the bus bar. The following empirical correlations may be applicable for a single cylinder placed in cross-flow : Nu = 0.44 ( ~ e ) ' ~ For 10 < Re < lo3 Nu = 0.22 ( ~ e ) ' . ~ For lo3 < R e < 2 x lo5 The thermo-physical properties are evaluated at t, (30C) and are given as : [Am. ( i ) 32.14 w/m2 O C (ii) 1346 amp.] k = 0.02673 W/mC v = 16 x lo4 m2/s
8.1. INTRODUCTION When a surface is maintained in still fluid at a temperature higher or lower than that of the fluid, a layer of fluid adjacent to the surface gets heated or cooled. A density difference is created between this layer and the still fluid surrounding it. The density difference introduces a buoyant force causing flow of fluid near the surface. Heat transfer under such conditions is known as free or natural convection. Thus "Free or natural convection is the process o f heat transfer which occurs due to movement o f the jluid particles by density changes,associated with temperature differential in a jluid." This mode of heat transfer occurs very commonly, some examples are given below: (9 The cooling of transmission lines, electric transformers and rectifiers. (ii) The heating of rooms by use of radiators. (iii) The heat transfer from hot pipes and ovens surrounded by cooler air. (iv) Cooling the reactor core (in nuclear power plants) and carry out the heat generated by nuclear fission etc. - In free convection, the flow velocities encountered are lower compared to flow velocities in forced convection, consequently the value of convection coefficient is lower, generally by one order of magnitude. Hence, for a given rate of heat transfer larger area could be required. As there is no need for additional devices to force the liquid, this mode is used for heat transfer in simple devices which have to be left unattended for long periods. - The rate of heat transfer is calculated using the general convection equation given below: ...( 8. 1) Q = h A (t, - t,) where Q = heat transfer, W h = convection coefficient, w/m2"c A = area, m2, and t, = temperature of fluid at distances well removed from the surface (here the stagnant fluid temperature).
8.2. CHARACTERISTIC PARAMETERS IN FREE CONVECTION

It has been observed that during heat transfer from a heated surface to the surrounding fluid,
the fluid adjacent to the surface gets heated; this results in thermal expansion of the fluid and
464
Free Convection
reduction in its density (compared to the fluid away from the surface). Subsequently a buoyancy force acts on the fluid causing it to flow up the surface, and in the neighbourhood of the plate, hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layers are set up. Since here the flow velocity is developed due to difference of temperatures, the two boundary layers are of the same order irrespective of Prandtl number. - A property that comes into play in free or natural convection is the coeflcient of thermal expansion of the fluid defined by
In free convection, the additional force is the body force pg and hence the momentum equation gets modified to
...(8.6)
In free convection, outside the boundary layer, (y ,00) as p tends to p,, whereas u and v approach zero. So Eqn (8.6) becomes
For an ideal gas and hence

-
Since in free convection heat transfer coefficients are low and Reynolds number is not an independent parameter, a new dimensionless grouping plays the major role (in free convection) which incorporates the coefficient of thermal expansion P in the expression. This dimensionless grouping is called the Grashof number, expressed as
(i.e. the change in pressure on a height
ah is equal to the weight per unit area of

the fluid element). Subtituting Eqn. (8.7) in Eqn. (8.6), we get
Fig. 8.1 : Free-convection boundary layer over heated vertical plate.
...(8.8)
L = characteristic length A t = (t, - t,), where t, and t, are the surface temperature and temperature of the surrounding fluid respectively. The role of Grashof number is the same in free convection as that of Reynolds number in forced convection. The critical Grashof number for the flow of air over a flat plate has been observed to be 4 x lo8 (approximately). In general, ...(8.4) Nu = f (Gr, Pr) = C(Gr)a(prlb In several cases, the above relation simplifies to the form Nu = C (Gr . Pr)m ...(8.5) Hence, a new dimensionless group is often used called Rayleigh number viz., Ra = Gr . Pr The product is also a criterion of laminar or turbulent character of the flow as determined by its values. Thus lo4 < Gr Pr < lo9 ... for laminar flow G r Pr > lo9 ... for turbulent flow
where
Further the density difference (p, of expansion p Thus so that Eqn. (8.8) beocmes
- p) may be expressed in terms of the volume coefficient
The energy equation for free convection boundary layer remains the same as forced convection at low velocities, viz.,
- lw l-) The values of Gr and Pr are evaluated at the mean film temperature t -[f
8*4* INTEGRAL EQUATIONS FOR MOMENTUM AND ENERGY ON A FLAT PLAm For free convection on a flat plate, the following equations can be derived. Integral momentum equation:
8.3. MOMENTUM AND ENERGY EQUATIONS FOR LAMINAR FREE CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFER ON A VERTICAL FLAT PLATE Figure 8.1. shows a free convection boundary layer formed on a flat vertical plate when it is heated. Here, the velocity profile is different from that of forced convection boundary layer. At the surface 1 wall the velocity in zero, it increases to some maximum value and then decreases to zero again at the edge of the boundary since the free stream is at rest. Initially the boundary layer is laminar in character and at some distance from the bottom edge, it becomes turbulent. This onset of turbulence depends on the fluid properties and the temperature difference (t, - t,). In order to analyse the problem, let us consider the momentum equation for forced convection.
Integral energy equation:
8-41. Velocity and Temperature Profiles on a Vertical Fht Plate

Assuming the velocity and temperature profiles to be similar at any x, the temperature profile
466
Free Convection 2m + n [T) c12 C2 (x)
467
may be taken as t-t, t, - t- - c1+ ~2 The following boundary conditions apply: (i) At y = 0 t = t, (ii) At y = 6 t = t,
--
2m+n-1
=3 gp (ts- t,) C# - v -(x)~-"

c 2
C1
...(8.19)
@)+~3@Jf
The temperature distribution is, therefore, obtained as t-t, ts - tw The velocity profile may be similarly assumed.
...(8.14)
For a similar solution to exist, both sides of these equations must be independent of x. Equating the exponents, we get 2m+n-1=m-n m+n-1 =-n 1 1 This gives m = - and n = - (Thus u1 = clxin, 6 = c2x1I4) 2 4 Inserting these values into the above equations, we get Cl2c2 -- gp (ts - t,)
84
T-v-
c 2
Cl
c 2
...(8.21)
...(8.22)
where ux is any arbitrary function with the dimension of velocity. The boundary condition are: (i) At y = 0, u = 0 (ii) At y = 6, u = 0 (iii) At y = 6,
40 C2 Solving these two equations for C, and C2, we get
c1C2 2a - --
...(8.23)
au - 0 ay
20 v + ' / 4 gp (t - t ) ~~=3.93[~+--)
>
-'I4
[:)-In
...(8.24)
The velocity distribution is, therefore, found to be
From Eqn. (8.16), the maximum velocity within the boundary layer is found to be 4 4 Urn, = - U , = - c ~ x ~ ~ ~ 27 27 which on substitution for C1 from Eqn. (8.23) gives u,, ;JIA[gB(r;-tw)]l"(x)l. = 0.766 v 0 952 + -
The resultant expression for boundary layer thickness is where 8.4.2. Solution of the Integral Equations for Vertical Flat Plate Substitution of the velocity and temperature distributions from Eqns. (8.14) and (8.16) into Eqn. (8.12) for momentum integral gives
(.
6 = c22-1 = c 2 x -314 X
which on substitution for C2 from Eqn. (8.24) yields
and substitution into Eqn. (8.13) for energy integral gives 1 d (u, 6 ) = 2a 0, - t J (t, - t-) 30 6 To solve these equations, let us assume u, and 6 as exponential functions of x 6=C# u, = C I P ; (where C,, C2, m and n are constants). Substituting these values in the above equation, we get
... is dimensionless numbers

(where Gr, =
gp ( 4 - tw) 2
v2
v and Pr = - )
8.4.3. Free Convection Heat Transfer Coefficient for a Vertical Wall The heat transfer coefficient may be evaluated from
= - ka
($)y;O
=h p
0, - t,)
...(8.28)
468
Heat and Mass Tjansfer
Using the temperature distribution of Eqn. (8.14), we obtain
Laminar pow: NUL = 0.59 (Gr .Pr)'" Turbulent flow: = 0.10 (Gr .Pr)'"
for (lo4< Gr . Pr < lo9) for (lo9 < Gr .Pr < 1012)
...(8.37) ...(8.38)
Substituting this value in Eqn. (8.28), we get
All the fluid properties are evaluated at the mean film temperature ff=Churchill and Chu have recommended the following correlations: 0.67 (Gr ~ r ) " ~ NuL = 0.68 + for (Gr .Pr c lo9)
I I":
...(8.39)
...(8.40)
...(8.30)
zm a 1 convection From Eqns. (8.27) and (8.29) we obtain the heat transfer correlation for n for a vertical flat plate as Nu, = 0.508 (pr)ln (0.952 + pr)-'I4 ( ~ r , ) " ~ For a given Prandtl number, Nu, varies as (Gr,)'" or h, a x-"~ The local film heat transfer coefficient decreases with x. It is inversely proportional to the fourth root of x. By integration over the distance, the average heat transfer coefficient is found to be
1
for (Gr. Pr > lo9)
For air with Pr = 0.7, Eqns. (8.31) and (8.33) simplify to Nu, = 0.378 ( G ~ J " ~
...(8.35) NuL = 0.504 (~t-3"~ These result are only 5 per cent higher than the exact solution of the free convection problem obtained numerically by Schmidt and Beckrnan. Here all properties are evaluated at 'film temperature'.
...(8.34)
8.5. TRANSITION AND TURBULENCE IN FREE CONVECTION A transition from laminar to turbulent condition in both forced and free convection is caused by thermal and hydrodynamic instabilities. It has been observed that the transition in free convection boundary layer occurs when the value of Rayleigh number approaches 10'. Thus
8.6.2. Horizontal Plates In case of an irregular plate, the characteristic length is defined as the surface area divided the perimeter of the plate. (i) The upper surface heated or the lower surface cooled: Laminar flow: NUL = 0.54 (Gr . Pr)'" for (lo5 c Gr. Pr S 2 x lo7) ...(8.4 1 ) Turbulent flow: NUL = 0.14 (Gr .pr)In for (2 x lo7 c Gr. Pr I3 x 10") ...(8.42) , (ii) The lower sulface heated or upper surface cooled: Laminar flow: NuL = 0.27 (Gr . Pr)'" for (3 x 1 6 c Gr. Pr 5 3 x 101) ...(8.43) Turbulent flow: NUL = 0.107 (Gr . ~ r ) ' " for (7 x lo6 c Gr. Pr $ 11 x 10l0)...(8.44) , - I 8.6.3. Horizontal Cylinders ' For such a case, the outside diameter is used as the characteristic dimension. Mc Adam has recommended the following correlations: iarninar flow: Nu = 0.53 (Gr .Pr)'I4 for (lo4 Gr . Pr c 109) ...(8.45) Turbulent flow: Nu = 0.13 (Gr . pr)ln for (lo9 < Gr. Pr c 1012) ...(8.46) The following general correlation has been suggested by Churchill and Chu for use over a wide range of Gr.Pr. 0.387 (Gr .pr)'l6 for (lo-' c Gr.Prc 1012) (8.47) { I + ( O S S ~ / P ~ }) ~ / ' ~ The fluid properties, in all preceding equations, are determined at the mean film temperature
'&
, ,
The analysis of turbulent free convection is very complex. However, the results obtained . from various experiments have been used to obtain the pertinent empirical relations.
8.6. EMPIRICAL CORRELATIONS FOR FREE CONVECTION The following dimensionless numbers apply for the usual fiee convection problems: hL L3P@ (i)Nusselt number Nu = (ii) Grashof number Gr =
--a
8.6.4. Inclined Plates For this case multiply Grashof number by cos 8, where 8 is the angle of inclination from the vertical and use vertical plate constants. 8.6.5. Spheres Yuge (1959) has recommended the following correlation for free convection from a sphere of diameter D. Nu = 2 + 0.43 (Gr . ~ r ) ' " for (1 c Gr. Pr c 16)and Pr = 1 ) ...(8.48) 8.6.6. Enclosed Spaces In the literature, several correlationsfor heat transfer between surfaces at different temperatures
k'
v2
(iii) Prandtl number Pr = -f
P C
8.6.1. Vertical Plates and Cylinders The commonly used correlations are:
--
Free Convection
separated by enclosed fluids are available. In this section, some correlations are presented that are per- Boundin tinent to the most common geometries. wall 9, (a) Vertical spaces Jacob has suggested the following correlations Qfor vertical enclosed air spaces shown in Fig. 8.2.
8.6.8. Concentric Sphere Spaces Refer Fig. 8.3. Raithby and Hollands have recommended the following correlations: ...(8.55) Q = ke 7~ (Di Do IL) (ti - to) and ke is expressed as
...[8.55 (a)]
L RaL 7/15 5 [(DoDir(Di7/15+DL ) a The above equations are valid ior ( l o 2 I Ra, S lo4)
where
Ra, = (Gr . Pr), =
ke = Nu = (ii) k
- -
for (2000 GrL c 2 x 104)' .
Fig. 8.2 Fne conveaion in vertical enclosure. k = 0.064 (&dl" for ( 2 x 104 c GrL c ' l i x lo6) ...(8.50)
[fr*
...(8.49)
1'"
...( 8.57)
8.7. SIMPLIFIED FREE CONVECTION RELATIONS FOR AIR The simplified relation for the heat transfer coefficient from different surfaces to air at atmopheric pressure, in general, is given by h =
where
ke = effective thermal conductivity,
c[$J
H = height of the air space, and L = thickness of the air space. Gr is based on thickness of air space, L. (6)Horizontal spaces The following correlation has been suggested by Jacob for hotizontal enclosed air spaces:
where C and m are constants depending on geometry and flow conditions; the significant length L is also a function of geometry and flow. Table 8.1 lists the values suggested by Mc Adarns for various geometries, orientations and flow conditions indicated by the magnitude of product (Gr . Pr). -
Table 8.1: Simplified Free Convection Relations for Air

S . No.
ke hL (i) - = Nu = - = 0.195 (Grd1I4 k k ke = ' L = 0.068 (Grdl" (ii) Nu = k k
Surface and its orientation

Vertical plate or cylinder
Laminar
Turbulent
for (lo4 < GrL < 4 x l d ) for (4 x l d < G p
...(8.31)
h=l
A 2 T
h = 1.32 ( ~ t ) ' "
...(8.52)
...[8.52 (a)]
(lo4 c Gr. r < lo9)

Horizontal cylinder
(lo9 < Gr. Pr < 1 0 ' ~ )
h = 1.25 (At)'"
In the case of liquids contained in horizontal spaces, G1dbe;apd Dropkin have proposed the following correlation:
- ' NU = L - 0.069 (Grdl"

k
Horizontal plate: Heated surface facing up
h = 1.32
(Pr)00"07
for ( 3 x lo5 c G r . P r c 7 x lo9) ...(8.53) Heated surface facing down
(lo5 < Gr. Pr < 2 x lo7)
($r
(lo9 < Gr. Pr < 1012)
h = 1.67 (~t)'"
2 x lo7 < Gr. Pr < 3 x 10")
8.6.7. Concentric Cylinders Spaces Raithby and Hollands have recommended the following correlations for long horizontal concentric cylinders:
ke Pr k = 0.386 [0.861
+pry
+
(RaC)lA
I /
Spheres
114 k h = [2 + 0.392 (Gr)
]D
where
...(8.54) [In ( ~ d ~ i ) l ~ Rac = (Gr. Pr)c = p Dr3/5 R ~ L

for lo2 I Ra, I lo7
( 1 c Gr < 10')
and ke is related as
T-7
-
2n ke = ln ( D m (ti to)
Fig. 83. Long concentric cylinders (or spheres)
8.8. COMBINED FREE AND FORCED CONVECTION Free convection effects are negligible when Gr cc Re2, at the other extreme, free convection dominates when Gr >> Re2. There are certain situations where the free as well as the forced convection are of comparable magnitude. One such case is when air is flowing over a heated su#ace at a low velocity. A dimensionless group (GrlRe2) is used to delineate the convection regimes. The various flow regimes are characterised as follows: ... Pure free convection (GrlRe2) 1 1
472
Free Convection
(crlRe2)z 1 (GrlRe2)I 1 8.8.1.
... Mixed (free and forced) convection ... Pure forced convection.
Gr Pr = 2.208 x 101 x 0.6975 = 1.54 x 101 For this value -of Gr Pr (tubulent range) Nu - hL = 0.10 (Gr.pr)lB (for lo9 < Gr.Pr < 1012) L- k
External Flows The local Nusselt number Nu, for mixed convection on vertical plates is given by ...(8.58) Nu, = 0.332 (Re,)'/* ( ~ r ) ' "if (Gr,lRe~) I A ...(8.59) Nu, = 0.508 ( ~ r ) ' " (0.952 + ~r)-l"( ~ r , ) " ~ if (GrxlRex2) >A and A r 0.6 for Pr I 10 where
...[Eqn. (8.38)]
and A = 1.0 for Pr = 100 For horizontal plates when (Gr, l~e?') I 0.083 the following equation for forced convection may be used ...(8.60) Nu, = 0.332 ~ e , prln ' ~
: .
Range of heat loss, Q = hA (t, - t,)

= 17.283 x (IT X 0.18 x 1'S)~ ( 1 0 0 20)
8.8.2. Internal Flows (i) For mixed convection in laminar flow, Brown and Gauvin recommended a correlation of the form as
= 1172.8 kYh (Ans.) Example 8.2. A cylindrical body of 300 mm diameter and 1.6 m height is maintained at a constant temperature of 36.PC. The surrounding temperature is 13SC. Find out the amount of heat to be generated by the body per hour if p= 1.025 kg/m3; cD= 0.96kJAgC;
(r-3)
298 symbols have their usual meanings). (AMIE Winter, 1997) Solution. Given :D = 300 mm = 0.03 m; L = 1.6 m; t, = 36SC; t, = 13SC;
1 298
I K I . Assume Nu = 0.12 (Gr.pr)lA (the v = 15.06 x 1 r 6m2/s; k = 0.0892 W/m-h-'C and P = -
where Gz = Graetz number = Re Pr (D/L) and &, CL, = Viscosities of the fluid at the bulk mean temperature and surface temperature respectively. (ii) For mixed convection with turbulent flow in horizontal tubes, Metais and Eckert (1966) suggest ...(8.62) = 4.69 ( ~ e ) ' (pr)O.'l . ~ ~ (Gr)'.07 (D/L)P.~~ Example 8.1. A vertical cylinder 1.5 m high and 180 mm in diameter is maintained at 100C in an atmosphere environment of 20C. Calculate heat loss by free convection from the surface of the cylinder. Assume properties of air at mean temperature as, p = 1.06 kg/m3, (AMIE Summer, 2000) V = 18.97 x 10- m2/s, C, = 1.004 k.//kgC and k = 0.1042 kJ/mhC.
k = 0.0892 Wm-h-"C;
= -K-I ; Nu = 0.12 (Gr.pr)113
The amount of heat to be generated : Grashof number, Gr =
L3gP 0 s - t,) ,J
'
Solution. Given :L = 1.5 m; D = 180 mm = 0.18 m, ts = 100C;
CLc = 2 PVC Prandtl number, Pr = --L = 1.025 x (15.06 x 10- x 3600) x 0.96 k k 0.0892
\
Heat loss by free convection, Q : p = pv = 1.06 x (18.97 x
hL = 0.12 (Gr.pr)'I3 Nusselt number, Nu = k x 3600) = 0.07239 kg/rnh
Heat lost from the surface by natural convection,
Q = hA (t, - t,)
* This is the amount of heat to be generated.

A '
= 13.478 x (n x 0.3 x 1.6) (36.5 - 13.5) = *467.5 W h
(Ans.)
Example 8.3. A hot plate 1.2 m wide, 0.35 m high and at 115C is exposed to the ambient still air at 2SC. Calculate the following: (i) Maximum velocity at 180 mm from the leading edge of the plate; (ii) The boundary layer thickness at 180 mm from the leading edge of the plate;
474
Free ConvecX~on
475
(iii) Local heat transfer coefficient at 180 mm from the leading edge of the plate; (iv) Average heat transfer coefficient over the suface of the plate; (v) Total mass flow through the boundary; (vi) Heat loss from the plate; (vii) Rise in temperature of the air passing through the boundary. Use the approximate solution. Solution. Given : t, = 115OC, t, = 25OC, x = 180 mm = 0.18 m 115 + 25 4 +t = 700C tf = The mean film temperature, 2 - * 2
(v) 1dtal mass flow through the boundary, mf : Thtal mass flow through the boundary can be calculated from the following formula : m, = 1.7 p.v [(P:) (Pr + 0.952)
--
The thermo-physical properties of air at 70C are : p = 1.029 kg/m3; k = 0.0293 w/mC; v = 20.02 x lo4 m2/s
Grashof number
Gr, =
2 gP 0 s - tw)
v2
and
GrL = 3.745 x lo7 x
(i) Maximum velocity at 180 mm from the leading edge of the plate, u-: urn = 0.766 v 0 952 +
[""'a-
"1'"
(4'"
...[Eqn. (8.25)]
= 0.766 x 20.02 x lo4 (0.952 + 0.694)-In x = 0.406 m/s

(Ans.)
9.81 ~0.002915 (115-25) (20.02 x 10-6)~

(.; Pr
or m, = 0.00478 kg/s (Ans.) (vi) Heat loss from the plate, & : Heat lost from the plate will be from both the sides, hence . Q = 2 ZA, (t,-t,) = 2 x 5.43 x (0.35 x 1.2) (115 - 25 ) = 410.5 W (Ans.) (vii) Rise in temperature of the air passing through the boundary, At: Heat lost, Q = m, c, At or 410.5 = 0.00478 x (1.005 x lo3) x At 410.5 or At = = 85.4SC (Ans.) 0.00478 x (1.005 x lo3) Example 8.4. A 350 mm long glass plate is hung vertically in the air at 24OC while its temperature is maintained at 80C. Calculate the boundry layer thickness at the trailing edge of the plate. I f a similar plate is placed in a wind tunnel and air is blown over it at a velocity of 5 m/s, find the boundary layer thickness at its trailing edge. Also determine the average heat transfer coeflcient, for natural and forced convection for the above mentioned data. Solution. Given: L = 350 mm = 0.35 m, t, = 24OC, ts = 80C, U = 5 rn/s Film temperature, The properties of air at 52OC are:
(0.18)'~
ts + t, !f=---80 + 24 2 2
- s2oC
V =a = 0.694 ...as given above)
(ii) The boundary layer thickness at 180 mm from the leading edge of the plate, 6:
6 = 3.93 X
(0.952 + pr)'I4 (~r,)-''~ (~r)-ln
...[Eqn. (8.27)]
Boundary layer thickness, 6: Free convection:

1W3 (80 - 24) = 2.133 x lo8 (18.41 x 1 0 ~ ) ~ . Rayleigh number, RaL = Gr,. Pr = 2.133 x lo8 x 0.7 = 1.493 x lo8 This value of the Rayleigh number, according to Eqn. (8.36), indicates a laminar boundary layer. Using the Eqn. (8.27), we get
Grashof number, Gr, =
or (iii) Local heat transfer coefficient at 180 mm from the leading edge of the plate, h,: 2 x hxx 0.508 (pr)ln (0.952 + pr)-lI4 ( ~ r ~ =) ' ~ Nu, =: k 6 ...[Eqn. (8.31)]
= 3.93 (0.952 + 0.694)"~ (3.745 x lo7)-'" (0.694)-ln = 0.0683 6 = 0.0683 x 0.18 = 0.01229 m = 12.29 mm (Ans.)
L3 gfl ( 4 - 1-1
v2
- (0.35)3x 9.81 x 3.07 x
hx=-x x- - - - 6 -
"
2k
ij
- 0.01229
0'02964 = 4.823 wlmtoc (Ans.)
(iv) Average heat transfer coefficient over the surface of the plate, % : k h =; 10.677 (pr)ln (0.952 + ~r)-'" ( G I J ' ~ ]
...[Eqn. (8.33)]
6 = 0.35 [ 3.93 (0.952 + 0.7 = 15.4 mm (Ans.) Forced convection:

or Reynolds number,
)'I4
(2.133 x 10')-'I4 (0.7)-'~*] = 0.0154 m
-0.02964 10.677 (0.694)ln (0.952 + 0.694)-I" (27.532 x 107)114]

i
0.35
476
Heat and Mass Ttansfer ' So the boundary layer is laminar. 5L a=----x 0'35 = 0.00567 m = 5.67 mm (Ans.) .JRe - d9.505 x 10 Thus the boundary layer thickness in forced convection is less than that in free convection. Heat transfer coefficient h : Free convection : - hL ...[Eqn (8.33)] Nu - - = 0.677 ( ~ r ) ' "(0.952 + pr)-'I4 ( ~ 1 ) ' ' ~ L k
Free Conve~tion
477
h, H (Nu), = - 0.6 (16.68 x 1 0 ~ ) = " 38.34 ~~ k
Qv = hv x A, x (At)= 49.07 x (2 x 15 x 0.2) x (30 - 10) = 5888.4 W

1
or
k h = - x 60.378 = 28'15 lo-' x 60.378 = 4.856 W / ~ ' O C (Ans.) 0.35 L Forced convection : -
hvxB (Nu), = -- 0.27 (6.83 x 107)0.25 = 24.54 k
Qh= hh x A h x (At)= 19.63 x (15 x 0.32) x (30 10) = 1884.5 W
28'15 k x 18133 = 14.62 w l m 2 ' ~ ( A m ) , h = - x 181.78 = or 0.35 L Thus it is seen that heat transfer coefficient in forced convect?m is muc in free convection. Example 8.5. A sheet metal air duct carries air-conditioned air at an average tempe+arure of 10C. The duct size is 320 mm x 200 mm and length of the duct exposed to the surrounding air at 30C is 15 m long. Find the heat gain by the air in the duct. Assume 200 mm side is vertical and top su$ace of the duct is insulated. Use the following properties : Nu = 0.6 ( G r . ~ r ) " for ~ j vertical sugace. ~for su$ace. Nu = 0 . 2 7 ( ~ r . ~ r ) " ~ horizontal Take the properties of the air at mean temperature of (30 + 10)/2 = 20C as given below.
(Am.) Example 8.6. Airflows through long rectangular heating duct of width and height of 0.75 m and 0.3 m respectively. The outer surjoce temperature of the duct is maintained at 45OC. If the duct is exposed to air at 15OC in a cramp-space beneath a home, what is the heat loss from the duct per metre length ? use' the following correlations : (i)Top sugace : B Take LC=-= 0.375 m - 2 NuL = 0.54 (Ra$25 if 104 5 Rat 5 107
= 0.15 ( ~ a 3 if " ~ lo7 ~ 5 Ra, 5 10"
: .
Total heat gain, Q = Qv
+ Qh = 5888.4 + 1884.5 = 7772.9 W
c,,=lOO J / k g K ; p=1.204kg/m3; p = 18.2 x 1 r 6 ~ - s / m ~ ;
(ii)Bottom surface :
B LC-- = 0.375 n z - 2 N U ~ = O . ~ ~ ( R105 ~ JI ~R .~ q~ S ,101 (iii) Sides of the duct :
(M.U. Winter, 1998) v = 15.1 x 10- m2/s; k = 0.256 W/m K and Pr = 0.71. Solution. Refer Fig. 8.4. There will be two vertical surfaces and Air conditioned one horizontal surface from which the heat will be gained by natural convection. There F / air is no heat transfer from the top surface as it is insulated.
Now, (Gr), =
Take
g w 3 (At) v2
Use the following properties of air : v = 1 6 . 2 ~ 1 0 - ~ r n ~ /a s= , 22,9~10-~m~/s k=0.0265 W/mK, p=0.0033 K-' and Pr=0.71.
b
9.81x( 273 + 20 ) x 0 . 2 ~ x ( 3 0 - 1 0 )
Solution. The configuration of the duct is shown in Fig. 8.5
(N.M.U. Winter, 1995)
...[Eqn. (8.36)]
Fig. 8.4
I1
I

a
Free Convection
479
inside the
Example 8.7. A vertical plate measuring 180 mm x 180 mm and at 50C is exposed to atmosphere at IOC. Compare the free convection heat transfer from this plate with that which would result due to forced convection over the plate at a velocity equal to twice the maximum velocity which would occur in free convection boundary layer. Solution. Free convection : Velocity profile 50 + 10 The film temperature, tf = = 30C. 2 The thermo-physical properties at 30C are :
Fig. 8.5
-
1 = (++ 273)
I - 303 - 0.0033 K-I
9.81 x 0.0033 X (45 - 15) L: = 2.62 x lo9 (L:) x (16.2 x (22.9 x (0.18)3x 9.81 x 0.0033 x (50 - 10) (16 x 1 0 ~ ) ~ = 2.95 x lo7 Since Gr < lo9, hence the flow in laminar.
Boundary layer
For two sides : Lc=H=0.3m
..
Ra, = 2.62 x lo9 (0.31~ = 7.07 x lo7
For laminar flow, using the following relation, we get,

NU, =
Fig. 8 . 6
hL
= 0.677 (~r)'' (0.952 + ~r)-'" (~r,)"'
For top surface :
The heat lost from one side of the plate, QM = h A, At = 5.47 x (0.18 X 0.18) x (50 - 10) = 7.089 W Forced convection :
For bottom surface :

\
The average heat transfer coefficient with forced convection if velocity is assumed equal to
2u,,
EL= 0.664 (Re)''

The rate of heat loss per unit length of the duct is given by,
(pr)ln
Q=Qs+Qt+Qb = [2 x h, x (0.3 x 1) + h, x (0.75 x 1) + h,, x (0.75 x 1) (ts - fa)

= [2 x 4.23 x 0.3 + 4.127 x 0.75 x 1 + 1.75 x 0.75 x 11 (45 - 15) = 208.4 W/m
(Ans.)
480
Heat and Mass frmsf&r Heat lost due to forced - convection, Qfirced = h A, At = 7.039 x (0.18 x 0.18) (50 - 10) = 9.12 W
$FreeConvection Solution. Given :A = 1 x 0.5 = 0.5 m2; tp (= t,) = 130C; t, = 20C; m = 20 kg; cp= 400 J/kg K
481
9-l2 Vertical Example 8.8. Two vertical plates, each ,,late 120 mm high and at 85OC are placed in a tank ofwuter at 15C. Calculate the minimum spacing which will prevent interference of the free convection boundary layers. Solution: Let 6 = boundary layer thickness at the trailing edge of the plate. L = 26 = the minimum spacing required. 85 + 15 The film temperature, tf = ----- = 50C 2 The thermo-physical properties of water at 50C are: m2/s k = 0.674 WmC; v = 0.556 x
Qforced
Hence
-- 7.089 = 0.777 (Ans.)
Plate
\
= 1.06 x lo9
Gr.Pr = 1.06 x 109 x 0.709 = 0.75 x lo9 The heat transfer coefficient for the vertical plate is given by (lo4< Gr.Pr < lo9) ...[Eqn. (8.37)] Convection Substituting the - values in the above eqn., we get cuttents - hL Nu - -= 0.59 (0.75 x 1 0 ~ ) " ~ Fig. 8.8
L-
: .
EL = 0.59 ( G r . ~ r ) ' /for ~

k
Fig. 8.7
(ii) Initial rate of cooling the plate in OCImin. : Heat lost from both sides of the plate is given by Q = 2 h x A (ts- t,) = 2 [5.66 x ( 1 x 0.5) x (130 - 20)] = 622.6 W
G r . Pr = 11.88 x lo9 x 3.54 = 42.055 x lo9 Since G r . Pr > lo9, hence the character of the flow is turbylent. For turbulent flow, using the following relation, we get Also,
Q = mc,(At); where At is the rate of cooling.

At=
..
622'6 = O.O778OC/s = 4.668OUmin 20 x 400
(Am.)
(iii) Time required for cooling plate from 180C to 80C, z : The instantaneous heat lost by the plate is given by
6 = 0.0306 x 0.12 = 0.003672 m = 3.672 mm L = 26 = 2 x 3.672 = 7.344 mrn ( ~ n s . j Example 8.9. A hot plate 1 m x 0.5 m at 130C is kept vertically in still air at 20C. Find : (i) Heat transfer coeflcient, (ii) Initial rate of cooling the plate in OC/min. (iii) Time required for cooling plate from 180C if the heat transfer is due to convection d y . Mass of the plate is 20 kg and cp= 409 J/kg K. Assume 0.5 m side is vertical and that the heat transfer coeflcient calculated in ( i ) above remains constant and convection takes place from both sides of the plate. 130 + 20 Take properties of air at = 75OC as : 2 m2/s (N.M.U., 5998) c, = 1007J/kgOC, p = 1.07 m2/s; k = 0.029 J / k g K; V = 19.1 x
/
..
Z=
80 - 20 2 x5.66~ (1 ~ 0 . 5 1n(180-20) ) = - 1413.43 x (- 0.9808) = 1386 s or 0.385 h
- 20 x 400
(Am.)
Example 8.10. A square plate 40 cm x 40 cm maintained at 400 K is suspended vertically in atmospheric air at 300 K. (i) Determine the boundary layer thickness at trailing edge of the plate. (ii) Calculate the average heat transfer coeflcient using a relation
Heat and Mass Transfer Nu = 0.516 (Gr, ~ r ) " ' ~ Take the following properties of air : v = 20.75 x lo4 m2/s; k = 0.03 W/mC; P = 2.86 x 1 r 3 K-*; Pr = 0.7 (P.U> Solution. Given : t, = 400 K, t, = 300 K (i) Boundary layer thickness, 6: The boundary layer thickness is given by 6 = x 13.93 (0.952 + pr)'I4 (Gr)-'I4 (pr)-lJ2] ...[Eqn. (8.27)] 2 go (At) (0.4)'~ 9.81 x (2.86 x x (400 - 300) = 4.17 x lo8 Gr, = v2 (20.75 x 10")~ Substituting the values in the above equation, we get 6 = 0.4 [ 3.93 (0.952 + 0.7)'" (4.17 x 10' )-'I4 (0.7)-'"1 = 0.0149 m = 14.9 mm (Ans.) (ii) Average heat transfer coefficient, h : G r . Pr = (4.17 x 10') (0.7) = 2.919 x lo8
Free Convection
2.2 : . Heat dissipation from both sides of each plate, Q = 2 h A , At = 2 x 34500 x (2.2 x 1.45) x (960 - 340) = 136.47 x lo6 W = 136.47 MW (Ans.) 8.12. Find the convective heat loss from a radiator 0.6 m wide and 1.2 m high Example maintained at a temperature of 90C in a room at 14C. Consider the radiator as a vertical plate. Solution. Given : L = 1.2 m, B = 0.6 m, t, = 90C. t, = 14C. Convective heat loss, Q :
Film temperature The thermo-physical properties of air at 52C are: k = 28.15 x W/mC; v = 18.41 x 10" m2/s,
- -13'02 x 0.13 ( 93.12 x 1 0 ' ~ ) " ~ = 34500 W I ~ ~ " C
or
Nu =
hL = 0.5 16 (Gr . ~ r ) ' . ~ ' k
Pr = 0.7;
.h - =k x 0.516 ( G r . ~ r ) ' . ~ ~ L
=
$x 0.5 16 (2.919 x 10')'.~'
= 5.058 W I I ~ " C (Ans.)
Rayleigh number = Ra, = GrL.Pr =
L3g (3 (4 - t J
v2
. Pr
Example 8.11. A nuclear reactor with its core constructed of parallel vertical plates 2.2 m high and 1.4 m wide has been designed on free convection heating of liquid bismith. The maximum temperature of the plate su$aces is limited to 960C while the lowest allowable temperature of bismith is 340C. Calculate the maximum possible heat dissipation from both sides of each plate. For the convection coeflcient, the appropriate correlation is Nu = 0.13 ( G r . ~ r ) ' . ~ ~ ~ where diferent parameters are evaluated at the mean film temperature. Solution. The mean film temperature, tf = 960 340 = 650C 2 The thermo-physical properties of bismith are: p = lo4 kg/m3 ; p = 3.12 kglm-h; c, = 150.7 JkgC; k = 13.02 W/mC
+
= 11.69 x lo9
From Eqn. (8.36) it follows that the flow becomes turbulent on the radiator plate. Using Eqn. (8.40), we have
Gr =
cl'
~ xP (2.21~ ( 1 0A ~ 9.81 ) ~~ x 1.08 x -~ (3.12/3600)2
x (960
- 340)
The convective heat Kss, Q = h A, At = 6.187 x (1.2 x 0.6) (90 - 14) = 338.55 W
(Ans.)
= 9.312 x 10'' Gr.Pr = 9.312 x 1015 x 0.01 = 93.12 x lo1* Using the given correlation, we get
Example 8.13. A gas at 195C is flowing through a thin walled vertical duct which is in the form of circular cross-section having diameter of 450 mm. The ambient air at 15"C, which may be considered still, surrounds the duct. Find the rate of heat transfer using the following simplified relation for air for laminar flow.
NU=hL - - 0.13 ( ~ r . ~ r ) ' ~ ~ ~ '

k where, L is the length o f the duct in metres.
484
Heat and Mass Transfw
R&e Convection
485
Solution. Given :
A t = 195 - 15 = 180C, D = 450 mm = 0.45 m

\
The rate o f heat transfer, Q = A, At = 5.055 x (n x 0.45 x 1 ) x 180 = 1286.34 Whn length. (Ans.) Example 8.14. A horizontal heated plate measuring -1.5 m x 1.1 m and at 215"C, facing upwards, is placed in still air at 25C. Calculated the heat loss by natural convection. The convective film coeficient for free convection is given by the following empirical relation: h = 3.05 (T,)'" w/m2"c where, T f is the mean jilm temperature in degrees kelvin. Solution. Given: A, = 1.5 x 1.1 = 1.65 m2, t, = 215"C, t, = 25C. Mean film temperature,
:.
80C and {he pipe is placed in atmospheric air at 20C. Considering heat loss both by radiation and natural convection, calculate: (i) The heat loss from 6m length of the pipe; (ii) The overall heat transfer coeficient and the heat transfer coeficient due to radiation
.5
+ 2 x2.5
= 12.5 cm=0.125 m, E =0.9, t,= 80C, t,= 20C
The mean film temperature,
20 = 50C. ' f = 80 + 2 WImC
The thermo-physical properties of air at 50C are: p = 1.092 kg/m3;c, = 1007 J/kgC; p = 19.57 x 1 0 " kglms; k = 27.81 x
.. h = 3.05 (393)'" = 13.58 w/rnZOc Rate of heat loss, by natural convection,

Q = h A, (t, - t,) = 13.58 x 1.65 x (215 - 25) = 4257.33 W (Ans.) Example 8.15. A transfonner is cooled by immersing in an oil bath which is housed in a cylindrical tank which is 0.8 m in diameter and 1.3 m long. If the electrical loss is 1.3 kW, calculate the surface temperature of the tank; the entire loss of electrical energy may be assumed to be due to free convection from the bottom of the tank. For this case the following simplified relations for the boundary layer are applicable :
Using
... For a cylindrical plane;

A
h = 1.45 Assume the ambient air temperature as 20C. Solution. Given :D = 0.8 m, L = 1.3 m. The total rate o f heat transfer from the tank, Qtoml = Qsge + Qtop Qside = hside X Aside X At
...(i)
0.25
... For n vertical plane.

(i) Heat loss from 6 m length of pipe: Heat lost by convection, Q , = h A, At = 6.24 x (n x 0.125 x 6 ) x (80 - 20) = 882.16 W Heat lost by radiation, Q , . ~ ,= E OA ( T ~T ~ ~ ~ ) = 0.9 x (5.67 x lo-') x (n x 0.125 x 6 ) [(80 + 27314 - (20 + 273)4] = 980.81 W Total heat loss, Qt = Q , + Qrd, = 882.16 + 980.81 = 1862.97 W (Ans.) (ii) Heat transfer coefficients, overall (hJ and due to radiation alone (h,,) Q, = h,. A At
:
l
Substituting the values in eqn. (i), weTget 1.3 x lo3 = 4.13 ( t - 20)'." + 0.77 (t - 2 0 ) ' ~ =~ 4.9 ~ (t - 2 0 ) l . ~ or (t - 20) =
1.3 x 10 4.9
3 1A.25
..
h,
= ht - h ,
= 13.17
- 6.24 = 6.93 W/mZOc
(Am)
= 86.89
or t = 86.89 + 20 = 106.89C (Am.) Example 8.16. A steam pipe 7.5 em in diameter is covered with 2.5 cm thick layer of insulation which has a suface emissivity of 0.9. The surface temperature of the insulation is
Example 8.17. Calculate the heat transfer from a 60W incandescent bulb at 115C to ambient air at 25C. Assume the bulb as a sphere of 50 mm diameter. Also, find the percentage of power lost by free convection. The correlation is given by: Nu = 0.60 ( ~ r . ~ r ) " Solution. Given : t, = 1 10C, ,= . . t = 25"C, D = 50 mm = 0.05 m.
! I'
1
486

+ 115+25=700C 2 2 The thermo-physical properties of air at 70C are: k = 2.964 x W/mC, v = 20.02 x lo4, Pr = 0.694,
Free Convection
487
The film temperature,
+ = -< =
...(where L = 1 m)
= 1.514 [368.04 + 76.761 = 441 W/m
(t, t,) where h is calculated by using the given relation.

QCon,.
=h x
('.' The characteristic length L = D in this case)
Using given correlation, we get
Ra = Gr.Pr = Pg (At) (L,)' va
- 2.725 x 10-~,x 9.81 X (165 - 23) X (0.1)'

22.8 x x 32.8 x
Heat transfer = h A , At = 9.72 x (x x 0.05~) x (1 15 - 25) = 6.87 W (Ans.) %age of power lost by free convection = 6 . 8 7 x LOO = 11.45 Z (Ana) 60 Example 8.18. A horizontal high pressure steam pipe of 10 cm outside diameter passes through a large room whose walls and air are at 23C. The pipe outside suface temperature is 465C and it emissivity is 0.85. Estimate the heat loss from the pipe per unit length. Use the following correlation for the calculation of film coeflcient
..
Hence,
Q,,,,, = 7.2 x (x x 0.1 x 1) (165 23) = 321.2 W, when L = 1 m
Q = 441 + 321.2 = 762.2 W/m (Ans.) Example 8.19. A vertical slot of 20 mm thickness is formed by two 2 nr x 2 m square plates. I f the temperatures of the plates are 115OC and 25C respectively, calculate the following: (i) The effective thermal conductivity; (ii) The rate of heatflow through the slot. Solution. Given: L = 20 mm = 0.02 m; t1 = 115C; t2 = 25C (i)The effective thermal conductivity, k, :
The mean temperature between the plates = 115 + 25 = 700C 2 The properties of air at 70C are: k = 0.0295 W/mC; v = 2.0 x lo-' m2/s
where Ra is known as Rayleigh Number and is given by

va
Take the following properties of air : The Grashof number based on the gap L, is a = 3 2 . 8 ~ 1 0 - ~ r n ~ Pr=0.697, /s, P=2.725xl~'~~-'. (N.M.U. Wincdr, 1995) Solution. Given : D = 10 cm = 0.1 m; t, = 23OC; t, = 165C; E = 0.85 m2/s; Properties of air : k = 0.0313 W/m K; v = 22.8 x m2/s, Pr = 0.697, P = 2.725 x a = 32.8 x KHeat loss from the pipe per unit length, Q : Heat lost by convection and radiation from the sphere is given by :
= I 5.147 x lo4 The effective thermal conductivity is given by
'
...[Eqn. (8.50)]
Q = Qconv. + Qrad.
488
Heat and ~ a ~iarisfer &
Frpe Co
489
(ii) The rate of heat flow through the slot Q : Q = ke . A
& (viscosity at the wall) = 25.19 x lo4 ~ s / m ~
(F)
Reynolds number Thuy'the nature of flow is laminar. drashof number,
Example 8.20. Two horizontal panels separated by a distance of 30 mm contain air at atmaspheric pressure. The temperatures of lower and upper panels are 55OC and 20.6OC respectively. Calculate the free convection heat transfer per m2 of the panel surface. Solution. Given. L = 30 mm = 0.03 m, tl F S C , t2 = 20.6"C
The mean temperature of two panels = 55 + 2 20.6 = 37.80C The properties of air at 373C are: p = 1.121 kglm3 ; k = 29.2 x low3W/mC; v = 0.171 x 104m2/s Pr = 0.70
Gr =
- 038 P 0 s - t,)
3
Since [ G r / ( ~ e ) t : ~ 1, ] hence it is a case of mired (free and forced) convection and the following equation may be used for calculation of Nu.
Free convection heat transfer per m2 of the panel surface, q:
'
= 37.8
+ 273
= 3.22 x
K-'
where, Gz = Graetz number = Re.Pr
...[Eqn. (8.61)]
= 356.68 x 0.688
)::"I-
= 15.34
or Also,
a.
Nu = 0.195 (Gr$" NU = 0.195 (10.03 x lo4)lI4= 3.47 (where q = QlA)
...[Eqn. (8.51)1
L Nu Z - L k 0 1 - t2)
...[Eqn. 8.52 (a)]
3'208 x 7.7 = 9.88 w/m2"c 0.025 Q = h A, At = 9.88 x (n X 0.025 x 0.4) x (180 - 20) = 49.66W
D
-u = h = -k N
(Ana.)
Example 8.21. (Mixed convection) Air at 200C and 1 atmosphere is forced throvgh a 25 mrn diameter tube 400 mm long, at an average velocity of 0.33 d s . Calculate the rate of heat transfer if the tube wall is maintained at 1800C. Solution. Given: tb = 20C, t, = 180C, V = 0.33 m/s, L = 400 mm = 0.4 m, D = 25 mm = 0.025 m. Rate of heat transfer : * 180 + 20 = ]OoOC The mean film temperature, tf = 2
t
TYPICAL EXAMPLES Example 8.22. Derive a relation between Grashof and Reynolds numbers assuming the heat transfer coeficients over vertical plates for pure forced and free convection are equal in laminar flow. Solution. For pure forced convection: Zu = 0.664 (Re)" (pr)ln ...(i ) ' For pure natural convection: Nu = 0.677 (~r)l)l" (0.952 + (Gr)'" ...(ii) Equating equations (i) and (ii), we get 0.664 (Re)ln ( ~ r ) ' "= 0.677 (pr)In (0.952 + pr)-'I4 (Gr)'I4 or ( ~ r= )(pr12 ~ (0.952 + ~r)-l(Gr)
The properties of air at 100C are: k = 3.208 x 1w2W/mOG, v .= 23.13 x 1@ ~ s / mPr ~= , 0.688
"
'
= 100
+ 273 = 2.68 x
1p3
For the bulk temperature of 20C, we have lb = 18.15 x ~ s / m ~ Again, for the surface temperature of tube wall (i.e., 180C)
Example 8.23. Two horizontal steam pipes having diameters I00 mm and 300 mm are so laid in a boiler house that the mutual heat transfr m a y be neglected. The surface temperature of each of the steam pipes is 475OC. If the temperature of the ambient air is 35OC, calculate the mtio of heat transfer coeficients and heat losses per metre length of the pipes. Solution. Given :Dl = 100 mm = 0.1 m D2 = 300 mm = 0.3 m, t, = 475OC, t- = 35C The steam mains are located in the boiler house where the ambient air is stationary, thus his is a case of free convection for which the following relation applies :
Free Convection
Free convection heat transfer rate,
Since, the surface temperature of both pipes is the same and both are exposed to the same ambient conditions, therefore, thermo-physical properties are the same. Nu = (D3)lI4= ( D ) ~ ' ~ ..
: .
The ratio of heat transfer coefficients,

h1
%=
Also.
(2) (z)
1/4
1/ 4
Q = h A, (t,,- t_) = 6. = 871.2W (Ans.) Example 8.25. A 2-stroke motor cycle petrol engine cylinder consists of I 5 fins. I f the outside and inside diameters of each fin are 200 mm a d 100 mm respectively, the overage fin su$ace temperature is 475OC and atmosphe;ic air temperature is 2SC, calculate the heat transfer rate from the fins for the following cases: (i) When the motor cycle is stationary; (ii) When the motor cycle is running at a speed of 60 kmh. The fin may be idealised as single horizontal flat plate of the same area. Solution. Case (i) When the motor cycle is stationary the heat transfer will be due to free convection.
1.316
(Ans.)
: .
The ratio of heat losses,
- -= 1.316 x Q2 h2 0 2
Q, - h , Dl
= 0.438
(Ans.)
+ 25 = 250C. 2 The thermo-physical properties of air at 250C from the tables are: k = 4.266 x 1W2 W/mC; v = 40.61 x 106 m2/s; Pr = 0.677
The mean film temperature,
tf
475
Example 8.24. A rqom is heated by initiating fire at the fireplace. The exfitration of room air through a chimney ih reduced by the use of a glass-door fire screen of height 0.8 m and width of 1.Im. If the ambient air temperature is 2JC and the sulface temperature attained by the glass is 175'C, calculate the free convectin heat transfer rate from the fire place to the room. For this case the followibg correlation given by Churchill and Chu is valid:
Gr.Pr = 2.985 x lo7 x 0.677
where significant length L = 0.9 D
Solution. Given: t, = 17SC, t, = 2SC, L = 0.8m, B = 1.1 m

The film temperature, The thermo-physical properties of air at 100C are: WIIII~~C, v = 23.13 x lo4 m2/s, Pr = 0.688 k = 3.208 x 1 = 2.68 x p = -1=
Since Gr.Pr c lo9, hence the nature of flow is laminar.
2 x lo7
Tf
Grashof number,
(100
+ 273)
Since the heat transfer is from both sides of the fins, therefore, n x (0.2~- 0.13 [475 - 251 A, At = 8.56 2 x 15 x 4 = 2722.82 W (Ans.) Case (ii) :When the motor cycle is running the heat transfer will be due to forced convection. The velocity of air on the fin = speed of the motor cycle
Q =
Reynolds number Hence the flow is turbulent. For turbulent flow, for cooling,
Heat and W S s transfer
Free Convection
493
: .
The heat transfer from the cylinder,
HIGHLIGHTS 1. Free or natural convection is the process of heat transfer which occurs due to movement of the fluid particles by density changes associated with temperature differential in a fluid. 2. List of formulae : I. Flow over vertical plates (Laminar $ow) (a) Exact solution:
(i) Nu, = 0.676

= 18713 W
(Ans.) (ii) Nu = 0.902 (b) Approximate solution:
.,
Example 8.26. Gas at 350C is conveyed through 250 mm diameter pipe laid in an atmosphere of quiescent air at 20C.The convection heat transfer coeficient from ht 0.25a hot cylindrical su$ace w/mZOc where At is the freely exposed to still air is prescribed by the relation: h = 1.55
-
temperature difference and D is the diameter of the cylinder is metres. (i) Calculate the heat loss per metre length of the bare pipe. (ii) Estimate the percentage reduction in heat loss $the pipe is covered with 75 mm thick laver o f material whose thermal conductivi~is 0.072 W/maC. Any temperature drop in thk meial may be neglected. Solution. Convective heat transfer coefficient, 0.25 350 h = 1.55 0.25 20] = 9.34 w l m 2 ~ c
(i) Heat loss from the bare pipe: Convective heat loss per metre length of the bare pipe. 0 = h A. At = 9.34 x (n x 0.25 x 1 ) x (350 - 20) = 2420.75 W (Ans.) (ii) Percentage reduction in heat loss when pipe is lagged : 4 = 250 + ( 2 x 75) = 400 mm = 0.4 m Dl = 250 mm = 0.25 m, On attainment of steady state, the heat conducted through the lagging equals the convective heat loss from the outer su$ace of the lagging. Thus 271 k L (tl - t) = h x ( X D2 L) (t - tm) In (r2/r1> where t is the temperature at the outer surface of the lagging. Substituting the appropriate values, we get 2n 0.072 (350 - ' ) ; 1.55 x (n x 0.4 x 1) (t - 20) In (0.2/0.125) O r 0.962 (350 - = 2.449 (t 350 - t = 2.545 (t - 2 0 ) ' . ~ ~ or t z 64C By trial and error, we get,
v (where Gr, = gP 0 s - L ) X 3 and Pr = )
(vi) m =
P 6 . u, 12 .
(~r-)' (Pr + 0.952) h x 2x (0.952 + Pr)-'I4 (Grx)'I4= (ix) Nu, = A = 0.508 ( ~ r ) ' " k 6
(viii) Total mass, m = 1.7 pv
(27
(x)
N u L = hkL ---
Nu, = 0.677 (Pr)" (0.952 + Pr)-'" (GrL)lM
11. Flow over vertical plates (Turbulent jlow):
: .
6 1+ ( ~ r - ) O" ~ ~ ~ ] (xi) - = 0.565 ( ~ r ) - ~ ' 0.494 ~ X Grx
Heat loss from the lagged pipe, 2 n k L ( t l - 1) - --275.28w = ln (r2/r1) In (0.2/0.125) 2420.75 - 275.28 Percentage reduction in loss = 2420.75
(xii) Nu, = 0.0295 ( ~ r ) ~ / ' ~ [ I + 0.494 (Pr)"

UNSOLVED EXAMPLES
1. A hot plate 1.1 m wide, 300 mm high and at 120C is exposed to the ambient still air at 20C. Calculate : (r) Maximum velocity boundary layer thickness and local heat transfer coefficient at 150 mm from the leading edge of the plate, (ii) Total mass flow through the boundary, (iii) Heat loss from the plate and (iv) Rise in temperature of the air passing through the boundary. [Ans. (i) 0.39 mls, 11.4 mm, 5.199 W/m2"C, (ii) 0.004372 kgls,] 2. A 300 rnm long glass plate is hung vertically in the air at 27OC while its temperature is maintained at 77C. Calculate the boundary layer thickness at the trailing edge of the plate. I f a similar plate is placed in a wind tunnel and air is blown over it at a velocity of 4 mls, find the boundary layer thickness at its trailing edge. Also determine the heat transfer coefficient, for natural and forced convection for the above mentioned [Ans. 15.2 mm, 5.67 mm; 4.9 W/m2"C, 14.11 WlmZ0CI data.
3. A nuclear reactor with its core constructed of parallel vertical plates 2.25 m high and 1.5 m wide has been designed on free convection heating of liquid bismuth. The maximum temperature of the plate surfaces is limited to 975C while the lowest allowable temperature of bismuth is 325C. Calculate the maximum possible heat dissipation from both sides of each plate. For the convection coefficient, the appropriate correlation is Nu = 0.13 (Gr . pr)' 333 (Ans. 153 MW) where different parameters are evaluated at the mean film temperature. 4. Find the convective heat loss from a radiator 0.5 m wide and 1 m high maintained at a temperature of (Ans. 110.08 W) 84C in a room at 20C. Consider the radiator as a vertical plate. 5. A steam pipe 60 mm in diameter is covered with 20 mm thick layer of insulation which has a surface emissivity of 0.92. The surface temperature of the insulation is 75OC and the pipe is placed in atomspheric air at 25OC. Considering heat loss both by radiation and natural convection, calculate : (i) The heat loss from 5 m length of the pipe; (ii) The overall heat transfer coefficient and the heat transfer coefficient due to radiation alone. (Ans. (i) 1049.83 W, (ii) 7.07 W / ~ ~ " C )
6. Calculate the heat transfer from a 60 W incandescent bulb at 125C to ambient air at 25C. Assume the
Boiling and Condensation

(Heat Transfer with Phase Change)
9.1. Introduction, 9.2. Boiling heat transfer : General aspects Boiling regimes - Bubble Laps and size consideration - Bubble growth and collapse - Critical diameter of bubble - factors affecting nucleate boiling - Boiling correlations. 9.3. Condensation heat transfer: General aspects - Laminar flow condensation on a vertical plate - Turbulent film condensation - Film condensation on horizontal tubes - Film condensation inside horizontal tubes - Influence of the presence of noncondensable gases Highlights - Theoretical Questions - Unsolved Exam~les.
9.1.
I
INTRODUCTION
bulb as a sphere of 50 mm diameter. Also, find the percentage of power lost by free convection. (Ans. 7.71 W; 19.278%) The correlation is given by : Nu = 0.60 (Gr. pr)'I4 7 . A vertical slot of 15 mm thickness is formed by two 2m x 2m square plates. If the temperature of the plates are 120C and 20C respectively, Calculate the following: (i) The effective thermal conductivity; [Ans. (i) 0.0317 W/mC, (ii) 845.3 W] (ii) The rate of heat flow through the slot. 8. Two horizontal plates separated by a distance of 25.4 mm contain air at atmospheric pressure. The temperatures of lower and upper panels are 60C and 15.6"C respectively. CaIculate (Ans. the free convection 167.2 w/m2) heat transfer per mZof the panel surface.
W e have considered in the preceding2hapter b convective heat transfer, homogeneous single phase systems only. However. there are specific convection processes as boiling a n d condensation which a r e associated with change o f phase. Whereas boiling involves change from liquid to vapour phase of a fluid substance, condensation refers to a change from the vapour to a liquid phase, The mode of heat transfer with change of phase (i.e. boiling and condensation processes) finds wide applications as mentioned below: (i) Cooling of nuclear reactors and rocket motors; (ii) Steam power plants (Boilers and condensers); (iii) Refrigerating and airconditioning systems (Evaporators and condensers); (iv) Melting of metal in furnaces; (v) Refineries and sugar mills (Heat exchangers); (vi) Process heating and cooling etc. Boiling and condensation processes entail the following unique features: (i) As a consequence of phase change in these processes, the heat transfer to or from the fluid c a n occure without influencing the fluid temperature. (ii) The heat transfer coeficient and rates, due to latent heat associated with phase change, are generally much higher compared with the normal convection process (i.e., without phase change) (iii) High rate o f heat transfer is achieved with small temperature direrenee. The phenomena associated with boiling and condensation are much more complex (than the normal convection process) due to the following being very significant: (i) Latent heat effects; (ii) Surface tension; (iii) Surface characteristics and other properties of two phase systems.
9.2.
BOILING H E A T TRANSFER Boiling is the convective heat transfer process that involves a phase change from liquid to
9.2.1. General Aspects
Boiling and Condensation vapour state. Boiling is also defined as evaporation at a solid-liquid surface. This is possible only when the temperature of the surface (t,) exceeds the saturation temperature corresponding to the liquid pressure (tsa,). Heat is transferred from the solid surface to the liquid according to the law ...(9.1) Q = h A, (t, - t,,,) = h A, A t, At, = (t, - tsa$ is known as excess temperature. where The boiling process finds applications in the following cash: (i) Steam production (for generation of power and for indps&al processes and space heating) in steam and nuclear power plants; (ii) Heat absorption in refrigeration and air conditioning systems; (iii) Distillation and refining of liquids; (iv) Concentration, dehydration and drying of foods and materials, (v) Cooling the machines like nuclew reactors and rocket motors where the large quantities of heat are released in relatively small volume (dissipation rates are as high as lo8 w/m2; the maximum heat transfer rate in modem boiler is about 2 x lo5 w/m2). The boiling heat transfer phenomenon may occurs in the following forms: 1. Pool boiling In this case the liquid above the hot surface is essentially stagnant and its motion near the surface is due to free convection and mixing induced by bubble growth and detachment. The pool boiling occurs in steam boilers involving natural convection. 2: Forced convection boiling This refers to a situation where the fluid motion is induced by external means (and also by free convection and bubble induced mixing). The liquid is pumped and forced to flow. This type of boiling occurs in water tube boilers involving forced convection. 3. Sub-cooled or local boiling In this case the liquid temperature is below the saturation temperature and bubbles are formed in the vicinity of heat surface. These bubbles after travelling a short path get condensed in the liquid which has a temperature less than the boiling point. 4 . Saturated boiling Here, the liquid temperature exceeds the saturation temperature. The vapour bubbles formed at the solid surface (liquid-solid interface) are then propelled through the liquid by buoyancy effects and eventually escape from a free surface (liquid-vapour interface).
497
equations describing the boiling process are not available. Nonetheless, considerable progress has been made in arriving at a physical understanding of the boiling mechanism. Figure 9.1 shows the temperature distribution in saturated pool boiling with a liquid-vapour interface. It is evident from the figure that although there is a sharp decline in the liquid temperature close to the solid surface, the temperature.through most of the liquid remains slightly above saturation. Consequently bubbles generated at liquid-solid interface rise to and are transported acrlpss the liquid-vapour interface. Whether the boiling phenomenon corresponds to pool boiling or forced circulation boiling, there are three definite regimes of boiling (Interface evaporation, nucleate boiling and film boiling ) associated with progressively increasing heat flux, as shown in Fig. 9.2. This specific curve has been obtained from an electrically heated platinum wire submerged in a pool of water (at saturation temperature) by varying its surface temperature and measuring the surface heat flux q,. 1. Interface evaporation Interface evapo&n (evaporation process with no bubble formation) exists in region I, called the free convection zone. Here the excess temperature, A t,, is very small and 5 5C. In this region the liquid near the surface is superheated slightly, the convection currents circulate the liquid r d evaporation takes place at the liquid surface.
I
Interface +evaporation or-+ Free convection
-Nucleate
boiling
Film boiling
-1
"E
p*
Heat transferred by superheated liquid rising to the liquid-vapour interface where evaporation takes place
Excess temperature At, = t, - t,,
9.2.2. Boiling Regimes The process of boiling depends upon the nature of the surface, thermo-physical properties of thefluid and vapour bubble dynamics. Due to involvement of large number of variables, general
V
Fig. 9.2. The boiling curve for water.
Vapour bubbles
Fig. 9.1. Pool boiling with liquid-vapour interface.
2. Nucleate boiling This type of boiling exists in regions 1 1and III. With the increase in At, (excess temperature) the formation of bubbles on the surface of the wire at certain localised spots commences. The bubbles condense in the liquid without reaching the liquid surface. In fact it is the region 1 1where nucleate boiling starts. With further increase in At, the bubbles are formed more rapidly and rise to the surface of the liquid resulting in rapid evaporation, as indicated in the region III. The nucleate b i I k g - i s thus characterised by formation of bubbles at the nucleation sites and the resulting liquid agitation. The bubble agitation induces considerablefluid mixing and that promotes substantial increase in the heatflux and the boiling heat transfer coefficient (The equipment used tor boiling should be designed to operate in this region only). Nucleate-boiling exists upto At, = 50C. The maximum heat flux, known as the critical hear $m, occurs at point A (see Fig. 9.2) and is of v & d e r of l h 4 ~ 1 m ~ .
498
499
3. Film boiling Film boiling comprises of regions N,V and V Z . The trend of increase of heat flux with increase in excess temperature observed upto region ZZZ is reversed in region N (called film boiling region). This is due to the fact that the bubble formation is very rapid and the bubbles blanket the heating surface and prevent the incomingfresh liquid from taking their place. Eventually the bubbles coalesce and form a vapour film which covers the surface completely. Since the thermal conductivity of vapour film is much less than that of the liquid the heat flux drops with growth in At,. Within the temperature range 50C < At, < 15O0C, conditions oscillate between nucleate and film boiling and the phase is referred to as transition boiling, unstable jilm boiling or partial film boiling (region IV). With further increase in At, #he vapour film is stablised and the heating surface is completely covered by a vapour blanket and the heat flux is the lowest as .shown in region V. The surface temperatures required to maintain a stable film are high and under these conditions a sizeable amount of heat is lost by the surface due to radiation, as indicated in the region V Z . The phenomenon of stable film boiling can be observed when a drop of water falls on a red hot stove. The drop does not evaporate immediately but dances a few times on the stove; this is due to the formation of a stable steam film at the interface between the hot surface and the liquid droplet. Critical heat flux or burnout point: The critical heat flux or burnout point (Point A in Fig. 9.2) is the point of w i m u m heat flux on the boiling curve at which transition from nucleate to film boiling initiates. This point is also called the boiling crisis because the boiling process beyond that .point is unstable unless of course, point B is reached. The temperature at point B is extremely high and normally above the melting of the solid. So if the heating of the metallic surface is not limited to point A, it is possible that the metal may get damaged or it may even melt (For this reason, point A is often termed as boiling crisis or burnout point). Thus we may be interested to operate the equipment close to this value and not beyond it.
9.2.3. Bubble Shape and Size Consideration The heat transfer rate in nucleate boiling is greatly influenced by the nature and condition of the heating suvace and su@ace tension at the solid-liquid interjke (shape, size or inclination of bubbles, however, do not have much effect on the heat transfer rate). The surface tension signifies wetting capability of the surface with the liquid (i.e., low surface tension, highly wetted surface) and that influences the angle of contact between the bubble and the solid surface. If the surface is contaminated, its wetting characteristics are affected which eventually influence the size and shape of the vapour bubbles. If the surface tension of the liquid is low, it tends to wet the surface, so that the bubble is readily pushed by the liquid and rises. The liquid shear-off the bubbles causing them to become globular or oval as shown in Fig. 9.3 (i) (for totally wetted surface). In case of liquids having intermediate surface tension (partially wetted surface) a momentary balance may exist between the bubbles and solid surface so that it is necessary to form larger bubbles before the buoyant force can free them from the surface; the shape of the bubble is shown in Fig. 9.3 (ii).
,
The formation of bubble as sgaun in Fig. 9.3 (i) gives high heat transfer rate compared. with the bubble shapes shown in Fig. 9.3 (ii) and (iii). Addition of agents for reducing the sut$ace tension was found to have the same effect as providing of wettable sudace and to give increased rates of heat transfer. 9.2.4. Bubble Growth and Collapse From Experiments it has been observed that the bubbles are not always in thermodynamic equilibrium with surrotmding liquid. The vapour inside the bubble is not necessarily at the same temperature as the liquid. Consider the forces acting on a sP&cal vapour bubble as shown in Fig. 9.4; the pressure forces on-the bubble must be balanced by the surface tension a t vapour-liquid interface. Thus spherical bubble Liquid Vapour
d (pV- p,)
or where
= 2m.o
20 PV - PI = 7
...(9.2)
pv = vapour pressure inside the bubble pl = liquid pressure over the surface of bubble
o = surface tension of vapour-liquid interface.

The vapour may be considered as a perfect gas for which the Clayperon equation may be used, which is given below:
Fig. 9.4. Force balance on a spherical vapou bubble.
where From perfect gas law:
hfg= latent heat of vapourisation.
RT - P v [whers R = gas or vapour constant; pv = density of vapour formed] Substituting the above equation in Eqn. (9.3) and rearranging, we get
e-
Q
Partially wetted
(ii)
/\c
Unwetted
(iii)
hfg P v P . hfg -Tv - Tsar Tsar R Tm2 where Tv= vapour temperature inside the bubble T , = saturation temperature of vapour inside the bubble at p,. From Eqn. (9.2) and (9.4), we get Pv - Pl -=--
The above equation suggests that if (TI - Tsar)> (Tv - T , ) , the bubble of radius r will grow otherwise it will collapse. Here T, is the temperature surrounding the bubble.
.--
Solid Totally wetted

(i)
Fig. 9.3. Typical shapes of steam bubbles.
On the unwetted. surface [Fig. 9.3 (iii)], the bubbles spread out; forming a wedge between the water and heating surface, thereby allowing hydrostatic forces to resist the action of buoyancy.
9.2.5. Critical Diameter of Bubble Refer figure 9.5. The maximum diameter of the bubble formed on the heating surface depends on the following parameters: olv= tension between liquid and vapour ols= tension between liquid and solid surface ovs= tension between vapour and solid surface
500
601
P = angle formed by the bubble as

shown in Fig. 9.5 dc = maximum or critical diameter of bubble. g(pI pv)= buoyancy force.
Bubble
9.2.7.1. Nucleate pool boiling (i) For nucleate pool boiling, Rosenhow has recommended the following correlation:
By the use of the dimensional analysis technique, we get I
dc
-.
i? (PI- 4)
(9.6)
Fig. 9.5. Critical diameter of bubble.
where C is constant_whichis generally calculated by experimental results. ...suggested by Fritz. The value of C = 0.0148 for water bubbles
9.2.6. Factors Affecting Nucleate Boiling The nucleate boiling is affected by the following factors: 1. Material, shape and condition o f the heating surface The boiling heat transfer coefficient depends greatly on the material of the heating surface; under identical conditions of pressure and temperature difference, it is different for different metals (viz oopper has high value than steel, zinc and chromium). The heat transfer rates are also influenced by the condi<ionof heating sur$ace. A rough surface gives 9 better heat transmission than when the surface is either smooth or has been coated (smoothness weakens the metal tendency to get wetted). The shape of the heating surface also affects transmission of heat. 2. Liquid properties Through experiments it has been observed that the size of the bubble increases with the dynamic viscosity of the liquid. With increase in bubble size, frequency of bubble formation decreases which results in reduced heat transfer. Further, high thermal conductivity of the liquid improves the rate of heat transfer. 3. Pressure The pressure influences the rate of bubble growth and in turn also affects the temperature difference (t, - t,) causing heat flow. For a boiling liquid, the maximum allowable heat flux first increases with pressure until critical pressure is reached and thereafter it declines. 4. Mechanical agitation Experiments have shown that the heat transfer rate increases with the increase in degree of . agitation. 9.2.7. Boiling Correlations In boiling heat transfer, a driving force is the excess temperature, which is given by: ...(9.7) At, = ts - tsar For the boiling process the governing equation is
where h is the boiling jilm coeficient. for boiling heat transfer due to difficult fluid Since no analytical solution is av behaviour, empirical relations are used for engineering calculations. some of them are given in folldwing subsections.
\
-liquid viscosity, kg/ms; ,* ;4 sc*,<!,\sl dLLE: enthalpy of vaporisation, Jkg; t';yy& ,': . ' :t l j $ density of saturated liquid, kg/m3; D[:'2T. C ? !$%:c;( *,:.fi" .&.lr:ts-;l;SG. density of the saturated vapour, kg/m3; ...... surface tension of the liquid-vapour inte cpl = specific heat of saturated liquid, Jkg K; P F T - L K E ~ ~ ONLY CE At, = (t, - t,,) = excess temperature; Csl = surface fluid constant (determined from experimental data); n = another constant which depends upon the liquid and the surface; c, for water n = 1, while for other liquids n F 1.7. The value of C,, are given Table 9.1.
-.#>
"i.'
wnere
q,
= surface heat flux, w/m2;
1.q..
-_____I-=
Table 9.1. Values of C,for Pool Boiling

S.No. 1.
1
-
Liquid-su~ace
2. 3.
4. 5.
6. 7 . 8. 9 . 1 0 .
Water - copper Water - brass Water - platinum Water - ground and polished stainless steel Water mechanically polished stainless steel Benzene - chromium Ethanol - chromium n-pentane - chromium n-butanol copper Isopropyl alcohol - copper
(ii) Jacob has proposed the following correlation for nucleate boiling at atmosphericpressure on a flat plate and with low heat fluxes Nu = 0.16 (Gr . ...( 9.9) (iii) For the nucleate boiling on a vertical flat plate, Jacob correlation is of the form: Nu = 0.6 1 (Gr . ~ r ) ~ . ~ ~ ...( 9.10) I
9.2.7.2. Critical heat flux foq nucleate pool boiling On the boiling curve the critical heat flux is an important point. It is always desirable to operate a boiling process close to this point. Zuber (1958) predicted the following expression, for such a case:
qsc = 0.18 (pV)lnhfg [go(PI -PV )ill4 ...(9.11) The expression given above is independent of fluid viscosity, conductivity and specific heat.
I
9.2.7.3. Film pool boiling In stable film boiling, the heat transfer is due to both convection and radiation. Bromley (1950) has suggested the following correlation for film boiling from the outer surface of horizontal tubes: + hd . (h)'" (h)413= (hconv.)4n ...( 9.12)
Boiling and Condensation The equation (9.12) being tedious to solve, could be written within zk 5% of error as 3 ...(9.13) h =h " ,. + q hrd The convective coefficient, h,, (in the absence of radiation), is given by
Haat and Mass Transfer
503
..
=A
L 9.817 810 x lo4

1.58
= 0.825 x lo6 w/m2 = 0.825 M W I ~ ~
(ii) The excess temperature, At, : Using the correlation,
[fr
At, =
= 5.62 (At,)'
x 106)0.75 ] [1.58 (0.825 5.62
...g iven
where D is the outer diameter of the tube. The vapouk properties in the above equation are evaluated at the arithmetic mean of the surface and saturation temperatures. Radiative heat transfer coefficient 5.67 x lo4 & (T: hrud = 8 ( ' - Tsar,) where E is the emissivity of solid. Example 9.1. A wire of 1.2 mm diameter and 200 mm length, is submerged horizontally in water at 7 bar. The wire carries a current of I35 A with an applied voltage of 2.18 V. If the su@ace of the wire is maintained at 200C, calculate : (i) The heat jlux, and (ii) The boiling heat transfer coeficient. Solution. Given : d = 1.2 mm = 0.0012 m, 1 = 200 mm = 0.2 m, I = 135 A, V = 2.18 V, t, = 200C. (i) The heat flux, q : The electrical energy input to the wire is given by Q = VI = 2.18 x 135 = 294.3 W Surface area of the wire, A = d l = IG x 0.0012 x 0.2 = 7.54 x lo4 m2
0'333
= 19.68OC
ExampIe 9.3. A nickel wire of I mm diameter and 400 mm long, carrying current, is submerged in a water bath which is open to atmospheric pressure. Calculate the voltage at the burnout point if at this point the wire carries a current of 190 A. Solution. Given : d = 1 rnm = 0.001 m; 1 = 400 mm = 0.4 m, I = 190 A The thermo-physical properties of water and vapour at 100C are: ~jm. pI = (pf) = 958.4 kg/m3, p, = 0.5955 kg/m3, hfg= 2257 Mlkg, a = 58.9 x Voltage at the burnout point, Vb: At burnout i.e., the points of critical heat flux, the correlation is ...[Eqn. (9.1 I)] qsc = 0.18 (pV)lnhB [ go (PI-pV)l1" = 0.18 (0.5955)'~x 2257 x lo3 [9.81 x 58.9 x (958.4 - 0.5955)11" = 1.52 x lo6 w/m2 = 1.52 M W / ~ ~ Electric energy input to the wire, Q=VbxI
(ii) The boiling heat transfer coefficient, h: Corresponding to 7 bar, t,,, = 164.97"C, and 9 = h (1s - tsu,)
,/*
Example 9.2. An electric wire of 1.25 mm diameter and 250 mm long is laid horizontally and submerged in water at atmbspheric pressure. The wire has an applied voltage of 18 V and carries a current of 45 amperes. Calculate: (i) he heat jlux, and (ii) The excess temperature. The following correlation for water boiling on horizontal submerged su@ace holds good: h = 1.58
(fr5
= 5.62 ( ~ t , ) w/m2"c ~,
or Vb = 10.05 V xample 9.4. Water is boiled at the rate of 25 kg/h in a polished copper pan, 280 mm in r, at atmosphericpressure. Assuming nucleate boiling conditions, calculate the temperature of the bottom surjace of the pan. Solution. Given: m = 25 kgh; D = 280 mm = 0.28 m The properties of water at atmospheric pressure are: tsar= 100C; p, = 958.4 kg/m3; pv = 0.5955 kg/m3; cpl = 4220 J k g K; p, = 279 x lo4; Pr, = 1.75; hfg= 2257 kJkg; o = 58.9 x lo-' N/m; n = 1 (for water) The temperature of the bottom surface, t,: Excess temperature At, = t, - tsa For nucleate boiling (assumed), the following correlation holds good:
Solution. Given : d = 1.25 mm = 0.00125 m, 1 = 250 mm = 0.25 m, V = 18 V , I = 45 A. (i) The heat flux, q : Electrical energy input to the wire, Q = VI = 18 x 45 = 810 W Surface area of the wire, A, = d l = IG x 0.00125 x 0.25 = 9.817 x lo4 m2
...[Eqn. (9.811
For polished copper pan, Csl = 0.013

50a
505
Boiling and Condensation (iii) Critical heat flux, q,,: Here q, = surface heat flux =
2 = --f
mh
(where m = rate of water evaporation)
At, =
[279
\.
254544 x 1@ x 2257 x 1 d
0.5]0.333
r 1 3 x 22;i2;
10
At, = t, - tsa = 12.2 i. e. t, = 12.2 + tsat= 12.2 + 100 = 112.2OC or Example 9.5. Water at atmospheric pressure is to be boiled in polished copper pan. The ?/" diameter o f the pan is 350 m m and is kept at llSC. Calculate the following: (i) Power o f the burner; (ii) Rate o f evaporation in kgh; (iii) Critical heat flux for these conditions. Solution. Given : D = 350 mm = 0.35 m, ts = 115OC. tsa,= 100C .The thermo-physical properties of water (from table) at 100C are: p, (= pf) = 958.4 kg/m3; pv = 0.5955 hglm3; cpl (= cpf) = 4220 Jkg K; & = (14) = 279 x 106 Ns/m2 Nlm Pr, (= Prf) = 1.75; hfg = 2257 Wkg; n = 1; o = 58.9 x The excess temperature, At, = t, - tsa = 115 - 100 = 15OC (i) Power of the burner to maintain boiling: As per boiling curve, for At, = 15C nucleate pml boiling will occur and for this the following correlation holds good:
qSc= 0.18 (P,)'" hfg [ go ( Pl- Pv)I'" ...[Eqn. 9.1 1)3 = 0.18 (0.5955)'" x 2257 x lo3 [9.81 x 58.9 x low3(958.4 - 0.5955)]"~ = 1.52 x lo6 w1m2 = 1.52 M W / ~ ~ '-yA~xample 9.6 A metal-clad heating element o f 10 m m diameter and o f emissivity 0.92 is submerged in a water bath horizontally. Z f the surface temperature o f the metal is 260C under steady boiling conditions, calculate the power dissipation per unit length for the heater. Assume that water is exposed to atmospheric pressure and is at a uniform temperature. Solution. Given = D = 10 mm = 0.01 m, E = 0.92, tS = 260C The thermo-physical properties of water at 100C from table art? : pl = pf = 958.4 kg/m3; h, , = 2257 kJkg -The thermo-physical properties of vapour at 260C from table are: pv = 4.807 kglm3, Cpv= 2.56 Ulkg K, K = 0.0331 WImK; 'a,pv = pg = 14.85 x lo4 Ns/m2 Power dissipation per unit length for the heater: The excess temperature At, = t, - tsat = 260 - 100 = 160C As per boiling curve, at At, = 160C. there exists a film pool boiling conditions. In this case, the heat transfer is due to both convection and radiation. The heat transfer coefficient, h (approximate) is calculated from the equation: 3 +V7 hrd h =~ C O ~ ...[Eqn. (9.13)] The convective heat transfer coefficient,
...[Eqn. (9.14)]
...[Eqn (9.8)l
For polished copper pan, CsI = 0.013 Substituting the values in the above Eqn. we get 9.8 1 (958.4 - 0.5955) 9s = 279 x 106 x (2257 x 1 ~ ~ )58.9
...Refer table 9.1

4220 x 15 [0.013 x 2257 x lo3x 1.75
]O1
= 629.7 x 399.4 x 1.873 = 471.06 x ld w1m2 = 47 1.06 kw1m2 The boiling heat transfer rate (power of the burner) is given by
(ii) Rate of evaporation, m,: Under steady state conditions, all the heat added to the pan will result in evaporation of water. Thus
or h , = 395.84 w / m 2 ~ c The radiation heat transfer coefficient, T : -T ) :, 5.67 x lo4 E ( brad = (Ts - TS'J 5.67 x lo-* x 0.92 [(260 + 273)4- (100 + 273)4] [(260 + 273) - (lo0 + 273)] or h , = 20 W I ~ ~ O C . h = 395.84 + 20 = 415.84 w / m 2 ~ c Hence the power dissipation per unit length for the heater = h x (xD x 1) x (260 100) = 415.84 x A x 0.01 x 160 = 2090 Wlm = 2.09 kW/m 9.3. CONDENSATION HEAT TRANSFER
...I Eqn.(9. l5)]
93.1. General Aspects The condensation process is the reverse o f boiling process.Thecondensationsets iq, whenever r saturation vapour comes in contact with a surface whose temperature is lower than the saturation

temperature comsponding to the vapour pressure. As the vapour condenses, latent heat is liberated and there is flow of heat to the surface. The liquid condensate may get somewhat sub-cooled by contact with the cooled surface and that may eventually cause more vapour to condense on the exposed surface or upon the previously formed condensate. Depending upon the condition of cool surface, condensation may occur in two possible ways: Film condensation and dropwise condensation. 1. Film Condensation / If the condensate tends to wet the surface and therebyforms a liquidfilm, then the condensation process is known as 'jilm condensation'. Here, the heat from the vapour to the cooling medium is transferred through the film of the condensate formed on the surface. The liquid flows down the cooling surface under the action of gravity and the layer continuously grows in thickness because of newly condensing vapours. The continuous film offers thermal resistance and checks further transfer of heat between the vapour and the surface. Further, the heat transfer from the vapour to the cooling surface takes place through the film formed on the surface. The heat is transferred from the vapour to the condensate formed on the sur$ace by 'convection' and it isfurther transferred from the condensate film to the cooling surfoee by the 'conduction'. This combined mode of heat transfer by conduction and convection reduces the rates of heat transfer considerably (compared with dropwise condensation). That is the reason that heat transfer rates of filmwise condensation are lower than dropwise condensation. Figure 9.6 (i) shows the film condensation on a vertical plate.
507
surfaces become 'wetted' after being exposed to condensing vapours ovkq a period of time. Dropwise condensation can be obtained under controlled conditions with the help of certain additives to the condensate and various surface coatings but its commercial viability has not yet been approved. For this reason the condensing equipment in use is designed on the basis of filmwise condensation.
9.3.2. Laminar Film Condensation on a Vertical Plate I An analysis for filmwise condensation on a vertical plate can be made on lines prepared by Nusselt (1916). Unless the velocity of the vapour is very high or the liquid film very thick, the motion of the condensate would be laminar. The thickness of the condensate film will be a function of the rate of condensation of vapour and the rate at which the condensate is removed from the surface. The film thickness on a vertical surface will increase gradually from top to bottom as shown in Fig. 9.7.
( .
Condensate film
Element
L
P$ f b h dy) pig f b h dy)
(b)Force balance
m
drops
tv
tsar
f - Condensate film
( i ) Film pondensation
(a) Film growth, velocity
and temper ture profiles

(ii) Dropwise condensation
aFig. 9.7. Film condensation on a flat vertical plate.
(c) Mass and heat balance
Fig. 9.6. Film and dropwise condensations on a vertical surface
2. Dropwise condensation In 'dropwise condensation' the vapour condenses into small liquid droplets of various sizes which fall down the surface in random fashion. The drops form in cracks and pits on the surface. grow in size, break away from the surface, knock off other droplets and eventually run off the surface, without forming a film under the influence of gravity. Fig. 9.6 (ii) shows the dropwise condensation on a vertical plate. In this type of condensation, a large portion of the area of sdid surface is directly exposed to vapour without an insulating film of condensate liquid, consequently higher heat transfer rate (to the order of 750 kwlm2) are achieved. Dropwise condensation has been observed to occur either on highly polished surfaces, or on surfaces contaminated with impurities like fatty acids and organic compounds. This type of condensation gives coefficient of heat transfer generally 5 to 10 times larger than with film condensation. Although dropwise condensation would be prefened to filmwise condensation yet it is extremely difficult to achieve or maintain. This is because most
Nusselt's analysis of film condensation makes the following simplifying assumptions. 1. The film of the liquid formed flows under the action of gravity. 2. The condensate flow is laminar and the fluid properties are constant. 3. The liquid film is in od thermal contact with the cooling surface and, therefore, temperature at the inside o ,the film is taken equal to the surface temperature t,. Further, the temperature at the liquid-ttapour interface is equal to the saturation temperature t,,, at the prevailing pressure. 4. Viscous shear and gravitational rorces are assumed to act on the fluid; thus normal viscous force and inertia forces are neglected. 5. The shear stress at the liquid-vapour interface is negligible. This means there is no velocity
gradient at the liquid-vapour interface [ i.e., 6. The heat ansfer across the condensate layer is by pure conduction and temperature distribut6 is linear.
508
Heat and Mass Transfer Substituting the values of C,and C2 we get the velocity profile
509
7. The condensing vapour is entirely clean and free from gases, air and non-condensing impurities. 8. Radiation between vapour and liquid film; horizontal component of velocity at any point in the liquid film; and curvature of the film are considered negligibly small. Consider the process of film condensation occuring on the surface of a flat vertical plate as shown in Fig. 9.7. The coordinate system has also been depicted on the figure. The origin '0' is at the upper end of the plate, the X-axis lies along the vertical surface with the positive direction of X measured downward and Y-axis is perpendicular to it. The vertical plate height I, width b, and 6 denotes the thickness of the film at a distance x from the origin. The liquid film thickness which is zero at the upper end of plate gradually increases as further condensation occurs at the liquid-vapour interface and attains its'maximum value at the lower end of the plate. p, = density of liquid film, . Let, pv = density of vapour, hfg = latent heat of condensation, k = conductivity of liquid film, p = absolute viscosity of liquid film, ts = surface temperature, and tSa = saturation temperature of vapour at prevailing pressure. (a) Velocity distribution o find an expression for velocity distribution u as a function of distance y from the wall , let us consider the equilibrium between gravity and viscous forces on an elementary volume (b dx dy) of the liquid film. ...(i) Gravitational force on the element = plg (b dx dy) - pv g (b dx dy) Viscous shear force on the element
du
Equation (9.18) is the required velocity profile. The mean flow velocity urn, of the liquid film at a distance y is given by
(b) Mass flow rate The mass flow rate of condensate through apy x position of the film is given by : Mass flow rate (m) = mean flow velocity (urn)x flow area x density 0) 3Y The mass flow is thus a function of x; this is so because the film thickness 6 is essentialfy dependent upon x. As the flow proceeds from x to (x + dx) the film grows from 6 to (6 + d6) because of additional condensate. The mass of condensate added between x and (x + dx) can be worked out by differentiating Eqn. (9,.20) with respect to x (or 6).
or
m = (PI - PV) 8
3P
.a2 x b . 6 x p l = ~ l ( ~ l - ~ v ) g . b .
...(ii)
Equating (i) and (ii), we get
- d2u =
(P~-PV)~
d>"
...(9.16)
c1
(c) Heat flux The heat flow rate into the film (dQ) equals the rate of energy release due to condensation at the surface. Thus
Upon integration, we have
Integrating again, we get

CL The relevant boundary conditions are:
According to our assumption the heat transfer across the condensate layer is by pure conduction, hence
Using these boundary conditions, we get the following values of C, and C2.
Combining Eqns. (9.22) and (9.23), We have
510
Integrating the above equation, we get
Substitution of the boundary condition : 6 = 0 at x = 0 yields C, = 0 .Hence

4k p (tsa - is)x
PI (PI - Pv) g hfg
1'"
...(9.24)
, where hL is the local heat transfer coefficient at the lower edge of the plate. . * 4 This shows that the average heat transfer coefficient is 3 times the local heat transfer coefficient at the trailing edge of plate. Equation 9.28 is usually written in the form
The equation (9.24) depicts that the heat film thickness increases as the fourth root of the distance down the surface; the increase is rather rapid at the upper end of the vertical surface and slows thereafter. (d) Film heat transfer coefficient According to Nusselt assumption the heat flow from the vapour to the surface is by conduction through the liquid film. Thus
The heat flow can also be expressed as

dQ = h x ( b &) (tsat - ts) where hx is the local heat transfer coefficient From (i) and (ii), we get
...(ii)
The Nusselt solution derived above is an approximate one because experimental results have shown that it yields results which are approximately 20 percent lower than the measured values. McAdams proposed to use a value of 1.13 in place of coefficient 0.943. Hence
h = 1.13
L P L (tsar - ts) J
While using above equation, it may be noted that, all liquid properties are to be evaluated at the temperature Equation (9.25)depicts that at a definite point on the heat transfer surface, the film coefficient hx is directly proportional to thermal conductivity k and inversely proportional to thickness offilm 6 at that point. Substituting the value of 6 from equation (9.24), we get
( " ' i
ls) and hfg should be evaluated at tSap

...(9.31)
The total heat transfer to the surface, Q = h As (tsat - ts) The total condensation rate,
Local heat transfer coefficient at the lower end of the plate, i.e., x = 1
Figure 9.8. shows the variation of film thickness and film coefficient with plate height
Y
u
Y
t
s
Film
Evidently the rate of condensation heat transfer is higher at the upper end of the plate than that at the lower end. The average value of heat transfer can be obtained by integrating the local value of coefficient [Eqn (9.26)]as follows :
5
e
0
.g z i k3 8 .Y
3 3 C4 iZ
Plate height
-+
Fig. 9.9. Condensation on an inclined surface.
Fig. 9.8. Film thickness and film coefficient
vs. plate height.
Boiling and
513
[graphical representation of Eqns. (9.24), (9.26) and (9.28)]. The film thickness increases with the increase of plate height. Heat transfer rate decreases with the increase of plate height since thermal resistance increases with the film thickness. e. Inclined flat plate surface For inclined flat surfaces, the gravitational acceleration g in equation (9.30) is replaced g sine where 0 is the angle between the surface and horizontal (Refer Fig. 9.9). The Eqn. (9.3 is modified as :
For the plate, A = L x B and P = B, where L and B are height and width of plate, respectively. Thus,
When the value of Re exckds 1800 (approximately), the turbulence will appear in the liquid film. For Re > 1800, the following correlation is used:
,
I
1
/~
1
; (1
*
or hinclined = hwnical X ...(9.34) Equation (9.34) is applicable only for cases where 0 is small; is not at all applicable for horizontal plate. Condensation 9.3.3. Turbulent Film Condensation surface ' , When the plate on which condensation occurs is quite long or when the liquid film is vigorous &ugh, the condensate flow may become turbulent. The turbulent results in higher-heat transfer rates because heat is now transferred not only by condensdtion but also by eddydifision. The-transition film criterion may be expressed in terms of Reynolds number defined as
'I.
9.3.4. Film Condensation on Horizontal Tubes NusseIt's analysis for laminar filmwise condensation on horizontal tubes leads to the following relations:
... For single horizonal tube.
Re = PI Urn Dh PI
Fig. 9 . 1 0
-
--
1s of film cndens;ation on a vekcal surface.
C.. 4I
A
v .
" W . W . . .
where
...For horizontal tube bank with N tubes placed directly over one another in the vertical direction, D = outer diameter of the tube.
where
1
I
D,, = hydraulic diameter cross-sectionalareaof fluid flow =4x wetted perimeter urn= mean or average velocity of flow
9.3.5. Film Condensation Inside Horizontal Tubes Condensation of vapour inside the tubes finds several engineering applications such as condensers used in refrigeration and airconditioning systems and several chemical and petrochemical industries. The phenomena insides tubes are very complicated because the overall flow rate of vapour strongly affects the heat transfer rate and also the rate of condensation on the walls. Chato (1962) has recommended the following correlation for low velocities inside horizontal tubes (condensation of refrigerants):
where m = pA urn For a vertical plate of unit depth, P = 1, the Reynolds number is sometimes expressed in terms of the mass flow rate per unit depth of plate r, so that
where Equation (9.43) is restricted to low vapour Reynolds number such that
R~~ =
with
r = 0, at the top of the plate and r increasing with x.

The Reynolds number may also be related to heat transfer coefficient as follows: Q = h As (tsar- ts) = m hjR
(" ")
< 3500
where Rev is evaluated at inlet conditions to the tubes.
9.3.6. Influence of the Presence of Noncondensable Gases The presence of noncondensable gas such as air in a condensing vapour produces a detrimental effect on the heat transfer coefficient. It has been observed that even with a few percent by volume of air in steam the condensation heat transfer coefficient is reduced by more than fifty percent. This is owing to the fact that when a vapour containing noncondensable gas condenses, the noncondensable gas is left at the surface. Any further condensation at the surface will occur only after incoming vapour has diffused through this noncondensable gas
514
collected in the vicinity of the surface. The noncondensable gas adjacent to the sui$ace acts as a thermal resistance to the condensation process. The rate of condensation decreases greatly when the condensable vapour is contaminated with even very small amounts of noncondensable gases. As the presence of noncondensable gas in a condensing vapour is undesirable, the general practice in the design of a condenser should be to vent the noncondensable gas to the maximum extent possible. Example 9.7. Discuss the diflerent types of processes for condensation of vapours on a solid su$ace. (AMIE Summer, 1998) Whenever a saturated vapour comes in contact with a surface at a lower Solution. temperature condensation occurs. There are two modes of condensation. Filmwise - in which the condensation wets the surface forming a continuous film which covers the entire surface; Dropwise - in which the vapour condenses into small droplets of various sizes which fall down the surface in a random fashion. Filmwise condensation generally occurs on clean uncontanimated sugaces. In this type of condensation the film covering the entire surface grows in thickness as it moves down the surface by gravity. There exists a thermal gradient in the film and so it acts as a resistance to heat transfer. In dropwise condensation a large portion of the area of the plate is directly exposed to the vapour, making heat transfer rates much higher (5 to 10 times) than those infilmwise condensation. Although dropwise condensation would be preferred to filmwise condensation yet it is extremely d@cult to achieve or maintain. This is because most surfaces become "wetted" after being exposed to condensing vapours over a period of time. Dropwise condensation can be obtained under controlled conditions with the help of certain additives to the condensate and various surface coatings, but its commercial viability has not yet been proved. For this reason the condensing equipments in use are designed on the basis of filmwise condemation. condenses on the outer surface Example 9.8. Saturated steam at tsa,= 90C (p = 70.14~kPa) of a 1.5 m long 2.5 m OD vertical tube maintained at a uniform temperature T, = 70C. Assuming film condensation, calculate : (i) The local transfer coeficient at the bottom of the tube, and (ii) The average heat transfer coeficient over the entire length of the tube. , = 0.335 xld kg/ms, Properties of water at 80' C are :p, = 974 kg/m3, kt = 0.668 W/m K, p hfg= 2309 kJ/kg, p, << p,. (AMIE Winter, 1998)
: .
Local heat transfer coefficient at the bottom of the tube, x = 1.5 m, is
(ii) Average heat transfer coefficient, h : - 4 4 h = h, = , x 3552.9 = 4737.2

J J
w/&
(Ans.)
Example 9.9. Saturated steam at 120C condenses on a 2 cm OD vertical tube which is 20 cm long. The tube wall is maintained at a temperature of 119C. Calculate the average heat transfer coeflcient and the thickness of the condensate film at the base of the tube. Assume Nusselt's solution is valid. Given : I p, = 1.985 bar; pw = 943 kg/m3; hfg= 2202.2 kJ/kg; kw=0.686 W/m K; p = 2 3 7 . 3 x l u 6 Ns/m2, Solution. From Nusselt's solution, we have (AhfIE Summer, 1997)
, ,
neglecting p,, in comparison to pl

= 1.92 x 1013 'I4 = 5. I x 10-5 m or 0.051 n u n (An.)
Now,
k --= hL-
6,
o'686 0.051 x
= 13451
: .
Average heat transfer coefficient,
Solution. Given :t,,, = 90C (3 = 70.14 kPa); L = 1.5 rn;

D = 2.5 cm= 0.025 m; t, = 70C.
Properties of water at 80C
; pl = 974 kg/m3;
k = 0.668 W/m K; y = 0.335 x lo3 kg/ms; hfg= 2309 H/kg {pv<< pl) (i) The local heat transfer coefficient,h, : With usual notations, the local heat transfer coefficient for film condensation is given as
Example 9.10. A vertical cooling jin approximating a flat plate 40 cm in height is exposed to saturated steam at atmospheric pressure (t,,, = IOOOC, A,- = 2257 kJ/kg). The fin is maintained at a temperature of 90C. Estimate the following : (i) Thickness of the film at the bottom of the fin; (ii) Overall heat transfer coeficient; and (iii) Heat transfer rate after incorporating McAdam's correction. The relevant fluid properties are : p , = 965.3 kg/m3
k, = 0.68 W/mC p , = 3.153 x
N s/m2
...[Eqn. (9.26)]
The following relations hay be used :
4kA (tsar. - t x 4=[ ghfePl (PI- P V )
1/4
or
h = 0.943
(980.3)~ x (66.4 x I O - ~x )~ 9.81 x (2257 x l d ) 434 x lo4 x 0.5 (loo - 30)
(AMIE, summer, 1999) Solution. Given : L = 60 cm = 0.6 m; tSa,= 400C; hfg= 2257 kJ/kg;
t, = 90C; p, = 965.3 kg/m3; kl = 0.68 W/mC;
pl = 3.153 x
N s/m2
(ii) The condensate rate per meter width, m:
(i) Thickness of film at the bottom edge of the fin, 6 L :
= 0.0001 136 m = 0.1 136 mm
(Ans.)
534S9 lo3 = 236.86 kg& (Ans.) 2257 Example 9.12. A vertical plate 350 mm high and 420 mm wide, at 40C is exposed to saturated steam at 1 atm. Calculate the following: (i) The Jilm thickness at the bottom of the plate; (ii) The maximum velocity at the bottom of the plate; (iii) The total heat flux to the plate. Assume vapour density is small compared to that of the condensate. Solution. Given: t, = 40C; tsar= 100C, L = 350 mm = 0.35 m, B = 420 mm = 0.42 m. The properties will be evaluated at the film temperature, i.e., the average of tsarand t,;
w=-=
hfg
(ii) Overall heat transfer coefficient,
I; :
(iii) Heat transfer rate with McAdam's correction : With McAdam's correction, the value of 7; is 20 percent higher. Hence heat transfer rate after incorporating McAdam's correction for unit width, is : Q = 1 . 2 ~ 7 9 8 1 . 2 2 ~ ( 0l)x(l00-90) .4~
2 The properties at 70C are: kgtms; k = 0.667 W/mC and hfg = 2257 kl/kg. p, = 977.8 kg/m3; P = 0.4 x (i) The film thickness at the bottom of the plate, 6: 6=
g P, (PI - P,) hfg
...[Eqn. (9.24)l
t f = loo +40 = 70C; further hfL is evaluated at 100C.
(Ans.) Example 9.11. A vertical plate 500 mm high and maintained at 30C is exposed to saturated steam at atmospheric pressure. Calculate the following: ( i ) The rate of heat transfer, and (ii) The condensate rate per hour per metre of the plate width for film condensation. The properties of water film at the mean temperature are: p = 980.3 kg/m3; k = 66.4 x W/ntC; p = 434 x 1Od kg/ms and hfg = 2257 k m g . Assume vapour density is small compared to that of the condensate. 2 Solution. Given: L = 500 mm = 0.5 m; B = lm; t, = 30C; ( i ) The rate of heat transfer per metre width, Q:
= 38309.8 W/m or 38.3098 kW per m width
Neglecting p,, pv << PI or 4 x 0.667 x 0.4 x lo-) (100 - 40) x 0.35 9.81 x (977.81~ x 2257 x lo3
...(ghen)
= 0.18 mm
1/4
104
(': x
= 1 = 0.35 m in this case )

:
(ii) The maximum velocity at the bottom of the plate, u,,
u = (p1-pv)g P
..[Eqn. (9.29)]
= 0.943 1
*
(Sy-$] - "(.-$] P
...[Eqn. (9.17)]
..neglecting p,
r p,'Pg%
llA
L P L (tsar - J
...neglecting p,[(p,
<< pi ...given)]
therefore, At y = 6, u = urnax., p1gS2 977.8~9.81x(1.8Xl@)~ urn=-=0,38slnls 2P 2 ~ 0 . 4 ~
518
Boiling and Condensation (iii) The heat transfer rate, Q : Q = h A, (I,,, - t,) = h x ( L x - ty) = 5926.4 x (0.6 x 1) (100 - 60) = 142233.6 W (iv) The condensate mass flow rate, m :
519
(iii) The total heat flux to the plate, Q:
...[Eqn. (9.29)]
142233'6 = 0.063 kgls or 226.8 k g h (Am.) 2257 x lo3
Let us check whether the flow is laminar or not
..[Eqn.(9.35)]
The total heat flux is given by Q = % A (tsar - t,) = L x ( L x B) (t,,, - ts) = 4931.35 x 0.35 X 0.42 X (100 - 40) = 43494 W or 43.494 k W (Ans.) Example 9.13. Vertical f i t plate in the form of fin is 600 m in height and is exposed to steam at atmospheric pressure. if surface of the plate is maintained at 60C, calculate the following: (i) The film thickness at the trailing edge of the film, (ii) The overall heat transfer coeficient, (iii) The heat transfer rate, and (iv) The condensate mass flow rate. Arsume laminarflow conditions and unit width of the plate. Solution. Given :L = 600 mm = 0.6 m; ts = 100C; The properties of vapour at atmospheric pressure are: tsar= l0O0C, hfg = 2257 H k g ; pv = 0.596 kglm3. loo 6o = 80C are: The properties of saturated vapour at the mean film temperature tf = 3
+
rr
p, = 971.8 kg/m3, k = 67.413 x lo-' W/mC, p = 355.3 x lod Ns/m2 or kglms (i) The film thickness at the trailing edge of the plate, 6 (at x = L = 0.6 m):
This shows that the assumption of laminar flow is correct. Example 9.14. A vertical tube of 60 mm outside diameter and 1.2 m long is exposed to steam at atmospheric pressure. The outer surface of the tube 50C by circulating cold water through the tube. Calculate th (i) The rate of heat transfer to the coolant, and (ii) The rate of condensation of steam. Solution. Given : D = 60 mm = 0.06 m, L = 1.2 m, t, = 50C Assuming the condensation film is laminar and noncondensable gases in steam are absent. loo+ 50 = 75C The mean film temperature tf = 2 The thermo-physical properties of water at 75C are: p, = 975 kg/m3, pl = 375 x lo4 Ns/m2, k = 0.67 W/mC. The properties of saturated vapour at tsa = 100"C\are : p, = 0.596 kg/m3, hfg = 2257 Hkg. (i) The rate of heat transfer, Q: For laminar condensation on a vertical surface
...[Eqn. (9.30)]
...[Eqn. (9.24)l
(ii) The overall heat transfer coefficient, %:
= 4627.3 w/m2"c Q = h A, (tsar - t,) = h (n DL) (t,,, - ts) = 4627.3 x (71 x 0.06 X 1.2) (100 - 50) = 52333.5 = 52.333 kW (Ans.) (ii) The rate of condensation of steam, m : The condensation rate is given by
Using McAdam's correction which is 20% higher than Nusselt's result. h = 4938.68 x 1.2 = 5926.4 w/rn2"c (Ans.)
520
Heat and Mass Transfer Let us check the assumption of laminar film condensation by calculating, Re.

p, = 992 kg/m3; j~ = 663 x lo4 ~ s / mk~= ; 0.631 W/mC
521
...[Eqn. (9.3511
Since Re (= 1312.85) < 1800, hence the flow is laminar. Example 9.15. A horizontal tube of outer diameter 20 mm is exposed to dry steam at 100C. The tube surfQcetemperature is maintained at 84C by circulating water through it. Calculate the rate of formation of condensate per metre length of the tube. Solution. Given: D = 20 mm = 0.02 m, ts = 84C; t,, = 100C
'
Since the tubes are arranged in square array, therefore, the number of horizontal tubes in = 25 vertical column is : N = ( i ) The heat transfer coefficient, The average heat transfer coefficient for steam condensing on bank of horizontal tubes is given by
x:
...[ Eqn. (9.41)]
The mean film temperature t, = loo + 84 = 9 2 0 ~ 2 The properties of saturated liquid at 92C are: p, = 963.4 kg/m3, CL, = 306 x lo4 ~ s l mk~= ; 0.677 W/mC = 100C are: The properties of saturated vapour at tsar I p, = 0.596 kg/m3, hfg = 2257 Wkg Rate of formation of condensate per metre length of the tube, m: The average heat transfer coefficient is given by
...[Eqn. (9.40)]
(ii) The rate at which steam is condensed per unit length, m The rate of condensation for the single tube of the array per metre length is
The rate of condensation for the complete array is m = 625 x m, = 625 x 1.116 x lom3 = 0.6975 kg1s.m
= 11579.7 w / m 2 ~ c The heat transfer per unit length is
(Ans.)
= 11579.7 X 71 x 0.02 x (100 - 84) = 11641.2 W Rate of formation of condensate per metre length of the tube,
11641'2 = 5.157 x kgls = 18.56 kgh (Ans.) L hfg - EKiiY Example 9.16. A steam condenser consisting of a square array of 625 horizontal tubes,
- =--
"'
each 6mm in diameter, is installed at the exhaust hood of a steam turbine. The tubes are exposed to saturated steam at a pressure of 15 kPa. If the tube sudace temperature is maintained at 25C calculate: (i) The heat transfer coeficient, and (ii) The rate at which steam is condensed per unit length of the tubes. Assume film condensation on the tubes and absence of noncondensable gases. Solution. Given: D = 6 mm = 0.006 m, ts = 25C. Corresponding to 15 kPa pressure, the properties of vapour (from the table) are: tsar = 54OC, p, = 0.098 kg/m3, hfg = 2373 kJkg. The properties of saturated water at film temperature t f = 54 + 25 = 39.5"C are : 2
TYPICAL EXAMPLES Example 9.17. A 750 mm square plate, maintained at 28OC is exposed to steam at 8.132 kPa. Calculate the following: ( i ) The film thickness, local heat transfer coeficient and mean jlow velocity of condensate at 400 mm from the top of the plate, (ii) The average heat transfer coeficient and total heat transfer from the entire plate, (iii) Total steam condensation rate, and (iv) The heat transfer coeficient if the plate is inclined at 25" with the horizontal plane. Solution. Given: L = B = 750 mm = 0.75 m, t, = 28OC, x = 400 mm = 0.4 m Assme laminar flow film condensation. Properties of saturated vapour at 8.132 kPa (or 0.08132 bar) are: t,,, = 42C; p, = 0.0561 kg/m3; hfg = 2402 kJkg 42 + 28 = 35C The mean film temperature t, = 2 The properties of saturated water at 35C are: W/mC, p = 728.15 x lo6 kg/ms. p1 = 993.95 kg/m3; k = 62.53 x (i) 6,, h,, u, at 400 mm from the top of the plate: The film thickness at a distance x from the top edge of the plate is given by:
...[Eqn. (9.24)]
HBat and Mass Transfer
Boiling and Gondensation The mean film temperature tf = 100 + 54 = 7 7 0 ~ 2 The properties of the condensate at 77C are : W/mC; & = 365 x 10" ~ s / m ~k ; = 668 x
At x = 0.4 m,
6, = 1.819 x 104x (0.4)'"- 1.45 x 1 0 4 m = 0.145 mm (Ans.)

SL = 1,819 x (0.75)"~= 1.69 x lo4 m = 0.169 mm The local heat transfer coeficient,
The properties of saturated vapour at tSat = 100C pv = 0.596 kg/m3; hfg= 2257 kJkg. Assuming the flow to be turbulent the relevant equations are :
The mean flow velocity of condensate,
Re =
and
4 h L (t,,
- t,)
1/3
...[ Eqn. (9.38)]
hfg PI
h = 0.0077 1 ' ( " -
P?
lZg]
J
(~e)'.'
...[Eqn. (9.39)]
(ii) Average heat transfer coefficient (g):
Eliminating
from these equations, we get the condition that the flow will be turbulent if
(where = the film thickness at the bottom of the plate). Using McAdarns correction, h = 1.2 x 4933.33 = 5920 W I ~ ~ O C The total heat transfer from the entire plate, Q: Q=i ;A, (tsar - t,) = ( L x B) (tsar - 2,) = 5920 x (0.75 x 0.75) (42 28 ) = 46620 W (Ans.) P Y (iii) Total steam condensation rate, m:
Substit-lting the values, we get
Thus the film is turbulent as assumed and Re = 4144.8
46620 = 0.0194 kgls or 69.87 kglh (Ans.) 2402 x lo3 (iv) f i e heat transfer coefficient when the plate is inclined 25" with the horizontal, m =
hinc~in,:
hind,,,
= hvertica, x (sin 0)'" = 5920 x (sin 250)"~ = 4773.2 w / ~ ~ " c(Ans.)
...[Eqn. (9.34)]
Let us check the type of flow [using Eqn. (9.35)],
Hence assumption is correct. Example 9.18. A vertical plate 3.2 m high maintained at 54"C, is exposed to saturated steam at atmospheric pressure. Calculate the heat transfer rate per unit width. Solution. Given: L = 3.2 m; B = 1 m, t, = 54C; tsa,= 100C. Heat transfer rate per unit width : In order to determine whether the condensate film is laminar or turbulent; the Reynolds number must be checked.
= 0.0077 x (2.0797 x 10'~)'" x 27.99 = 5866.62 w/m2 "C Heat transfer rate per unit width, Q = h As (t,,, 4 ) = 5866.62 x (3.2 x 1 ) (100 - 54) = 863566 W/m = 863.566 kW/m (Am) Example 9.19. A condenser is to be designed to condense 1800 kg/h of dry and saturated steam at a pressure of 10 kPa. A square array of 400 tubes, each of 8 mm in diameter, is to be used. If the tube su$ace temperature is to be maintained at 24"C, calculate the following: (i) The heat transfer coeficient, and (ii) The length of each tube assuming single pass. Solution. Given: m = 1800 kgh; D = 8 mm = 0.008 m, t, = 24C. (i) The heat transfer coefficent, h: Corresponding to 10 kPa (0.1 bar), from table, the properties of dry and saturated vapour are :
tsar= 458C; pv =
The properties of saturated vapour at the mean film temperature,
(J
-
= 0.0676 kg/m3; hf, = 2393 Wlkg
525
pl = 993.95 kg/m3; k = 62.53 x W/mC; JL . = 728.15 x lo4 kglms. , As the tubes are to be arranged in an array, therefore, the number of horizontal tubes in the vertical column is, N = = 20. The average heat transfer coefficient for steam condensing on bank of horizontal tubes is given by :
The average heat transfer coefficient is given by
...[Eqn. (9.41)]
Using McAdam's correlation, we have h = 1.2 x 3432.09 x (L)-'I4 = 4118.5 x (L)-'/~ The heat transfer rate is given by Q =i ;A, (tsa,- t,) = m hfg or 41 18.5 x (L)-'" (n x 0.35 x L) (120.2 - 80) = 70 x (2201.6 x lo3) or
182046.8 (Ll3I4= 42808.88
(ii) The length of each tube, assuming single pass, L : The heat transfer rate, Q = - 4 (tsa,- ts) mhfg = h x (400 x nDL) (tsa,- t,) or
(ii) The thickness of condensate layer, 6: 6 = 1.988 x 10-4 x (L)'I4 = 1.988 x lo4 x (0.1452)'" = 1.227 x lo4 m = 0.1227 mm (Am.) Let us check whether flow is lamniar or not.
196500 = 1.09 m (Ans.) 1092147.3 Example 9.20. The outer sutface of a cylindrical drum 350 mm diameter is exposed to '~turated steam at 2.0 bar for condensation. If the sutface temperature of the drum is maintained at 80C calculate the following: (i) The length of the drum; (ii) The thickness of the condensate layer to condense 70 kg/h of steam. Solution. Given : D = 35 mm = 0.35 m; t, = 80C; m = 70 kg / h Assuming film condensation and laminar flow : Corresponding to 2.0 bar, from the table, the properties of the saturated vapour are:
L =
As Re (= 249.9) < 1800, hence assumuption is correct. HIGHLIGHTS 1. Boiling is the convective heat transfer process that involves a phase change from liquid to vapour state. 2. The boiling heat transfer phenomenon may occur in the follows forms: (i) Pool boiling (ii) Forced convection boiling (iii) Sub-cooled or local boiling (iv) Saturated boiling. 3. The three regimes of boiling are: (i) Interface evaporation (ii) Nucleate boiling (iii) Film boiling. 4. The condensation process is reverse of boiling process. Condensation may occur in two possible ways: (i) Film condensation (ii) Dropwise condensation. If the condensate tends to wet the surface and thereby forms a liquid film, the condensation process is known as 'film condensation'. In 'dropwise condensation' the vapour condenses into small liquid droplets of various sizes which fall down the surface in random fashion. Summary of formulae : A. Boiling
The properties of saturated water at the mean film temperature 9 = 1202

p, = 956.4 kg/m3; k = 68.23 x W/mC; p = 283 x lo4 kgtms ( i ) The length of the drum, L: The film at the bottom edge of the drum is given by
+ 80
= loooC
...[Eqn. (9.24)]
... for single horizontal tube

'
13.
h = 0.725 /
r P, ( P, - pV)pghfg]'I4
L N Pr (tsat - ts)D J
... for horizontal tube bank with N

tubes placed directly over one another in the vertical direction.
Nu = 0.16 ( ~ r . P r ) q . ~ ~ Nu = 0.61 ( ~ r . P r ) ~ . ~ '
... for nucleate boiling at atmospheric pressure

on a flat plate with low heat fluxes. ... For the nucleate boilng on a vertical flat plate.
1 / 4
where D = outer diameter of the tube.
qsc = 0.18 (pv)l0 hfg rg 0 (PI - m (h)"I3= (hconv.)413 + brad . (h)lJ3 h
... critical heat flbx for nucleate pool hoiling

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
where hig = hfg + g c,, (t, - t,)
'hem. + 2 hn2d
... within f 5% ertor
THEORETICAL QUESTIONS
Define the term 'boiling'. Enumerate the applications of boiling heat transfer. Explain briefly the physical mechanism of boiling. Differentiate between pool boiling and forced convection boiling. Explain briefly the various regimes of saturated pool boiling. What is burnout point? Explain briefly the condensation mechanism. Differentiate between the mechanism of filmwise and dropwise condensation. Derive the Nusselt theory of laminar flow film condensation on a vertical palte. Drive the following relation for laminar film condensation on vertical plate.
B. Condensation :
UNSOLVED EXAMPLES Boiling Heat Transfer

1. Water at atmospheric pressure is to be boiled in polished copper pan. The diameter of the pan is 300 mm and is kept at 111"C. Calculate the following : ( i ) Power of the burner to maintain boiling; (ii) Rate of evaporation in kglh. Take the properties of water at 100C as follows: pi = 958 kg/m3; pv = 0.597 kg/m3; ~ l=f 278 x lod kg/ms; cfl= 4216 JkgK; hfg = 2257 kJ&g ; Pr = 1.723, o = 58.9 x Nlm [Ans. ( i ) 13.664 kW, (ii) 21.8 kgh] 2. A wire of 1 mm diameter gnd 150 mm length is submerged horizontally in water at 7 bar. The wire carries a current of 131.5 A with an applied voltage of 2.15 V. If the surface of the wire is maintained at 180C, calculate: ( i )The heat flux, and (ii)The boiling heat transfer coefficient. [Ans. ( i )0.6 MW/m2, (ii) 39920 ~ l r n * O C ] 3. An electric wire of 1.5 mm diameter and 200 mm long is'laid horizontally and submerged in water at atmospheric pressure. The wire has an applied voltage of 16 V and carries a current of 40 amperes. [Ans. ( i )0.679 MWI~', ( i i ) 18.52OC) Calculate: ( i )The heat flux, and (ii)The excess temperature. 4. A nickel wire of 1.5 mm diameter and 500 mm long, carrynig current, is submerged in a water bath which is open to atmospheric pressure. Calculate the voltage at the burnout point if at this point the wire carries a current of 200 A. [Ans. 17.9 V (uppx.)) 5. A metal-clad heating element is of 8 mm diameter and of emissivity 0.95. The element is horizontally immersed in a water bath. The surface temperature of the metal is 260C under steady state bolllng
10.
hinclinad = (h)venicalx (sin 8)lJ4
...for Re > 1800
528

conditions. Calculate the power dissipation per unit length for the heater if water is exposed to atmospheric [Am. 1.75 kW/m] pressure and is at uniform temperature.
Condensation Heat Transfer

6. A vertical plate 450 mm high and maintained at 30C is exposed to staturated steam at atmospheric
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
pressure. Calculate: (i) The rate of heat transfer, and (ii) The condensate rate per hour per metre for plate width film condensation. The properates of water film at the mean temperature are: W/mC; p = 434 x lo4 kglms; and hf,= 2256.9 kJkg p = 980.3 kg/m3 ; k = 66.4 x [Am. 439.9 x lo3 kJ/h, 218.8 kg/hl A vertical plate in the form of fin is 500 mm in height and is exposed to steam at atmospheric pressure. If the surface of the plate is maintained at 60C, calculate: (i) The film thickness at the trailing edge of the film, (ii) The overall heat transfer coefficient, (iii) The heat transfer rate, and (iv) The condensate mass flow rate. Assume laminar flow conditions and unit width of the plate. [Ans. (i) 0.1732 mm, (ii) 6227.52 W/mC (McAdam's), (iii) 124550 W, (iv) 0.055 kg/s] A vertical plate 2.8 m high is maintained at 5 4 T in the presence of saturated steam at atmospheric [Ans. 700 kW/m) pressure. Calculate the heat transfer rate per unit width. A vertical tube of 50 mm outside diameter and 2 m long is exposed to steam at atmospheric pressure. The outer surface of the tube is maintained at a temperature of 84C by circulating cold water through the tubes. Determine: (i) The rate of heat transfer to the coolant, and (ii) the rate of condensation of [Ans. (i) 179 kW, (ii) 28.6 kgh] steam. A horizontal tube of outer diameter 25 mm is exposed to dry steam at 100C. The tube surface temperature is maintained at 84C by circulating water through it. Calculate the rate of formation of condensate per [Ans. 21.94 kg/h] metre length of the tube. A condenser is to be deigned to condense 2250 kg/h of dry and saturated steam at a pressure of 15 kPa. A square array of 400 tubes each of 6 mm in diamter, is to be used. If the tube surface temperature is to be maintained at 2GC, calculate the heat transfer coefficient and the length of each tube, assuming single [Ans. 5205.3 w/m2"C; 1.35 ml pass.
Heat Exchangers
10.1. Introduction. 10.2. 'Qpes of heat exchangers. 10.3. Heat exchanger analysis. 10.4. Logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD). 10.5. Overall heat transfer coefficient. 10.6. Correction factors for multipass arrangements. 10.7. Heat exchanger effectiveness and number of transfer units (NTU). 10.8. Pressure drop and pumping power; rnical E x a m p l e s H i g h h g h t s T h e o r e t i c a l Questions-Unsolved Examples.
10.1. INTRODUCTION A 'heat exchanger' may be defined as an equipment which transfers the energy from a hot fluid to a cold fluid, with maximum rate and minimum investment and running costs. In heat exchangers the temperature of each fluid changes as it passes through the exchangers, and hence the temperature of the dividing wall between the fluids also changes along the length of the exchanger. Examples of heat exchangers: (ii) Condensers and boilers in steam plant; (i) Intercoolers and preheaters; (iii) Condensers and evaporators in (iv) Regenerators; refrigeration units; (v) Automobile radiators; (vi) Oil coolers of heat engine; (vii) Milk chiller of a paste(viii) Several other industrial processes. urising plant;
TYPES OF HEAT EXCHANGERS In order to meet the widely varying applications, several types of heat exchangers have been developed which are classified on the basis of nature of heat exchange process, relative direction of fluid motion, design and constructional features, and physical state of fluids. 1. Nature of heat exchange process Heat exchangers, on the basis of nature of heat exchange process, are classified as follows: (i) Direct contact (or open) heat exchangers. (ii) Indirect contact heat exchangers. (a) Regenerators. (b) Recuperators. (i) Direct contact heat exchangers In a direct contact or open heat exchanger the exchange of heat takes place by direct mixing of hot and cold fluids and transfer of heat and mass takes place simultaneously. The use of such units is made under conditions where mixing of two fluids is either harmless or desirable. Examples: (i) Cooling towers; (ii) Jet condensers; (iii) Direct contact feed heaters. Figure 10.1 shows a direct contact heat exchanger in which steam mixes with cold water, gives its latent heat to water and gets condensed. Hot water and non-condensable gases leave the container as shown in the figure. (ii) Indirect contact heat exchangers
10.2.
330
Heat and Mass ~ransfer
Free Convection
531
In this type of heat exchanger, the heat transfer between two fluids could be carried out by transmission Hot through wall which separates water the two fluids. This type inContainer cludes the following: (a) Regenerators. (b) Recuperators or surface exchangers. (a) Regenerators: In a regenerator type of heat exchanger the hot and coMfluids Cold pass alternately through a water space containing solid particles (matrix), these particles Fig. 10.1. Direct contact or open heat exchanger. providing alternately a sink and a source for heat flow. Examples : (i) I.C. engines and gas turbines; (ii) Open hearth and glass melting furnaces; (iii) Air heaters of blast furnaces. A regenerator generally operates periodically (the solid matrix alternately stores heat extracted from the hot fluid and then delivers it to the cold fluid). However, in some regenerators the matrix is made to rotate through the fluid passages arranged side by side which makes the heat exchange process continuous. The performance of these regenerators is affected by the following parameters: (i) Heat capacity of regenerating material, (ii) The rate of absorption, and (iii) The release of heat. Advantages 2. Less weight per kW of the plant; 1. Higher heat transfer coefficient; 3. Minimum pressure loss; 4. Quick response to load variation; 5. Small bulk weight; 6. Efficiency quite high. Disadvantages 1. Costlier compared to recuperative heat exchangers. 2. Leakage is the main trouble, therefore, perfect sealing is required. (b) Recuperators: 'Recuperator' is the most important type of heat exchanger in which the flowing fluids exchanging heat are on either side of dividing wall (in the form of pipes or tubes generally). These heat exchangers are used when two fluids cannot be allowed to mix ix., when the mixing is undesirable. Examples: (i) Automobile radiators, (ii) Oil coolers, intercoolers, air preheaters, economisers, superheaters, condensers and surface feed heaters of a steam power plant, (iii) Milk chiller of pasteurising plant, (iv) Evaporator of an ice plant: Advantages 1. Easy construction; 2. More economical; 3. surface area for heat transfer; 4. Much suitable for stationary plants. Disadvantages 1. Less heat transfer coefficient; 2. Less geneuting capacity; 3. Heavy and sooting problems.
The flow through direct heat exchangers and recuperators may be treated as steady state while through regenerators the flow is essentially transient. 2. Relative direction of fluid motion According to the relative directions of two fluid streams the heat exchangers are classified into the following three categories: (i) Parallel flow or unidirection flow (ii) Counte-flow (iii) Cross-flow. (i) Parallel flow heat exchangers In a parallel flow heat exchanger, as the name suggests, the two fluid streams (hot and cold) travel in the same direction. The two streams enter at one end and leave at the other end. The flow arrangement and variation of temperatures of the fluid streams in case of parallel flow heat exchangers, are shown in Fig. 10.2. It is evident from the Fig.l0.2(b) that the temperature diference between the hot and cold fluids goes on decreasing .from inlet to outlet. Since this type of heat exchanger needs a large area of heat transfer, therefore, it is rarely used in practice. r (temperature)
Fig. 10.2. Parallel flow heat exchanger.
L (length)
Examples: Oil coolers, oil heaters, water heaters etc. As the two fluids are separated by a wall, this type of heat exchanger may be called parallel flow recuperator or surface heat exchanger. (ii) Counter-flow heat exchangers In a counter-flow heat exchanger, the two fluids flow in opposite directions. The hot and cold fluids enter at the opposite ends. The flow arrangement and temperature distribution for such a heat exchanger are shown schematically in Fig. 10.3. The temperature difference between the
ore
rc 1
(4
Fig. 10.3. Counter-flow heat exchanger
(b)
532
Free Convection
two fluids remains more or less nearly constant. This type of heat exchanger, due to counter flow, gives maximum rate of heat transfer for a given surface area. Hence such heat exchangers are most favoured for heating and cooling of fluids. (iii) Cross-flow heat exchanger In cross-flow heat exchangers, the two fluids (hot and cold) cross one another in space, usually at right angles. Fig. 10.4 shows a schematic diagram of common arrangements of cross-flow heat exchangers. Cold fluid (in) (unmixed stream) Cold fluid (in) Tube(Mixed hot stream)
E3
Hot fluid (out)
e
Hot fluid e (in) (Unmixed stream)
+fluid (out)
c3
I
Hot
Cold fluid Cold fluid (in) (out) (a) One-shell pass and two-tube pass heat exchanger Cold fluid (out) (a)
Fig. 10.4. Cross-flow heat exchangers
Cold fluid (out) (6)
Shell fluid
Refer Fig. 10.4 (a): Hot fluid flows in the the separate tubes and there is no mixing of the fluid streams. The cold fluid is perfectly mixed as it flows through the exchanger. The temperature of this mixed fluid will be uniform across any section and will vary only in the direction of flow. Examples: The cooling unit of refrigeration system etc. Refer Fig. 10.4(b) : In this case each of the fluids follows a prescribed path and is unmixed as it flows through heat exchanger. Hence the temperature of the fluid leaving the heater section is not uniform. Examples: Automobile radiator etc. In yet another arrangement, both the fluids are mixed while they travel through the exchanger; consequently the temperature of both the fluids is uniform across the section and varies only in the direction in which flow takes place. 3. Design and constructional features On the basis of design and constructional features, the heat exchangers are classified as under: ( i ) Concentric tubes In this type, two concentric tubes are used, each carrying one of the fluids. The direction of flow may be parallel or counter as depicted in Fig. 10.2 (a) and Fig. 10.3 (a). The effectiveness of the heat exchanger is increased by using swirling flow. (ii) Shell and tube In this type of heat exchanger one of the fluids flows through a bundle of tubes enclosed by a shell. The other fluid is forced through the shell and it flows over the outside surface of the tubes. Such an arrangement is employed where reliability and heat transfer effectiveness are important. With the use of multiple tubes heat transfer rate is amply improved due to increased surface area.
I
Baffles
.Tube fluid -b
I
\
I I I
I I
*
I
\
\A
.I
,
\A/
/I
(6) Two-shell pass and four-tube pass heat exchanger

Fig. 10.5. Shell and tube heat exchangers.
(iii) Multiple shell and tube passes Multiple shell and tube passes are used for enhancing the overall heat transfer. Multiple shell pass is possible where the fluid flowing through the shell is re-routed. The shell side fluid is forced to flow back and forth across the tubes by baffles. Multiple tube pass exchangers are those which re-route the fluid through tubes in the opposite direction. (iv) Compact heat exchangers These are special purpose heat exchangers and have a very large transfer surface area per unit volume of the exchanger. They are generally employed when convective heat transfer coefficient associated with one of the fluids is much smaller than that associated with the other fluid.
534
Free Convection Assuming that there is no heat loss to the surroundings and potential and kinetic energy changes are negligible, from the energy balance in a heat exchanger, we have: ...(10.1) Heat -given up by the hot fluid, Q = mh Cph (th~- th2) ...(10.2) Heat picked up by the cold fluid, Q = mc cpc <tc2-tCl) ...(10.3) Total heat transfer rate in the heat exchanger, Q = U A 8, U = overall heat transfer coefficient between the two fluids, where A = effective heat transfer area, and 0, = appropriate mean value of temperature difference o r logrithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD).
Example : Plate-fin, flattened fin tube exchangers etc. (4) Physical state of fluids Depending upon the physical state of fluids the heat exchangers are classified~asfollows: (i) Condensers (ii) Evaporators (i) Condensers: In a condenser, the condensing fluid remains at constant temperature throughout the exchanger while the temperature of the colder fluid gradually increases from inlet to outlet. The hot fluid loses latent part of heat which is accepted by the cold fluid (Refer Fig. 10.6).
Fig. 10.6. Temperature distribution in a condenser.
Fig. 10.7. Temperature distribution in an evaporator.
(ii) Evporators: In this case, the boiling fluid (cold fluid) remains at constant temperature while the temperature of hot fluid gradually decreases from inlet to outlet. (Refer Fig. 10.7).
10.3. HEAT EXCHANGER ANALYSIS For designing or predicting the performance of a heat exchanger it is necessary that the total heat transfer may be related with its governing parameters : (i) U (overall heat transfer coefficient due to various modes of heat transfer, (ii) A total surface area of the heat transfer, and (iii) tl, t2 (the inlet and outlet fluid temperatures). Fig. 10.8 shows the overall energy balance in a heat exchanger. m mass flow rate, kgts. Let cp = specific heat of fluid at constant pressure J/kgC t = temperature of fluid, "C At = temperature drop or rise of a fluid across the heat exchanger. Heat exchanger
10.4. LOGARITHMIC MEAN TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE (LMTD) Logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD) is defined as that temperature difference which, i f constant, would give the same rate of heat transfer as actually occurs under variable conditions of temperature difference. In order to derive expression for LMTD for various types of heat exchangers, the following assumptions are made: 1. The overall heat transfer coefficient U is constant. 2. The flow conditions are steady. 3. The specific heats and mass flow rates of both fluids are constant. 4. There is no loss of heat to the surroundings, due to the heat exchanger being perfectly insulated. 5. There is no change of phase either of the fluid during the heat transfer. 6. The changes in potential and kinetic energies are negligible. 7. Axial conduction along the tubes of the heat exchanger is negligible. 10.4.l.Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference for "Parallel Flow" Refer Fig. 10.9, which shows the flow arrangement and distribution of temperature in a single-pass parallel flow heat exchanger. Let us consider an elementary area dA of the heat exchanger. The rate of flow of heat through this elementary area is given by dQ = UdA (th - tc) = u . d A . A t As a result of heat transfer dQ through the area dA, the hot fluid is cooled by dh whereas the cold fluid is heated up by dtc. The energy balance over a differential area dA may be written as ...(10.4) dQ = - mh Cph . dth = hc Cpc . dtc = U .dA . (th - tc)
(Here dth is -ve and dtc is +ve)
Hot fluid , Q
Heat transfer area Fig. 10.8. Overall energy balance in a heat exchanger. Subscripts h and c refer to the hot and cold fluids respectively; subscripts band 2 correspond to the inlet and outlet conditions respectively.
and where
dQ = dQ dtc = ; . , cpc c c Ch L ith cph = heat capacity or water equivalent of hot fluid, and
Cc = riz, cpC= heat capacity or water equivalent of cold fluid.
?ithand in, are the mass flow rates of fluids and cph and cp, are the respective specific horlr.
Free Convection
...[10.7 (a)]
/---+
Annulus surrounding the pipe
...[10.7 (b)]
-- -Hot 4 4 Cold
(a)Flow arrangement
----+
I I Cold
---+
Pipe ---+ /
K
Substituting the values of
1 1 and - into Eqn. (10.6), we get

Ch
c c
The above equation may be written as Q = UA8,
8, is called the logarithmic mean temperature differencr (LMTD).

10.4.2. Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference for "Counter-flow" Refer Fig. 10.10, which shows the flow arrangement and temperature distribution in a single-pass counter-flow heat exchanger. Annulus surrounding the pipe I I Pipe t t Cold t
Area -+ (b)Temperature distribution
Subscri~tsh. c refer to : hot and cold fluids ~ubscriDt1. .2 refer to : inlet and outlet conditions. Fig. 10.9. ~alculaGon bf LMTD for a parallel flow heat exchanger. Substituting the value of dQ from Eqn. (10.4) the above equation becomes
-- -/Hot Cold
(a) Flow arrangement
I
I
Integrating between inlet and outlet conditions (i.e. from A = 0 to A = A), we get
Now, the total heat transfer rate between the two fluids is given by Q = ch (thl - th2) = Cc (tc2 - tcl)
Area -+ (b)Temperature distribution
538
Free Convection
Let us consider an elementary area dA of the heat exchanger. The rate of flow of heat through this elementary area is given by ...(10.11) dQ = U . d A (th- tc) = U.dA.At In this case also, due to heat transfer dQ through the area dA, the hot fluid is cooled down by dth whereas the cold fluid is heated by dt,. The energy balance over a differential area dA may be written as ...(10.12) dQ = - mh . Cph . dlh = - mc . cpc.dtc In a counter-flow system, the temperatures of both the fluids decrease in the direction of heat exchanger length, hence the -ve signs.
A special case arises when 0 , = e2 = 0 in case of a counter-flow heat exchanger. In such a case, we have
This value is indeterminate. The value of 8, for such a case can be found by applying L ' Hospital's rule:
and
d t c = - - =dQ -mc Cpc
dQ
c c
Inserting the value of dQ from Eqn. (10.11), we get de = - U dA (th - t,)

[ih
-- -
d i
Integrating the above equation from A = 0 to A = A, we get
Let (8J0,) = R. Therefore, the above expresion can be written as 0 ( R - 1) lim ~ - 1 1 ln(R) Differentiating the numerator and denomenator with respect to R and taking limits, we get 0 lim -8 (R* 1) (1/R) Hence when 0 , = 0, Eqn. (10.3) becomes Q=UA8 0, (LMTD) for a counter-flow unit is always greater than that for a parallel flow unit; hence counter-flow heat exchanger can transfer more heat than parallel-flow one; in other words a counter-flow heat exchanger needs a smaller heating surface for the same rate of heat transfer. For this reason, the counter-flow arrangement is usually used. When the temperature variations of the fluids are relatively small, then temperature variation curves are approximately straight lines and adequately accurate results are obtained by taking the arithmatic mean temperature dijference (AMTD).
Now, the total heat transfer rate between the-two fluids is given by Q=c h (thl - t h ~= ) Cc (tc2 'tcl)
...(10.15)
...[10.15 (a)]
However, practical considerations suggest that the logarithmic mean temperature 01 > 1.7. difference (8,) should be invariably used when 82
1 1 substituting the values of - and - into Eqn. (10.14), we get Ch c c
10.5. OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT In a heat exchanger in which two fluids are separated by a plane wall as shown in the Fig. 10.1 1 , the overall heat transfer coefficient is given by 1 U= ...( 10.18) 1 L 1 -+-+hi k ho
If the fluids are separated by a tubewall as shown in Fig. 10.12 the overall heat transfer coefficient is given by: Inner surface
Since
Q = UA8,

-
Heat ~xchangers*
543
Distilled water Treated boiler feed water Worst water used in heat exchangers Fuel oil and crude oil Industrial liquids Transformer or lubricating oil Engine exhaust and fuel gases Steam (non-oil bearing) Refrigerant liquids, brine or oil-bearing
0.0001 0.0001 - 0.0002
< 0.0002
0.0009 0.0002 0.0002 0.002 0.0001 0.0002
Table 10.2. Representative values of overall heat transfer coefficient (U)

S.No.
Fluid combination
u (w/m2~c)
850 - 1170 110 - 350 1000 - 6000 250
Water to water Water to oil Steam condensers(water in tubes) Alcohol condensers (water in tubes) Feed water heaters Air-condensers Air to various gases Air to heavy tars and liquids Air to low viscosity liquids Finned-tube heat exchanger (water in tubes, air in cross-flow)
- 700 - 780
110 - 8500 350 60 - 550
Properties to be censidered for&lectiod:of materials for heat exchaneers : Physical properties ~echanical ~operties Climatic properties Chemical environment Quality of surface finish Service life Freedom from noise Reliability. Common failures In heat exchangers : Chocking of tubes either expected or extraordinary. Excessive transfer rates in heat exchanger. Increasing the pump pressure to maintain throughout. Failure to clean tubes at regularly scheduled intervals. Excessive temperatures in heat exchangers. Lack of control of heat exchangers atmosphere to retard scaling. Increased product temperature over a safe design limit. Unexpected radiation from refractory surfaces. Unequal heating around the circumference or along the length of tubes.
As low as 45
As high as 600
25
- 50
0 1 Example 10.1. For what value of end temperature dflerencis ratio , is the arithmatic 92 mean temperature difference 5 per cent higher than the lbg-mean temperature diference? Solution: The arithmetic mean temperature difference (8) and log-mean temperature difference (0,) ratio may be written as f0, + 0,)
I
Fouling processes : 1. Precipitation or crystallization fouling. 2. Sedimentation or particulate fouling. 3. Chemical reaction fouling or polymerisation. 4. Corrosion fouling. 5. Biological fouling. 6. Freeze fouling. Parameters affecting fouling : Velocity
Temperature Water chemistry Tube material. Prevention of fouling : The following methods may be used to keep fouling minimum : 1. Design of heat exchanger. 2. Treatment of process system. 3. By using cleaning system.
It is given' that 0 is to be 5 percent higher than 0,
By hit and trial method, we get
Thus the simple arithmetic mean temperature difference gives results to within 5 percent when end temperature differences vary by no more than a factor of 2.2. Example 10.2. (a)Derive an expressionfor the effectiveness of a parallelflow heat exchanger in terms of the number of transfer units, NTU, and the capacity ratio Cmi,,/Cm,
544
'
Heat Exchangers
545
(b) h a parallel flow double-pipe heat exchanger water flows through the inner pipe and is heated from 20C to 70C. Oil flowing through the annulus is cooled from 200C to 100C. It is desired to cool the oil to a lower exit temperature by increasing the length of the heat exchanger. Determine the minimum temperature to which the oil may be cooled.
(U.P.S.C.. 1995)
Solution. (a) Refer Article 10.7. (b) Using subscripts.h and c for oil and water respectively, we have
tcl = 20C thl = 75C tcl = 20C
4
Cold water ~ owater t Cold water
4
4
tc2
4
4
44 5 ' ~(th2)
4
tc2
Let 't' be the lowest temperature to which oil may be cooled and this will be the highest temperature of water too (Refer Fig. 10.13). Hence, mhcph (200 - t ) = m,cPc (t - 20)
Areallength
Fig. 10.13
=2(t-20) 200-t=2t-40 t = 80C (Ans.) 4' Eample 10.3. The flow rates of hot and cold water streams running through a parallel flow heat exchanger are 0.2 kg/. and 0.5 kg/s respectively. The inlet temperatures on the hot and cold sides are 75C and 20C respectively. The exit temperature of hot water is 45C. If the individual heat transfer coeflcients on both sides are 650 w/m2"c, calculate the area of the heat exchanger.
(b) Temperature distribution
Fig. 10.14. Parallel flow heat exchanger.
Solution. Given: mh = 0 2 kgls; mc = 0.5 kgls; thl = 750 C ; th2= 4 5 0 ~tc, ; = 2 0 0 ~hi ; = h, = 650 w/m2'c. The area of heat exchanger, A: The heat exchanger is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 10.14. The heat transfer rate, Q = 4 cph ( - th2)
= 0.2 x 4.187 x (75 - 45) = 25.122 WS Heat lost by hot water = heat gained by cold water
mh cph (thl - th2) = me 0.2 x 4.187 X (75 - 45) = 0.5 cpc (re- - tcl) X 4.187 x (tc2- 20)
n -
Overall heat transfer coefficient U is calculated from the relation 1 1 1 U = -hi +h, ,
Also,
Q = UA9,
A=-- Q U8 ,
- 25'122
lo* = 2.65 325 x 29.12
' (Ans.)
32C Logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD) is given by
..
tC2 =
...[Eqn. (10.9)]
&xample 10.4. The following data relate to a parallel flow heat exchanger in which air is heated by hot exhaust gases. ...155450 kJ Heat transferred per hour ...120 w/rn2"c Inside heat transfer coeflcient ...195 w/rn20c Outside heat transfer coeflcient ...450C and 2.50% respectively Inlet and ouilet temperatures of the hot fluid
546
Heat Exchangers
Inlet and outlet temperatures of the cold fluid ...60C and 120C, respectively Inside and outside diameters of the tube ..SO mm and 60 mm, respectively. Calculate the length of the tube required for the necessary heat transfer to occur. Neglect the tube resistance. ~ C = 450C; ; Solution. Given : Q = 155450 kJ/h; h, = 120 w/m2'c; ho = 195 W I ~ ~ th, = 250C; tcl = 60C; tc2 = 120C; di = 50 mm = 0.05m; do = 60 mm = 0.06 m. th2 Length of each tube, L: Logarithmic mean temperature differenqe (LMTD) is given by
Heat lost by the cold fluid, Q = 0.694 x 400 (tc2 - 25) = 277.6 (tc2 - 25) Equating (i) and (ii), we have 5560 (200 - th2) = 277.6 (tc2- 25)
...(ii)
...(iii)
Also, heat transferred is given by, Q = UA8, where,
The overall heat transfer coefficient, U is given by
Here 8, = thl - tc, = 200 - 25 = 175OC; and
e2= tm - tc2
..
. U = 66.09 w / m 2 ~ c Total heat transfer rate is given by
Q = U A 8,= U x ( n d 0 L ) x 8 , Q L= - 155450 x (1000/3600) = 14.65 m (Ans.) U x 7t do x 8, 66.09 x 7t x 0.06 x 236.66 Example 10.5. A hot fluid at 2OO0C enters a heat exchanger at a mass flow rate of 10* kg/h. Its specijc heat is 2000 Jkg K. It is to be cooled by another fluid entering at 25OC with a mass flow rate 2500 kg/h and specijc heat 400 J/kg K. The overall heat transfer coejficient based on outside urea of 20 m2 is 250 w / m 2 K. Find the exit temperature of the hot fluid when the fluids are in parallel flow. (GATE, 1998)
Substituting the values in the above equati*,
"=m
th2
175- ( h 2 - tc2)
-42
we get
...(iv)
L
J
Substituting the values of tc2from (iii) in (iv),we get 175 - Itu - (4025 - 20 th2)l Q=250~20[
Solution. Given :thl = 200C; mh = lWW - 2.78 kg/s; c,,,, = 2000 J/kg K; t,, = 25OC; 3600 Exit temperature of the hot fluid, tm : Heat lost by the hot fluid, Q = mhcph (thl- th2)
t h ~=
2ooo
Equating (i) and (v), we get 175 (2 1 th, - 4025) 5560 (2W - lh2) = 5000[ 175 21 t h 2 - 4 2 5
{-
1]
Hot fluid
Using - hit and trial method, the value of th2may be found out.
th2
t,, = 25OC
I
Cold fluid
J Example 10.6. In a certain double pipe heat exchanger hot water flows at a rate of 5VW kgih and gets cooled from 95'C to 65OC. At the,same time 50000 kg/h of cooling water at 30C enters the heat exchanger. The flow conditions are such that overall heat transfer coejficient remains constant at 2270 w/m2 K. Determine the heat tmsfer area required and the effectiveness, assuming two streams an in pamllel flow. Assume for the both the s t m s cp=4.2 kJAg K. (GATE, 1997)
I
Fig. 10.15.
Solution. Given :mh = 50000 3600 - 13.89 k g / ~ ;fhl = 95OC; th2= 6SC;
Heat Exchangers
cph= cpc= 4.2 kJ/kg or 4200 J/kg K. Q = heat lost by hot water = heat gained by cold water.
Solution: Refer Fig. 10.9, for parallel flow heat exchanger. The heat flow rate through an elementary strip of area dA is ...(i) dQ = - mh cphdt,, = mc cpc dlc = -Ch dth = Cc dtc ...(ii) dQ dQ and dr, = dth = - Ch
cc
From eqns. (i) and (ii), we get
d (th - tc) = d (0) = - dQ

cold fluid
[& + -&]
...(iii)
(water)
Length ----+
Fig. 10.16. Parallel-flow heat-exchanger.

mh Cph
d~ = u.dA.0 = (a + be) dA.0 Also Integrating eqn. (iv) within limits 1 and 2, we get 91 - 92 Q= 1
...(vi)
(thl
- t h l ) = lj2c Cpc
(tc2
-t ~ l )
[G
$1
13.89 x 4200 x (95 - 65) = 13.89 x 4200 x (tc2- 30) .. tc2= 60C Log mean temperature difference,
or
LMTD, 0, = (91 - 92) In ('31/92)
1 1 =( 3 1 - 92 or -+Q Ch c c From eqns. (iv) and (v) and using eqn. (vi), we have - d0 - -de =- Q d e (a + b e ) dA.0 = 8 , -8, 02-01
...(vii)
...(viii)
[i k]
Integrating eqn. (viii) between limits 1 and 2, we get
Also, or
Q = UA9,
13.89 x 4200 x (95 65) = 2270 x A x 23.4 Heat transfer area, A = 32.95 m2 Also, Qacrual = mh~ph (thl - th2) and Qm. = mh cph (thl - tcl) : . Effectiveness of the heat exchqger,
: .
The constant a may be expressed by solving UI = a + beI and U2 = a + beZ which results in
Example 10.7. Prove that the rate of heat t r a n g r Q for a double parallel flow heat exchanger in which the overall heat trans$er coeficient varies linearly with temperature direrence i.e., U = a + be, where a and b are constants, is given by
a=
u192 - u 2 01 0, - 0 ,
ibstituting this value of a in eqn. (ix), we get
Q=
Here su&
u 1 e 2
-u 2 01
ln Wle2/U2 011 I and suffix 2 represent inlet and outlet of the heat exchanger respectively.
Q = In t(Ule2)/(U2 %)I
402
u201
... Proved.
Heat Exchangers
Example 10.8. In a counter-jlow double pipe heat exchunger, water is heated fmm 25C to 65OC by an oil with a specijic heat of 1.45 W/kg K and mars flow rate of 0.9 kgh. 73e oil is cooled from 230C to 160DC. If the overall heat tran.$er coescient is 420 W@C, calculate the following: (i) The rate of heat transfer, (ii) The mass flow rate of water, and (iii) The surjGace area of the hat exchanger. Solution. Given: tcl = 25C; tc2 = 65C. cph = 1.45 Hlkg K;mh = 0.9 kgls;
thl = 230C; th2 = 160C, LI = 420 w/m2"c. (i) The rate of heat transfer, Q: or Q = 0.9 x (1.45) x (230 - 160) = 91.35 kJ1s (ii) The mass flow rate of water, m,':
mh cph
Also,
Q=UAO, A=-- Q
U 0,,.. 420 x 149.5
- 91'35 lo3 = 1-45 m2
(Am.)
(Ans.)
Heat lost by oil (hot fluid) = heat gained by water (cold fluid)
(thl
- th2) =
91.35 =
cpc x (tc2- tcl)
~J'Example 10.9. An oil cooler for a lubrication system has to cool 1000 kg/h of oil (cp = 2.09 kJ/7cgC) from 8 P C to 4O"C by using a cooling wafer flow of 1000 kg/h at 30C. Give your choice for a parallel flow or counter-jlow heat exchanger, with reasons. Calculate the surface area of the heat exchanger, if the overall heat transfer coeflcient is 24 w/m2"c. r Take cp of water = 4.18 kJ/kgC. 1000 Solution. Given: Ah = 1000 kgls; cph = 2.09 W k g 0 ~ ; ' c = p , 4.18 WlkgC; kc = 3600 3600 kgh;
ri?, x 4.187 (65 - 25)

91'35 = 0.545 kgls 4.187~ (65-25)
m, =
(Am.)
Surface area of heat exchanger, A: I,@ subscripts h and c stand for hot and cold fluids respectively.
Since tC2> th2,counter-flow arrangement must be used.

Again,
8, =
(31
- 82
In (81/(32)
(b)Temperature distribution
Fig. 10.17. Counter-flow heat exchanger.
(iii) The surface area of heat exchanger, A: Logerithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD) is given by
Fig. 10.18.
Heat Exchangers
553
(i) When the flow is counter:

Also,
Q = UA0,
In this
I
Om = 01 - 02 In W 0 2 )
0, =
= O2 = 100C
I
Example 10.10. Show that in a double-pipe counter flow heat exchanger if &,ch = 4 c , the temperature projiles of the two fluids along its length are parallel straight lines. Solution. For heat exchanger, dQ = - mh ch dth= mc c, dtc
= - Ch dt, =
nr
t,
= 80C
th, = 130C
t,, = 30C
(GATE, 1996)
tc2= 80C
ccdt,
where ih,, = mass flow rate of hot fluid, and
I
(a) Counter-flow
'cl
= 30C
I
(b) Parallel flow
m, = mass flow rate of cold fluid. Due to heat exchanger, temperature of hot fluid decreases by dth and that of cold fluid increases by dt,.
d Also, C, = heat capacity of cold fluid, E
Fig. 10.20.
The heat transfer rate is given by Q = UA0, mCx cpC x (tc2- tcl) = U A Om or or or
Length
and
F
Ch = heat capacity of hot fluid.
or
2.917 x 4.187 x (80 - 30) = 814 x A x 100 2.917 x 4.187 x lo3 (80 - 30) = A = 814 x 100'
m2
mhch = mc cC Ch = cc
...(Given)
In counter-jlow system, temperature of both the fluids decrease in the direction of heat exchanger length, therefore
Fig. 10.19.
dt,, = - dQ and dtc= -dQ c c Ch dth-dtc=dO=-dQ --L
Again, or
I d , 'd,l
Q = UA0, 2.917 x (4.187 x lo3) x (80 - 30) = 814 x A x 91 2.917 x (4.187 x lo3)x (80 - 30) = 8.24 A = 814 x 91
m2
-1
d0 = 0 or 0 = constant. Thus, both the straight lines showing the variation of temperatures along the length are parallel lines. Proved J' Example 10.11. A counter-jlow double [email protected] exchanger using superheated steam is used to heat water at the rate of 10500 kgh. T k steam enters the hear exchanger at 180C and lehves at 13O0C The inlet and exit temperatures of water are 30C and 80C respectively. I f overall heat transfer coeficient from steam to water is 814 w/mZ0c, calculate the heat transfer area. f the fluid flows were parallel? What would be the increase in area i
Since Ch= Cc,
: .
7 S = 0.0987 or 9.87% (Ans.) Increase in area = 8.24 , , 1. . I
...
Example 10.12. A counter-flow heat exchanger, through which passes 12.5 kg/. of air to be cooled from 540C to 146OC, contains 4200 tube, %dch having a diameter of 30 mm. The inlet and outlet temperatures of cooling water are 25OC and 75OC respectively. I f the water side resistance to flow is negligible, calculate the tube lehgNt required for this duty. 0.8 p 4 For turbulent flow inside tubes : Nu = 0.023 Re P Properties of the air at the average temperature are as follows: p = 1.009 kg/m3; cp = 1.0082 kJ/kgC; p = 2.075 x I @ kg/ms (lVs/m2)and k = 3.003 x 1 r 2 W/mC. Solution. Given : A, = 12.5 kgls, thl = 540C; th2= 146OC; tC1 = 25OC; t, = 7SC; N = 4200.
554
Heat Exchangers
Tube length, L:
Reynolds number, Mass flow
Re =
f ? L ! . !
P
m = NAVp, therefore,
..
fhl
mh x cph X (thl- th2) = mc Cpc (tc2 - t c l ) 22.5 x 1 x (650 -th2) = 13.33 x 2.71 x (350 - 180) th2 = 377C =650T
4
+
Gas Steam Gas
4
t
4 4
th2 (= 377OC)
tc2= 3S0C t
th, = 6s0C
+ tcl (= 180C)
thl (= 377Q
4
I
C3
Prandtl number, Pr = P c = 2.075 x 10" x 1.0082 x lo3 = 0.6966 k 3.003 x lo-2 h d = 0.023 Nusselt number, Nu = k
Since the water side resistance to flow is negligible I or u = 21.22 w / ~ ~ ~ U - h - 21.22 Logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD) is given by
..
I - - I- -
c
I Area ---b (b) Temperature distribution
Fig. 10.21. I Counter-flow heat exchanger.
em =
01 -82 In (el/@,)
Overall heat transfer doeffici{nt is given by Further, the rate of heat transfer, Q = mh x cphx (th2-thl) = UA ...(g iven)
em= U x(Nn d L ) X%
Total heat transfer rate is given by Q = UA8, where A =Nx(~dL)=Nxnx0.03x3=0.2827~m~
12.5 x (1.0082 x lo3)x (540 - 146) = 2.31 m (Ans.) Ux N n d x 8 , 21.22 x 4200 x n x 0.03 x 255.5 J Example 10.13. Steam enters a cowter-flow heat exchanger, dry saturated at 10 bar and leaves at 350C. The man flow of steam is 800 kg/min. The gas enters Ske heat exchanger at " 650C and mass flow rate is 1350 kgimin. If the tubes are 30 mm diameter and 3 m long, determine the number of tubes required. Neglect the resistance offered by metallic tubes. Use the following data : For steam :t,,, = 18O0C (at 10 bar); cps = 2.71 W/kgC; hs = 600 w/m2O For gas :cpg = 1 kJ/kgC; h, = 250 w/m2Oc. (P.U) 800 1350 Solution. Given: 4 = mc = -= 13.33 kg/s; ritp t & , = thl = 650C; 60 60 - 22.5 k g / ~ ; tcl (= tsar) = 180C; tc2= 350C; d = 30 mm = 0.03 m; L = 3 m. Number of tubes required, N: Heat lost by gases = heat gained by steam L=
A h X Cph ( 4 2
- th,) -
Substituting the values in e4n. (i), we get 6142.5 x lo3 = 176.5 x 0.2827 N x 244.9
N =
6142'5 = 503 tubes (Am.) 176.5 x 0.2827 x 244.9
556
eat
Exchangers
Example 10.14. In a shell and tube counter-jlow heat exchanger waterflows through a copper tube 20 mm I.D. (internal diamet8i-) and 23 mm O.D. (outer diameter), while oil flows through the shell. Water enters at 20C and comes out at 30"C, while oil enters at 75C and comes out at 60C. The water and oil side jilm coeflcients are 4500 and I250 w/m2"c respectively. 'The thermal conductivity of the tube wall is 355 W/mC. 7Xe fouling factors on the water and oil sides may be taken to be 0.0004 and 0.001 respectively. If the length of the tube is 2.4 m, calculate the following: (i) The overall heat transfer coeflcient; (ii) The heat transfer rate. Solution. Given : di = 20 mm = 0.02 m; do = 23 mm = 0.023 m; tcl = 20C; tc2 = 30C;
thl = 75C; th2 = 60C, hi = 4500 W/m20C;ho= 1250 W/m2"C; k = 355 W/mC; Rfi = 0.0004; Rfo = 0.001; L = 2.4 m (i) The overall heat transfer coefficient, U,: The overall heat transfer coefficient based on outer surface of inner pipe is given by, 1 ro 1 ro '0 =-X-+-R, +-In (rdri) + R f o i - -1 Uo ri hi ri f k h~ ...[Eqn. (10.28)] (Rf stands for fouling factor)
Date given : Nu = 0.023 ( ~ e ) ' (. ~ r ) ' . ~ Fouling factor, water side = 0.0005 m2 K / W Fouling factor, oil side = 0.0008 m2 K / W Water and oil properties : Property
P (kg/m3)
~p
O i l
850 1.89 0.138 7.44 x 1 0 - ~
Water
995 4.187 0.615 4.18xlo-'
( k J h g K)
k (W/m K) v (m2/s)
(U.P.S.C., 1998)
Solution. Given : Inner dia. of the copper tube (di)= 16 m m = 0.016 m;
Outer dia. of the copper tube (do),= 19 m m = 0.019 m; Inner dia. of the steel tube, (di)$ = 26 mm = 0.026 m; Outer dia. of the steel tube,
(do),= 30 m m = 0.03 m;
tcl = 30C; 1 . u, = 0.00252 = 396.8 w / m 2 ~ c thl = 7 5 ' ~ (ii) The heat transfer rate, Q: Area, A, = n d o L = n x 0.023 x 2.4 tc2= 30C = 0.1734 m2 Logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD) is given by,
fhl
= 65C; th2= 50C
ic =4 ~ ( 0 . 0 1 6x )~ 1.48 x 995 = 0 796 k g s ; mh = 0.4 kg/s
t,z
(32
fluid (waer)
Area ---b
F i g .10.22.
(4
Length of the tube, L : The rate of heat transfer is given by, Q = mh Cph (thl - fh2) = k cpc (tc2 - tcl) 0.4 x 1.89 (65 - 50) = 0.296 X 4.187 (tc2- 30)
(b)
Fig. 10.23. Counter-flow double pipe heat exchanger.
The heat transfer rate is given by
Q = u04e, or = 396.8' x 0.1734 x 42.15 = 2900 W (Ans.) Example 10.15. In a counter-flow double pipe heat exchanger waterflows through a copper tube (19 mm O.D. and I6 mm I.D.), at a flow rate of 1.48 m/s. The oil flows through the annulus formed by inner copper tube and outer steel tube (30 mm O.D. and 26 mm I.D.). The steel ttrbe is insulated from outside. The oil enters at 0.4 kg/s and is cooled from 65C to 500C whereas water enters at 32OC. Neglecting the copper tube wall thermal resistance, calculate the length of the tube required.
Also, Q=0.4~ 1 . 8 9 ~ ( 6 5 - 5 0 ) =11.34kW Reynolds number for the flow of water through copper tube, Re=-= 4 m 4 x 0.296 = 56826 n(di),p n x 0 . 0 1 6 x ( 9 9 5 x 4 1 8 x 10-3
' i
(*:
P=Q.V)
Now,
Nu = 0.023 (~e)'.' ( ~ r ) ' . ~
...(G h a )
Heat Exchangers
(Since, Pr = w and water is heated) k
The heat transfer rate is given by, Q = Ua,em = 42.43 x (n x 0.019 x L) = 20.86
Now oil flows through annulus diameter, therefore hydraulic diameter,
Dh=(di),-(do),=0.026-0.019=0.007 m Reynolds number through the annulus,
*/ Example 10.16. A counter-flow, concentric tube heat exchanger is used to cool the lubricating oil for a large industrial gas turbine engine. The flow rate of cooling water through the inner tube (d, = 20 mm) is 0.18 kg/s, while theflow rate of oil through the outer annulus ld, = 40 mm) is 0.12 kg/s. The inlet and outlet temperatures of oil are 95OC and 65C respectively. The water enters at 30C to the exchanger. Neglecting tube wall thermal resistance, fouling factors and heat loss to the surroundings, calculate the length of the tube. Take the following properties at the bulk mean tempeature: Engine oil at 80C : c, = 2131 J/kgC; )I = 0.0325 ~ s / m ' ;k = 0.138 W/mC: Water at 35OC : c, = 41 74 J/kgC, p = 725 x I@ ~ s / m ' ;k = 0.625 W/mC, Pr = 4.85 Solution: Given: di = 20 mm = 0.02 m; do = 40 mm = 0.04 m, m, = m, = 0.18 kg/s;
1790 Since Re c 2500, hence annulus flow is laminar. Heat transfer coefficient at the inner surface of the annulus,
NU--- h" Dh - 0.023 (~e)'.' ( ~ r ) ' , ~
m,, = mh = 0.12 kg/s;
tll,
= 95OC, th2 = 65OC; t,, = 30C.
Annulus
Overall heat transfer coefficient referred to outer diameter of inner tube is given by :
t,,, = 65C
(Rf stands for fouling factor)

r,, = 30C
0.002203 + 0.000594 + 0.005309 0.0008 + 0.01466
Fig. 10.24. The counter-flow, concentric tube heal exchanger.
= 42.43 w/m2 K
Logarithmic mean temperature difference is given by,
Length of the tube, L: The rate of heat transfer is given by,
560
Heat Exchangers
,/ Example 10.17. Thefollowing data pertain to an oil cooler of the form of thl = 803C tubular heat exchanger, where oil is cooled by a large pool of stagnant -.-- water: -Temperature of stagnant water = 20C (assumed constant), Inlet and outlet temperatures of oil = 80C and 30C respectively, Inside diameter and length of the tube carrying oil = 20 mm and 30 m, respectively,
*
LMTD is given by,
th2= 3 O 0 c
Cold fluid (water)
The overall heat transfer coefficient U is given by the relation
..(i)
Reynolds number for flow of water through the tube is
Fig. 10.25
Since the flow is turbulent, hence
Specific heat and specific gravity of oil = 2.5 W/kgC and 0.85 respectively, Average velocity of oil = 0.55 ids. Calculate the overall heat transfer coeflcient obtainable from thk system. Solution. Given : tcl = tC2= 20C; thl = 80C; th2 = 30C; d = 20 mm = 0.02 m; L = 30 m; cph = 2.5 kJ/kgC; sp.gr = 0.85; V = 0.55 d s . Overall heat transfer coefficient, Ui : The mass flow rate of hot fluid (oil),
= 3088.7 w / m 2 O C The oil flows through the annulus, hence the hydraulic diameter Dh = do - di = 0.02 m Reynolds number through the annulus is Re = p.umDe - P(do-di) P CL 4 h,
7[: (d,
Heat lost by the hot fluid, Q = hhCph (thl- th2)= 0.1468 x (2.5 x LO') x (80 - 30) = 18350 w
LMTD is given by,
mh
4 (d,2 - dl2)P
4 x0.12
= 78.35 0.0325 Since Re c 2300, hence the annular flow is laminar. Assuming uniform temperatun along the inner surface of the annulus the heat transfer coefficient at the inner surface of the annulus, is
Re =
+ d,) y
x (0.04
+ 0.02) x
The heat transfer rate is given by Q = Ui Ai 0, = Ui ( X di L) 0, 18350 = Uix x x 0.02 x 30 x 27.9
...[Eqn. 7.1O8)]
Substituting the values in eqn. (i), we get
..
Also,
u=-- I
0.0399
- 25.06 w/m2'c
/&ample 10.18. R e velocity of water flowing through a tube of 22 mm diameter is 2 m/sS Steam condensing at 150C on the outside su$ace of the tube heats the warerfrom 15C to 6 0 C over the length of the tube. Neglecting the tube and steam sidefilm resistance, calculate the following: (i) The heat transfer coeficient, and (ii) The length of the tube. Take the following properties of water at mean temperature :
p = 990 kg/m3; c,, = 4.2 kJ/kgC, k = 0.5418 W/mC; p = 700 x 106 kg/ms.
(Pm
Q = hh Cph ( f h l - fh2) = UA 8 , = u x (7[: di L) x 8 , 0.12 x 2131 x (95-65) = 25.06 x 7[: x 0.02 x L x 44.2
0.12 X 2131 (95 -65) L = 25.06 x ~r: x 0.02 x 44.2 = 110.23 m (Ans.)
Solution. Given: d = 22 mm = 0.022 m; V = 2 d s , thl = th2= 150C; tcl = 15OC; tC2= 60.C.
(i) The heat transfer coefficient, h :
562
Heat Exchangers
steam = 62228
rd=22mm
(ii) AMTD =
+
-+
Water -+
(100 - 30) + (100 - 70) --70 + 30 - 500C 2 - 2
Hot fluid (steam)
(i)Parallel-flow
Fig. 10.27.
(ii)Counter-flow
(ii) The length o f the tube, L:
The mass flow rate (water),
Fig. 10.26
Example 10.20. The amount of F12used in compression refrigeration system is 4 tonnesntour. The brine, flowing at 850 kg/min. with inlet temperature of 12C is cooled in the evaporator. Assuming F12 entering and leaving the evaporator as saturated liquid and saturated vapour respectively, determine the area of evaporator required. Take the following properties : For FI2: Saturation temperature :- 23C; cp= 1.1 7 kJ/kdC; hfg= 167.4 kJ/kg (AMIE Summer, 2000) c, (brine)= 6.3 kJ/kgC; U = 8368 kJ/m2hoc. Solution. Making energy balance, we have
Heat gained by water passing through the tube,

(tcz-tc1) = 0.753 x (4.2 x lo3) x (60 - 15) = 142317 W Q is also given by, Q = U A en,
=
X
mc X Cpc
....( i )
Substituting the values in eqn. (i), we get 142317 = 6771.7 x ( X X 0.022 x L) x 1 1 1 (Here, U = h) or L = 2.74 m (Ans.) Example 10.19. Saturated steam at 100C is condensing on the shell side of a shell-and-tube heat exchanger. The cooling water enters the tube at 30C and leaves at 70C. Calculate the mean temperature d~fferenceif arrangement is (i) parallel flow, (ii) counter flow.
(AMIE, Winter, 1997) Solution. The mean temperature difference will be the same for parallel flow or counter flow arrangements as is evident from the diagrams (Fig. 10.27) of temperature variations in both the arrangements. The mean temperature difference may be logarithmic mean (LMTD),or arithmetic mean temperature difference (AMTD). ( i ) LMTD = (100 - 30) - (100 - 70) =-- 40 (100 - 30) ln($) $00-7011
- 23C
.
w
41= 4 2
I I 1
Cold fluid (F,,)

Fig. 10.28.
I
I
I
: .
Exit temperature of brine, th2= 12 - 850 11160 x 6.3 ,9.90c

=
- 4 7 f l o c (Ans.)
LO^ mean temperature, 9,
01 - 92 - (thl tcl) - (th2 - tcd In ( e 1 / e 2 ) Ithl In -
eat Exchangers
kc = ( -4d ? x V X p) x Np Np = number o f tubes in each pass (N = p x Np)
60 = 7 x (0.021)~x 2 x 1000 x Np
Now,
Q = UAem
(where A = area o f evaporator)
where
60 = 2 . 3 5 7 I$ (Ans.) 8368 x 33.94 : ' Example 1 0 . 2 1 . A heat exchanger is to be designed to condense an organic vapour at a rate of 500 kg/min which is available at its saturation temperature 355 K. Cooling water at 286 K is available at a flow rate of 60 kg/s. The overall heat transfer coeficient is fhl = th2= tmt.= 82C 475 w/m2'c. Latent heat of condensation Hot fluid (vapour) of the organic vapour is 600 W . g . Calculate: tc2 (= ?I (i) The number of tubes required, if25 mm outer diameter, 2mm thick and 4.87 m long tubes are available, and 'c' (ii) The number of tube passes, if the cooling water velocity (tube (= 130C) side) should not exceed 2 m.4. (M.U.) Fig. 10.29
A=
N 470 Number of passes, p = - = -= 4.91 = 5 (Ans.) N, 95.5

Example 1 0 . 2 2 . (a) A steam condenser consists of 3000 brass tubes of 20 mm diameter. Cooling water enters the tubes at 20C with a mean pow rate of 3000 kgh. The heat transfer coescient on the inner sugace is 11270 w/m2'c, and that for condensation on the outer sutjize is 15500 w/m2 OC. The steam condenses at 50C, and the condenser load is 230 MW. The latent heat of steam is 2380 kJ/kg. Assuming counter flow arrangement, calculate the tube length per pass if two tube passes are used. (b) Explain why in steam condensers the LMTD is independent of flow arrangement ? (AMIE Summer, 1999) Solution. (a) Given :Np = 3000 per pass; d = 20 rnm = 0.02 m; tcl = 20C; mc = 3000 kgls; h, = 11270w / m 2 OC; ho = 15500 w / m 2 "C, thl = th2= 50C; condenser load = 230 MW (or 230 x lo3 kW); hfg= 2380 kJ/kg; number o f passes = 2. Tube length per pass, L : Assuming the tubes to be thin, the overall heat transfer coefficient : 1 ,yo=-- 1 1 1 1 -++- 1 hi h, 11270 15500
= 6525.4 w/m2'c
F h
Solution. Given : do = 25 mm = 0.025 m; di = 25 - 2 x 2 = 21 mm = 0.021 m; L = 4.87 m; tcl = 286 - 273 = 13OC, thl = th2 = t o , = 355 - 273 = 82OC; v = 475 w / m O c , 500 hfg(organicvapour) = 600 kl/kg, = mh = 60 - 8.33 kg/s; m, = rit, = 60 kg/s.
v=2
t,,, = th2= 50C
Steam
m,
(i) The number of tubes required, N : Heat lost by vapour = heat gained by water
Heat exchanger load

=
t,, (= 20C)
mc cpc(tc2- tcl)
230 x lo3= 3000 x 4.187 (tc2- 20)
Fig. .10.30
Logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD) is given by
i.e.,
Water outlet temperature, tc2= 38.31C Log-mean temperature difference,
: .
Heat transfer rate is given by,
..
Q = m h x h f g= v A e m = v ( 7 t d o L N ) x 8, 8.33 x 600 x lo3 = 475 x ( 7t x 0.025 x 4.87 x N) x 58.5 N = 470 tubes (Ans.)
In
(ii) The number of tube passes, v : . The cold water flow mass passing through each pass (assume p are number of passes) is given by,
150 - 38.311
Now,
Q = VJ9m
230 x lo6 = 6525.4 x (ndL) x (2N,,) x 19.43
566
Heat Exchangers
230x lo6 L= = 4.812 m (Ans.) 6525.4 x n x 0.02 x (2 x 3000) x 19.43 (b) In steam condensers, the temperature o f hot fluid (steam) is the same at inlet and exit. Hence the terminal temperaturedifferencewould not depend upon the arrangement. The effectiveness of heat exchanger for all the arrangements in this case (the heat capacity ratio for condensation being zero) would be
E
760-660 x 1.0133 = 0.133 bar = 760 The properties of steam at p, = 0.133 bar, from steam table, are: tsar= 51C; hh = 2592 kJkg . tc2 = 51 - 4 = 47OC
Ps
The steam condensed per minute,
= 1 - e-NTU
The temperature variations for parallel-flow and counter-flow are as shown in Fig. 10.31 and Fig. 10.32 respectively.
.Steam
r
(i) Mass of cooling water circulated per minute, m, (= m,): Heat lost by steam = heat gained by water mh x ( X . hfg)= mc X cpcX (tc2 - tC,) 1250 x (0.9 x 2592) = m, x 4.187 (47 - 24) mc (= m,) = 30280 kglmin (Ans.) (ii) Condenser surface area, A : ms x (x . hfR) = UA9, '= 60
..
...(i)
Fig. 10.31. Parallel-flow.
Fig. 10.32. Counter-flow.
where
Example 10.23. A two-pass sudace Steam in (x = 0.9) condenser is required to handle the exhaust from a turbine developing 15 MW with Tho-pass surface specijic steam consumption of 5 kg/kWh. The condenser vacuum is 660 mm of Hg when the barometer reads 760 mm of Hg. The mean velocity of water is 3 d s , water inlet temperature is 24C. The condensate is saturated water and outlet temperature of cooling water is 4OC less than the Water \ condensate temperature. The quality of exhaust steam is 0.9 dry. The overall heat Condensate out transfer coeflcient based on outer area of tubes is 4000 w/m2"c. The water tubes are 38.4 mm in outer diameter and 29.6 mm in inner diameter. Calculate the following: (i) Mass of cooling water circulated in kg/min, (ii) Condenser sur$ace area, Fig. 10.33. A two-pass surface condenser. (iii) Number of tubes required per pass, and (iv) Tube length. (P.U Solution. Given : di = 29.6 mm = 0.0296 m ; do = 38.4 m m = 0.0384 m; U = 4000 w/m2"c; V = 3 mls; tc, = 24C; x (dryness fraction) = 0.9. The pressure o f the steam in the condenser,
1250 60 x (0.9 x 2592 x
lo3) = 4000 x A x 12.04 (Ans.)
or A = 1009.1 m2 (iii) Number of tubes required per pass, N, :
30280 x 4 = 244.46 say 245 (Ans.) Np = 60 x n x (0.0296)~ x 3 x 1000 ( Total number o f tubes required, N = 2Np = 2 x 245 = 490) (iv) Tube length, L: A = (n do L) x (2Np) 1009.1 = n x 0.0384 x L x (2 x 245) 1009.1 =. 17.1 m (Ans.) L= n x 0.0384 x 2 x 245 Example 10.24. A feed water heater which supplies hot water to a boiler comprisr 8 ahd and tube heat exchanger with one-shell pass and two-tube passes. One hundred t h i n - ~ l l dCW d each of 20 mm diameter and length of 2m per pass are used. Under normal operating water enters the tubes at 10 kg/s and 17C and is heated by condensing saturated s 1l a on the outer sudace of the tubes. The convection coeflcient of the saturated steam is 1 0k
%8
Heat Exchangers
Determine the water exit temperature. Use the following properties of water: c,, = 4.18 kJ/kgC; p = 0.596 x lod3 N S / ~k ~ =. 0.635 W/mC and Pr = 3.93. Solution. Given : p (number of Steam in tube passes) = 2, N (total number of tubes) = 200,d = 20 mm = 0.02 m; L (length per pass) = 2m, m, = riz, = 10 kg/s, tcl = 17OC; Water Water exit temperature, tc2: 4 [where V = velocity of water; N, = N = number of tubes per pass = P
AMTD =
9 , + 02 - 83 + (100 - tc2) 2 = 91.5 2 -
(M.U.)
The heat transfer rate is given by Q = m, c, (t, - tcl)= U A, (AMTD) = U x (n d L x N ) (AMTD) or (where A, = surface area of all the tubes in both passes) 10 x (4.18 x lo3) (t, - 17) = 1607.7 x ( n x 0.02 x 2 x 200) x (91.5 - 0.5 t,) 41800 (tc2- 17) = 40406 (91.5 - 0.5 t,)
. n mc=-d2xvxpx~,
or
40406 (91.5 - 0.5 tc2 ) = 0.966 (91.5 - 0.5 t,) tc2- 17 = 41800 = 88.39 - 0.483 tc2
in
Condensate out n or 10 = - ~ 0 . 0 2 ~vxx 10OOx 100 4 thl = th2= fsat = loo"c 2 10x4 Hot fluid (steam) v = 82 n x 0.02~ x 1000 x 100 T tc2= ? = 0.318 m/s Using non-dimensional heat transfer equation to water side, we t,, = 17C get -. hi d Nlc = - = 0.023 (Re)'.' ( ~ r ) ' , ~ ~ k Fig. 10.34. One-shell pass and two-tube passes condenser.
: .
t,, = 71C (Ans.) or Example 10.25. A one ton window airconditioner removes 3.5 W/s from a room and in the process rejects 4.2 U/s in the air cooled condenser. The ambient temperature is 30C whereas condensing temperature of the refrigerant is 4PC. For the condenser the product of overall heat transfer coe8cient and corresponding area is 350 W/K.Calculate the temperature rise of the (M.U., Winter, 1998) air as it jlows over the condenser tubes. Solution. Given :tcl = 30C; thl = th2= 45C; UA = 350 W/K.
Temperature rise of air, tc2: The arrangement and temperature distribution are shown in Fig. 10.35.
Condenser
4.2 kJ/s
refrigerant in
3.5 kJ/s

h, = 0'635 x 0.023 (10671)'~~3.93)'~~~ = 1915 w/m2'c 0.02 The overall heat transfer coefficient is given by the relation,
(a)Arrangement
Fig. 10.35.
Heat lost by the refrigerant in condenser = heat trankferred to air 91 - 92 4.2 x lo00 = UA9, = UA In (01/02)
Further,
91=tl,l-tcl=100-17=830C
: .
e2 = tIl2-tc2= 100 - tc2

Arithmatic mean temperature difference,
Heat Exchangers
Substituting the values in eqn. (2),we get Using trial and error method, we get, tn = 35C
: . Temperature rise of air = 35 - 30 = SC (Ans.) Example 10.26. A rectangular tube, 30 mm x 50 mm, carries water at a rate of 2 kg/s. Determine the length required to heat water from 30C to 50C if the wall temperature is maintained at 90C. Use the following properties of water at 40C: p = 992.2 kg/m3; k = 0.634 W/mC; C, = 4.174 kJ/kgC; / . k = 6.531 X Ns/m2. (P.U.) 61= 3O0c Solution: Given: h, = rit, = 2 kgts; tcl = 30C; tc2 = 50C; thl = th2 = 90C. Length required, L: Fig. 10.36.
Heat gained by cold fluid (water),
Q = m c x C,c X (t,2 - t,l) = 2 x (4.174 x lo3) x (50 - 30) = 166960 W

The heat transfer Q is also given by Q = UAe, where 8, = 01- 92 In (8,/82)
Now, putting the values-in eqn. (I), we have (where A = surface area) Q = UA8, = hA8, 166960 = 5082.4 x [2(0.03 + 0.05) x L] x 49.3 or L = 4.16 m (Ans.) Example 10.27. Carbon dioxide (C02) for a gas cooled reactor is used to generate steam. A flow rate of 90000 k g h of C 0 2 at 4 bar enters the tubes of a shell and tube type steam generator at 500C. The C 0 2 leaves the generator at 330C and steam saturation temperature is 250C. Assume that the steam formed is dry and satwated. Using 25 mm inner diameter (I.D.) copper tubes, 2 mm wall thickness and designed for C 0 2 mass flow rate of 350000 kg/m2h, calculate the length and number of tubes to be used neglecting steam side thermal resistance. Take the following properties of C02: c,, = 1.1 72 kJ/kgC; p = 0.0000298 Ns/m2: k = 0.043 W/mC; p = 3.26 kg/m3. (P.U.) Take k (for copper) = 384 W/mC.
Water in (cold fluid)
- (90 - 30) - (90 - 50) - In [(go - 30)/(90 - 50)]

C 0 2 (hot fluid) in (t,, = 5 0 0 ' ~ ) Steam out (tc2= 250C) C 0 2 out (th2= 3 3 0 ' ~ )
The heat transfer coefficient 7; (=U is this case) is given by
4Ac - 4 X (0003 X 0.05) where de (equivalent diameter) = p 2 (0.03 + 0.05) (A, = cross-sectional area, and P = perimeter)
- 0.0375
P VLC Reynolds number, Re = , where V is the velocity of water flowing through the tube.
CL
m, (= m,) = A,. V.p 2 = (0.03 x 0.05) x V x 992.2

n
Cold fluid (steam)
Fig. 10.37. Gas cooled reactor.
Solution: Given: mCC2=

di = 25 mm = 0.025
m h = 3 6 0 0 = 25 kgls; t,, = 500C; t, m; do = 25 + 2 x 2 = 29 mm = 0.029 m.
90000
= 330C, t,, = rc2= 250C
572
Heat and Mass Transfer Heat Exchangers
Number of tubes (N)and length of each tube (L): Considering the flow of C02 through tubes : Mass flow, m = A.V.p (where V is the velocity of CO, in the tubes). m G = - (mass flow per unit area per unit time) A
Again,
..
G = ~ v =350000 (given) 3600 : . p = 3.26 kg/m3 ...given) v=- 350000 x 1 = 29.82 d s ( 3600 3.26 The mass flow rate of CO, through the tubes is given by
P Vd - G.d Reynolds number, Re = P P (where G is in kg/m2.s and p in ~ s l m ~ )
(where N, number of tubes)
or Now
I
Prandtl number Nusselt number,
P r = PC A = 0.0000298 x (1.172 x 1000) = 0.812 k 0.043

N U = -hi - di
N = 523.89 say 524 (Am.) Ai = (x diL) x N 106.06 = x x 0.025 x L x 524

L=
- 0.023 (Re)'.'
(PI)'."
x x 0.025 x 524
106'06
2.58 m
(Am.)
= 3 13.76 w/m2 "C . The temperature distribution during the flow is shown in Fig. 10.37. It is assumed that the water enters into the boiler at saturated condition and comes out as saturated steam, so the temperature during the generation of steam remains constant at 250C. The logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD) is given by
Further,
Q = m, x cpl,x
- t,,2)
= 25 x (1.172 x lo3) (500 - 330) = 4.981 x lo6 W Negletcting the steam side thermal resistance, we can write
Example 10.28. The tubes (k = 106 I4'/m0C) of a single pass condenser are of 30 mm outside diameter and 25 mm inside diameter. The condenser is required to handle 20000 k g h of dry and saturated steam at 50C. The inlet and outlet temperatures of water are 15C and 25C respectively. If the average velocity of water in each tube is 2.5 m/s and steam side plm heat transfer coeficient is 5150 w/m2"c, calculate the outside tube area. The properties of water at mean temperature are given as under: p = 998.2 kg/m3, c,, = 4.182 W/kg K: p = 1004.5 x lod ~ s / m ' ;v = 1.006 x 1od m2/s; and k = 0.598 W/mC. The latent heat (hh) at 50C = 2374 W/kg. For turbulent flow inside tubes: Nu = 0.023 Rea8 ~ 9 . ~ . Solution. Given : k = 106 W/mC; do = 30 mm = 0.03 m; di = 25 mm = 0.025 m; m, = 20000 kglh; h, = 5150 w / ~ ~ " cV ; = 2.5 d s . Outside tube area, A: V di 2.5 X 0.025 = 62127 Reynolds number, Re=-- v 1.006 x lom6 4
Prandlt number,
1 - 1 -
u;- %
+-kc,,,' i
In (ro 1 r, )
...[Eqn. (10.27)]
Nusselt number, Nu =
hw di - 0.023 Re0.' k
= 0.023 x (62127)O.~ x (7.02)'.~ = 282
or
u.= 0.003 177 = 314.76 w/m2 "C
The overall heat transfer coefficient is given by
Also, Q = U;A, 8 , : . 4.981 x lo6 = 314.76 x A; x 149.2
h, = heat transfer coefficient on the water side, and h, = heat transfer coefficient on the steam side. Substituting the values, we get
where
574
Heat Exchangers
AMTD (arithmatic mean temperature difference)= (50 - 15) + (50 - 25) = 300c Heat transfer rate is given by,
Ui is given by .(2) [Eqn. (10.27)l
Q = UA (AMTD) m, hh = UA (AMTD)
where hi, ho= inside and outside heat transfer coefficients respectively, and Rfi = inside thermal resistance due to fouling. In order to find out hi we shall use the following relation: h. d. (~r)'.~~ Nu = k = 0.023
Example 10.29. A single pass shell and tube heat exchanger, consisting of a bundle of 100 tubes (inner diameter = 25 mm and outer diameter = 29 mm) is used for heating 500 kg/min of water from 30C to 70C with the help of steam condensing at atmospheric pressure on the shell rhl = rh2 = 100C side. Calculate the overall heat transfer coeflcient Hot fluid (steam) based on the inner area and length of the tube 70C bundle if the condensing side heat transfer coefl(tcz) cient is 5000 w / m 2 " ~Take . the fouling factor on the water side to be 0.0002 m2"c7W per tube. Neglect the effect of fouling on the shell side and thermal resistance of the tube wall. 30C Take the following properties of water at the (tcl) mean temperature of 50C: Area / length -+ p = 988.1 kg/m3; cp = 4174 J/kgC; k = 0.6474 W/mC; p = 550 x I@ kg/ms; v = 0.555 Fig. 10.38. x I@ m2/s, Pr = 3.54. Solution. Given: N = 100; di = 25 mm = 0.025 m: do = 29 rnm = 0.029 m; m, = m, = 500 kglmin; I,., = 30C; tc2 = 70C; h, (steam side) = 5000 w / ~ ' o c thl ; = th2 = IOOOC. R~ = 0.0002 ~ * " c / w . Overall heat transfer coefficient (U,); tube length (L): Arrangement o f the heat exchanger is shown in Fig. 10.38 Heat gained by water,
where
v di Re = ,v
V being the average velocity of the water flow which can be calculated by using the following equation.
Substituting the values in eqn. (3), we get 0.023 (77481O.~ x (3.54)0.33 = 1168 wlm2"C 0.025 Further, inserting the values in eqn. (2), we get hi =
-x
Q = mc X
Cpc X
(tc2- tCl)
= 0.000856 + 0.0002 + 0.000172 = 0.001228 Ui = 814.3 ~ 1 r n ~ " C . Now, substituting all the values in eqn. ( I ) , we get Q = Uix(Nx~xdixL)xO,
The Q transferred from the steam to the water is given by
Q=
where
u,A,, 0,
...( 1 )
1.39 x lo6 = 814.3 x (100 x n; x 0.025 x L) x 47.2 1.39 x lo6 L = = 4.6 m 814.3 x 100 x n x 0.025 x 47.2
(Ans.)
U, = overall heat transfer coefficient based on inner surface o f the tubes, A,, = inner surface area o f the tubes. 0, = logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD)
Example 10.30. A multipass heat exchanger has two passes on shell side and four passes on the tube side. The oil is passed through the tubes and cooled from 135C to 52C. The cooling water passing through shells enters at 13C and leaves at 31C. Calculate the heat tranSfcr mfe using the following data :
Heat Exchangers
h, (oil)= 270 w/m2 "C, ho (water)= 965 w/& "C h (scale on water side) = 2840 w/m2 "C Number of tubes per pass = 120 Length and outer diameter of each tube are 2 m and 2.54 cm respectively. Thickness of the tube = 1.65 mm LMTD correction factor = 0.98 Neglect the tube wall resistance. (A.U. Winter, 1998) Solution. Given : No. of passes : Two on shell side and four on tube side. tcl = 13C; tc2 = 31C; thl= 135C; thz= 52C; hi (oil) = 270 w/rn2"c; h, (water) = 965 w/m2"c; h (scale on water side) = 2840 w/m2 "C, Np = 120; do = 2.54cm = 0.0254 m; L = 2 m; di= 0.0254 - 2 x 0.00165= 0.0221 m;
LMTD correction factor, F = 0.98
Water in
Substituting the values, we have
r,,
do)
: . Rate of heat transfer, Q = U J ,
(0m)actual = 175.4 x [nD& x (N, X 4)l X 65

= 175.4 x [n x 0.0254 X 2 X (120 X 4)l X 65 = 873369 W or 873.369 kW
Oil in :
v h
(Ans.)
10.6. CORRECTION FACTORS FOR MULTI-PASS ARRANGEMENTS
1
T L
The expression Om = (01- 02) for LMTD is essentially valid for single-pass heat exchangers. 13 (Ol/O2) The analytical treatment of multiple pass shell and tube heat exchangers and cross-flow heat exchangers is much more difficult than single pass cases; such cases may be analysed by using the following equation: ...(10.31) Q = UAF Om factor; the correction factors have been published in the form of charts where F is the by Bonman, Mueller and Nagle and by TEMA. Correction factors for several common arrangements have been given in Figs. 10.40 to 10.43. The - - data is presented as a function of two non-dimensional variables namely the temperature ratio P and the capacity ratio R. Temperature ratio, P: It is defined as the ratio of the rise in temperature of the cold fluid to the difference in the inlet temperatures of the two fluids. Thus: Cl ...(10.32) P - 42 - t * thl - fel
Oil out 4
Water out
(a) Arrangement
(b) Temperature distribution
Fig. 10.39.
Rate of heat transfer, Q :
--
where subscripts h and c denote the hot and cold fluids respectively, and the subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the inlet and outlet conditions respectively. The temperature ratio P indicates cooling or heating effectiveness and it can vary from zero for a constant temperature of one of the fluids to unity for the case when inlet temperatun of the hot fluid equals the outlet temperature of the cold fluid. Capacity ratio R: The ratio of the products of the mass flow rate times the heat capacity of the fluids is termed as capacity ratio R. Thus:
k . Cnc -
...( 10.33)
66.3 x F = 66.3 x 0.98 = 65C Theoverall heat transfer coefficient,
578
Heat and Mass Transfer Heat Exchangers
temperature drop in of the thecold hot fluid = ltemoeratursise fluid

L .
For thew correction factor plots it is immaterial whether the hot fluid flows in the shell or the tubes. The value of the correction factor indicates the p e d o m n c e level of a given arrangement for the given terminal fluid temperatures. The correction factor F is always less than univ as no arrangement can be more eflective than the conventional counter flow. Example 10.31. Calculate for the following cases, the surfoce area required for a heat exchanger which is required to cool 3200 k g h of benzene (c, = 1.74 W/kgC) from 72C to 42C The cooling water (c, = 4.18 kUXgC) at 15C has a flow rate of 2200 kgh. (i) Single pass counter-flow, (ii) 1-4 exchanger (one-shell pass and four-tube passes), and (iii) Cross flow single pass with water mixed and benzene unmixed. For each configuration, the overall heat transfer coeficient may be taken as 0.28 k~/m'"C.
Sohtion Given: hh= 32W 3600 = 0.889 kgls; cph= 1.74 WkgC; thl = 72"C, th2 = 42C;
Fig. 10.40. Correction factor plot for heat exchanger with one shell pass and two, four or any multiple of tube passes.
Surface area required, A: Using energy balance on both the fluids, we have
Fig. 10.41. Correction factor plot for heat exchanger with two shell passes and four, eight or any multiple of tube passes.
- tc1 p='hl - lcl

tc2
Fig. 10.42. Correction factor plot for single cmss-flow heat exchanger with both fluids

th2) = cpc (t& - tcl) 1.74 (72 - 42) = 0.61 1 X 4.18 (tc2- 15) .. tc2 = 33.2OC An energy balance on the hot fluid yields the total heat transfer,
' h 'ph (lhl
Heat Exchangers
3 .
0.889
Using P = 0.32 and R = 1 .65 the correction factor F from Fig. 10.40 is read as
Q = mh cph (thl - th2)= 0.889 (i) Single-pass counter-flow:
1.74 (72 - 42) = 46.4 kW
: .
Area of the exchanger,
A = F U 8,
46.4 e= 0.9 x 0.28 x 32.5 = 5.66 m2
: .
Area of the exchanger, A =
Q = m2 U 8, 0.2846'4 x 32.5 =
5.1
(iii) Cross-flow single-pass with water mixed and benzene unmixed: Using P = 0.32 and R = 1.65 the cometion factor F from Fig. 10.43 is read as F 1 0.92 46.4 : . Area of the exchanger, A = F U 8, 0.92 x 0.28 x 32.5 = 5.54 m2 (Ans.)
e=
(Ans.)
(ii) 1-4 exchanger: Since the number of passes is more than one hence 8 , ( W D ) needs correction factor, F. To know the constion factor we have to know fvsl P (temperature ratio) and (capacity ratio) R.
Example 10.32. it is required to design a shell-and-tube heat exchanger for heating 2.4 kg/s of water from 20C to 9PC by hot engine oil (cp = 2.4 W/'kgC)flowing through the shell of the heat exchanger. The oil makes a single pass entering at 145'C and leaving 9PC with an average heat transfer coeflcient of 380 w/m2'c. The waterflows through 12 thin-walled tubes of 25 mm diameter with each-tube making 8-passes through the shell. The heat transfer coefiient on the water side is 2900 w/m2"c. Calculate the length of the tube required for the heat exchanger to accomplish the required water heating. Solution. Given: m, = mc = 2.4 kgls, tcl = 20C, tc2= 90C; thl = 145OC. th2= 90C, cPh= 2.4 kJ/kgC, d = 25mm = 0.025 m, N = 12; hi = 2900 WlmC, h, = 380 w1m2OC Length of the tube L: The overall heat transfer coefficient, neglecting thermal resistance of the tube, is given by
The parameters required to get the correction factors are:
Form Fig. 10.40, F 1 0.82 For the conventional counter-flow arrangement; el = thl - tc2= 145 - 90 = 55OC 8, = th2- tcl = 90 - 20 = 70C
The heat transfer rate is given by

Fig. 10.43. Comclion factors plot for single-pass cross-flow heat exchanger, one fluid mixed and the other unmixed.
Q = ' , Cpc (tc2 - tcl)

= 2.4 x 4.18 x lo3 (90
- 20) = 702240 W
Heal Exchangers
Also,
Q = F U A Om,where A = heating surface
But,
The shell length = 26'1 - 3.26 m (Ans.) 8 10.7. HEAT EXCHANGER EFFECTIVENESS AND NUMBER O F TRANSFER UNITS (NTU) A heat exchanger can be designed by the LMTD (logarithmic mean temperature difference) when inlet and outlet conditions are specified. However, when the problem is to determine the inlet or exit temperatures for a particular heat exchanger, the analysis is performed more easily, by using a method based on effectiveness of the heat exchanger (concept first proposed by Nusselt) and number of transfer units (NTU). The heat exchanger effectiveness (E) is defined as the ratio of actual heat transfer to the maximum possible heat transfer. Thus actual heat transfer -2 E = maximum possible heat transfer Q,, Thei actual heat transfer rate Q can be determined by writing an energy balance over either side of tye heat exchanger.
as such it is inconvenient to combine them in a graphical or tabular form. However, by compiling a non-dimensional grouping, E can be expressed as a function of three non-dimensional parameters. This method is known as NTU method. This methodlapproachfacilitates the comparison between the various types of heat exchangers which may be used for a particular application. The effectiveness expresssions for the parallel flow and counter-flow cases can be derived as follows: (i) Effectiveness for the Parallel flow heat exchanger : Refer Fig. 10.8. The heat exchange dQ through an area M of the heat exchanger is given by ...(i) dQ = U.dA (th - tc) = - m.cph.dth = m,.cpc.dtc ...(ii) = - C,.dth = C,.dtc From expression (ii), we have dth = - d Q
ch
and
dt, = dQ
cc
Substituting the value of dQ from expression (i) and rearranging, we get

(fh
(th Upon integration, we get
- tc)
- u.dA
[i $1
+
Q = mh Cp,l (thl - th2) = mc Cpc (tc2 - tcl) ...( 10.36) The product of mass flow rate and the specific heat, as a matter of convenience, is defined as the fluid capacity rate C: mh cph = Ch = hot fluid capacity rate m, cpc = C, = cold fluid capcity rate ,Cm, = the minimum fluid capacity rate (Chor Cc) C,, = the maximum fluid capacity rate (Ch or Cc). The maximum rate of heat transfer for parallel flow or counter-flow heat exchangers would occur if the outlet temperature of the fluid with smaller value of Ch or Cc Le., Ch were to be equal to the inlet temperature of the otherfluid. The maximum possible temperature change can be achieved by only one ofjuids, depending upon their heat capacity rates. This maximum change cannot be obtained by both the fluids except in the very special case of equal heat capacity rates. Thus :
From eqn. (10.38), we have the expressions for effectiveness

E
Ch (thl (thl
- th2) 't c l )
Cc (tc2 emin (thl
tcl)
'
Hence,
Eliminating th2and tc2from eqn. (10.40) with the help of eqns. (10.41) and (10.42), we get
.Once the effectiveness is known, the heat transfer rate can be very easily calculated by using th<equation
Q=
Cm,, (t,,1 -
f, 1 )
...( 10.39)
or If Cc > Ch then Cmin= Ch and C,,
1 - exp [ - (UA / Ch){l + (Ch/ c ~ ) } ]

cmin
Number of transfer units (NTU) method : It is obvious from Eqn. (10.38) that effectiveness & is a function of several variables and
( > i + )
...(10.43)
= Cc, hence eqn. (10.43) becomes
584
Heat and Mqss Transfer
Heat Exchangers
If Cc < Ch thed Cm, = Cc and CM, = Ch, hence eqn. (10.43) becomes
E
- exp [-(UAIC-)I1 + (Cm,/Cm,)}]' - exP 1- (UA I CmJ (1 + <Cmin/Cmax)]I
...(iii)
...(10.45)
"
1 + (Cmin1 Cmm) By rearranging eqns. (10.44) and (10.45), we get a common equation
E
...(iv)
Substituting these values in e4n. (10.471, we get,
1 + (Cminl Cmm) where Cminand C,, represent the smaller and larger of the two heat capacities Cc and Ch. The grouping of the terms (UA)ICmin is a dimensionless expression called the number of transfer units NTU; NTU is a measure of qfectiveness of the heat exchanger. Cmhl C,, isi the second dimensionless parameter and is called the capacity ratio R. The last dimensionless parameter is theflow arrangement, i.e., parallel flow, counter-flow, cross-flow and so on. Thus the effectiveness of a parallel flow heat exchanger is given by
E
[lhl thl
Cmb ( f h l
ch
- tcl)]
- kcl
E Cmin (thl cc
- tcl)]
- tcl
, = exp [(UAIC,) I 1
- (CcI Ch)11
1 + (Cm, CmA 1 exp [- NTU(1 + R)] = l + R
1 - exp [- NTU (1+ (Cm, / cmAt]
...(10.46)
1
E . Cmin --
.., l10.46 (a)]
or 1
Ch
. Cmin 7
LC
= exp [(UNC,) I 1
- (CcI Ch)11
...(10.48)
(ii) Counter-flow heat exchanger : Refer Fig. 10.9. The heat exchange dQ through an area dA of the heat exchanger is given by dQ = U.dA (th - tc) ...(i) = - m cPhdth = - m cCpc dtc = - Ch dth = - Cc dt, ...(ii) From expression (ii), we have dth = - dQ Ch and dQ dtc = - cc
ch
Assume Cc < Ch, Cc = Cminand C,, = C . , E - Cmin 1 ---;;---
Substituting these values is eqn. (10.48), we get,
..
d(th - tc) = - dQ [l - l] = dQ [l cc cc
-y
ch
. Cmin ,
E
Substituting the value of dQ from expression (i), we get,
Upon integration, we get
-Cmm
exP [(UA/Cmin) ( 1
- (Cmin/cm,)}I
or
=
From Eqn. (10.38), we have the expressions for effectiveness
- (Cmin /CrnaJ\I - 1 Cmin exP [(UA/Cmin) ( 1 - ( c m i n /cma>}I - Cm, 1 - exp [(- UA /Cmi,J{ I - (Cmin / c ,) ) ]
~ X [(UA P /Cmin) {l
586
Heat Exchangers
= R and UA/C,, = NTU, therefore, 1 - exp [-NTU(1 - R)] E = 1 - R exp [- NTU(1 - R)] We find that effectiveness of parallel flow and counter-flow heat exchangers is given by the following expressions:
Since Cmin / C,, (~)pru/lei flow -
, Hot fluid 3
Y/7////711///7/////1////7/////7n
Cold flu~d
Heat transfer surface
+ R)] 1 + R - 1 - exp [- NTU ( 1 - R)] (~)counter~ow - 1 - R exp [-NTU(1 - R)],

- 1 - exp [- NTU(1
...( 1 )
...(2)
here R = (C,,,,, 1 C , ) Let us discuss two limiting cases of eqns. ( 1 ) and (2) Case I: When R 0 ...Condensers and evaporators (boilers)
By using the above case, we arrive at the following common expression for parallel flow as well as counter-flow heat exchangers E = 1 - exp (- NTU) ...(10.51) Such cases are found is condensers and evaporators in which onejuid remains at constant
temperature throughout the exchanger. Here C,,,, =
and thus R = -
Obviously, no matter how large the exchanger is or how large the overall transfer coefficient is the maximum effectiveness for parallel flow heat exchanger is 50%. For counter-flow, this limit is 100%. For this reason, a counter flow is usually more advantageous for a gas turbine heat exchangers. Case I1 : When R = 1 ... Typical regenerators (i) In case of parallelflow heat exchanger using R = 1 , we get 1 - exp (- 2NTU) E =
(29
0.
Number of transfer units, N T U , ,
=
Cmin
UA
Fig. 10.44. Effectiveness for parallel flow heat exchanger.
>
, Hot fluid
2 (ii) In case of counter-jlow heat exchanger using R = 1 we get an expression for effectiveness
which is indeterminate. We can find the value of E by applying L, Hospital's rule : 1 - exp [- NTU ( 1 - R)] lim R . + I 1 - R e x p [ - N T U ( 1 - R)]
Cold fluid
Heat transfer surface
e x p [ N T U ( l - R)] - 1 -+ 1 exp [NTU ( 1 - R)] - R Differrentiating the numerator and the denomenator with respect to R and taking the limit, we get, exp [NTU(l - R) (- NTU)] - NTW lim ...( 10.53) R+ 1 exp [NTU(l - R)] (- NTU) - 1 1 + NTU The NTU is a measure of the heat transfer size of the exchanger; the larger the value of NTU, the closer the heat exchanger approaches its thermodynamic limit. The effectiveness of various types of heat exchangers in the form of graphs (prepared by
lim and NTU are shown in Fig. 10.44 to 10.49. Cmu 10.8. PRESSURE AND PUMPING POWER An important consideration in heat exchanger design, besides the heat transfer requirements, Kays and London) for values of R
(=%I
Number of transfer units, N T U , , -
-ycr
Cmin
Fig. 10.45. Effectiveness for counter-flow heat exchanger.

Shell fluid
Heat Exchangers
Cold fluid
141
/-Tube fluid
One shell One Shell Pass
Number of transfer units, NTU-=-
UA
Cmin
Number of transfer units, mu-=
CIA Cmin
Fig. 10.46. Effectiveness for 1-2 parallel counter-flow heat exchanger. Fig. 10.48. Effbctiveness for cross-flow heat max exchanger with both fluids unmixed.
Shell fluid
1
Mixed fluid
2 Shells
n o shell passes 4,8, 12 etc, Tube passes
) Unmixed fluid
Number of transfer units, NTU,, Fig. 10.47.
UA Cmin
c
Number of transfer units, NTU-
em&#
Fig. 10.49. Effectiveness for cross-flow heat exchanger with one fluid mixed and other &ud,
590
Heat Exchangers
591
is the pressure drop pumping cost. The heat exchanger size can be reduced by forcing the fluid through it at higher velocities thereby increasing the overall heat transfer coefficient. But due to higher velocities there will be larger pressure drops resulting in larger pumping costs. The smaller diameter pipe, for a given flow rate, may involve less initial capital cost but definitely higher pumping costs for the life of the exchanger. We know that, Ap = m2 ...(i) where Ap = pressure drop of an incompressible fluid flowing through the pipes, and m = mass flow rate. In order to pump fluid in a steady state, the power requirement is given by m power = v d p = -dp z h3 ...(ii) P This indicates that the power requirement is proportional to the cube of the mass flow rate of the fluid and it may be further increased by dividing it by the pump (fan or compressor) efficiency. Thus, we find that the pumping cost increases greatly with higher velocities, hence, a compromise will have to be made between the larger overall heat transfer coefficient and corresponding velocities. Example 10.33. Steam condenses at atmospheric pressure on the external sulface of the tubes of a steam condenser. The tubes are 12 in number and each is 30 mm in diameter and 10 m long. The inlet and outlet temperatures of cooling water flowing inside the tubes are 25C and 60C respectively. I f the flow rate is 1.1 kgh, calculate the following: (i) The rate of condensation of steam, (ii) The mean overall heat transfer coefficient based on the inner sur- t,l = 2 5 0 ~ face area, (iii) The number of transfer units, and Fig. 10.50. (iv) The ejfectiveness of the condenser. Solution. Given : N = 12; di = 30 mm = 0.03 m; L = 10 m; tcl = 25C tc2= 60C; thl = th2 = 100C; m, = m, = 1.1 kgh (i) The rate of condensation of steam, & (= &) Heat lost by steam = heat gained by water liz, x hf, = mc x cPc(tc2 - tcl) where hf, (latent heat of steam) at atmospheric pressure = 2257 kJ/kg. Substituting the values, we get, riz, x 2257 = 1.1 x 4.187 x (60 - 25) or iit, = 0.0714 kgls = 257 kglh (ii) The mean overall heat transfer coefficient, U: Total heat transfer rate is given by
where and A = N x ( n d L ) = 12 X 7~ 11'0.03x 10 = 11.31 Substituting the values in the above equation, we get 161 199.5 = U x 11.31 x 55.68 or
.
m2
'V,
U = 255.9 w/m2"c (Ans.)
(iv) The effectiveness of the condenser, E: E = 1 - exp (- NTU) E = 1 - e-0.628 = 0.47 (Ans.) or
...[Eqn. (10.51)]
Solution. Given:
d = 25 mm = 0.025 m; m, = & =
u = 230 w/m2Oc ; thl = 100C.
0.05 Ws, tc, = 1s0c, tc2= 70C;
(i) The effectiveness of the heat exchanger, E : Throughout the condenser the hot fluid (i.e., steam), remains at
cm,is infinity and thus Cminis obviously for cold fluid (i.e., water) ~h
.
When Ch > C,, then effectiveness is given by
US7;-zO. L m ~
temperature. Hence Cmin
Cmin= mc cW = 0.05 x 4.18 = 0.209

For
ulK
(Ans.)
cmtn (= R) z 0
ctn~
m, x
cp, x (tc2 - t,l)
or
e = 1 - exp (-NTU) 0.647 = 1 - e-NTU
...[Eqn (10.51)]
9 2
Heat and Mass Transfer or or e-NTu= 1 - 0.647 = 0.353 - NTU = In (0.353) = - 1.04 NTU = 1.04
Heat Exchangers
5@3
=
The thermal capacity of hot stream (oil), Ch = mh cph= 0.55 x 2.45 actual heat transfer = & = thl - th2 maximum heat transfer Qm, thl - tcl
1.347 kW
..
But
Since Cc > Ch, hence the effectiveness of the heat exchanger is given by
E =
NTU = UA - U X n d L Cmin c min N T u X Cmin 1.04 X (0.209 x 1000) L = = 12 m (Ans.) Und 230 x n x 0.025 (iii) The rate of steam condensation, m,,: Using the overall energy balance, we get
...[Eqn. (10.35)]
&, = 0.00509 kgls or 18.32 k@ (Ans.) or Example 10.35. A counter-jl~w heat exchanger is employed to cool 0.55 kg/s (c, = 2.45 kJLkgC) of oil from llJC to 40C by the use of water. The intel and outlet temperatures of cooling water are I f C and 7jC, respectively. The oyerag heat transfer co@cient is expected to be 1450 w / ~ ~ ~ Using c . NTU method, calculate the following: (i) The mass flow rate of water; (ii) The effectiveness of the heat exchanger; (iii) The sulfQce area required.
115 - 40 = 0.75 (Ans.) 115 - 15 (iii) The surface area required, A: Here em,, = Ch = 1.347 kW; Cm, = Cc = 1.672 kW, hence -Cmin - R =-= 347 0.806 1.672 cm, For counter-flow heat exchanger, 1 - exp [- NTU(1- R)] E = ...[Eqn. (10.50)] 1 -Rexp [-NTU(1 - R ) After rearrangement, we get E-1 = exp [- NTU (1 - R)] (a - 1) 0.75 - 1 or = exp '[- N W (1 - 0.806)] (0.75 x 0.806 - 1 ) or 0.632 = exp [- NTU x 0.1941 or In 0.632 = - 0.194 NTU or NTU = 2.365
E =
[This value of NTU may also be obtained h m Fig. 10.45 for R = Also NTU
=
% = 0.806 and E = 0.751 em,
UA cmin
5
Fig. 10.51.
Solution. Given: kt,,,, = 4, = 0.55 kgls; cph= 2.45 15OC, tc2 = 75OC;
ILJAC~OC;
thI = I lS0C, th2= 40C; tcl =
( i ) The mass flow rate of water, mc (= m,): The mass flow rate of water can be found by using the overall energy balance
mh Cph (thl
Example 10.36. 16.5 kgh of the product at 650C (cp = 3.55 kl/kgC), in a chemical plant, are to be used to heat 20.5 kgh of the incoming fluid from IOOC (cp = 4.2 kl/kgO~).' If the overall heat transfer coefficient is 0.95 k ~ / m ' "and ~ the installed heat transfer surface is 44 m2, calculate the fluid outlet temperatures for the counter-flow and parallel flow arrangements. Solution. Given: tih = 16.5 kgls, th, = 650C; cph = 3.55 kT/kgC; m, = 20.5 kgfs; t,,
= 100";
0.55
= m, Cpc (tc2 - tcl) 2.45 (115 - 40) = mc x 4.18 (75 - 15)
- th2)
c, = 4.2 kJkgC; U = 1.2 kw/m2Oc; A = 44 m2.
..
i+ = 0.4 kg/s
(Ans.)
Fluid outlet temperatures: Case I. Counter-flow arrangement: Thermal capacity of hot fluid, Ch = ljZh x cph= 16.5 x 3.55 = 58.6 k W K 86.1 k W K Thermal capacity of cold fluid, C, = m, x c, = 20.5 x 4.The cold fluid is the maximum fluid, whereas the hot fluid is the minimum fluid. Therefore,
(ii) The effectiveness of the heat exchanger, E: The thermal capacity of cold stream (water), C, = in, cpc= 0.4 x 4.18 = 1.672 kW -
594
Heat and Mass Transfer C m i n = - = R
Heat Exchangers
,595
c ,
i::
- 0.68
Number of transfer units, The value of

E
UA - 0.95 x 44 = 0.71 NTU = -Cmin 58.6
30000 Solution. Given: moil= mh = - = 8.333 kgls; cph= 3.6 kJ/kgC; thl = 100C; m ,,, 3600 ., = 50000 =m = 13.89 kgls, cp, = 4.2 kJ/kgC, t,, = 10C; U = 1000 w / m 2 ~ cA ; = 10 m2. 3600 (i) The outlet temperature of oil and water, th2.tc2:
(effectiveness) for counter-flow arrangement is given by

...[Eqn. (10.50)] = 1 - exp [- NTU(1 - R)] 1 - R ~ X ~ ' [ - N TU R)] (~ 1 - e-0.2272 1 - exp [- 0.71 (1 - 0.68)] 1 - 0.68 X exp [- 0.71 (1 - 0.68)] 1 - 0.68 x e-0.2272
U A - 1000 X 10 = 0.33 NTU = - cmin 3 0 x 1 0 ~

th = IOOOC
(thl - 'h2) - tcl) C m i n (fh~ Because, the hot jluid is minimum, we have Further,
E
ch
...[Eqn. (10.38)]
or
thz = 650 - 0.443(650 - 100) = 406.3SC (Ans.)

E
t,, = loOc
Also,
- tcl) C m i n (ih~- tc~)

c c (tc2
...[Eqn. (10.38)]
Fig. 10.52.
Lmin
'
(ii)
I
For the calculated values of -= 0.514 and NTU = 0.33, from the Fig. 10.44, we get tc2 = 2658C (Ans.) 1 . Parallel jlow arrangement: Case 1 The value of & for parallel flow arrangement is given by 1 - exp [-NTU(1 + R)] E = l + R
..
cmax
E
= 0.32
... [Eqn. 10.46 (a)]
- 1
- exp [- 0.71 (1 + 0.68)J (1
+ 0.68)
1 - e-1.1928 = 0.415 1.68

...[Eqn. (10.28)]
..
and
t,,, = 100 - 0.32 (100 - 10) = 71.2OC

42
(Ans.)
or tc2 = 255.4OC (Ans.) Example 10.37. Oil (cp = 3.6 kJ/kgC) at 100Cjlows at the rate of 30000 kgh and enters into a parallel flow heat exchanger. Cooling water (c,, = 4.2 kJ/kgC) enters the heat exchanger at 10C at the rate o f 50000 kgh. The heat transfer area is 10 m2 and U = 1000 w/rn2"c. Calculate the following: (i) The outlet temperatures o f oil, and water; (ii) The maximum possible outlet temperature of water. (P.U.)
(Am.) 1.945 (ii) The maximum possible outlet temperature of water, td: When maximum possible outlet temperature of water exists then, th2 = tC2 and under this case or or cpc (tc2 - tcl) cph (thl - tc2) = 30 x lo3 (100 - tc2) = 58.34 x lo3 (tc2- 10) 100 - tc2 = 1.945 (tc2- 10) = l.ecw'tc2 - 19.45 tcz = 40.SC (Ans.)
= 0'32 (loo - lo) + 10 = ZQ8OC
Heat Exchangers
Example 10.38. The following data is given for counter-flow heat exchanger: m, = 0.25 kg/s mh = 1 kg/s;
cp, = 4.18 kJ/kgC cph= 1.045 kJ/kgC; th, = 1000C ; tC2 = 8500C; U = 88.5 w/m2"c; A = 10 in2 Calculate th2and t,,. (P.U.) Solution. Ch = mh cph= 1 x (1.045 x lo3) = 1045 Cc =
The total heat transfer rate, Q: As outlet temperatures of both fluids are not known, we have to use NTU method for solving the problem.
m, c,,
= 0.25 x (4.18 x lo3) = 1045
Cmin= C,, = Ch = C, = 1045 The effectiveness E is given by the relation:

E
..
- th2) Cmin (thl c c (thl
t,,, = 10oo0c
C,
The effectiveness
E E
Fig. 10.54. Counter-flow heat exchanger.
of heat exchanger is given by

ch(thl
Cmin (thl - tcl) Cmin (thl - tcl) Ch = mh cph= 0.152 x 1880 = 258.8 = Cmin
UA - 88.5 x 10 NTU = -= 0.85 Cmin 1045
th2)
cc
0c2
tcl)
...(i)
L
Fig. 1053.
C, = m, cp, = 0.076 x 4200 = 319.2 = C,,
For the known values of CmiJCm,and NTU for the counter-flow, we get from Fig. 10.45, E = 0.47 Substituting this value in eqn. (i), we get
For the calculated values of -= 0.895 and NTU = 1.19, from the Fig. 10.45, we get
E rr
c n , cm,
0.53
Substituting the values in eqn (i), we get
0.47(1000 - t,,) = 850 - tCl or 470 - 0.47 tcl = 850 - 470 tC1
- 0.47
tCl= 850 - t,,
and The total rate of heat transfer is given by Q = UA8,
Example 10.39. Water (cpc= 4200 J/kgC) enters a counter-flow double pipe heat exhanger at 3PCflowing at 0.076 kg/s. It is heated by oil (c, = 1880 J/kgC)flowing at the rate of 0.152 kg/s from an inlet temperature of 116C. For an area of 1m2 and U=340 w/mZOc, determine the total heat transfer rate, Solution: Given: m, = lit, = 0.076 kgls, cDC = 4200 J/kgC; t,, = 38C; lit,,,, = lith = 0.152 kgls, cph= 1880 J/kgC; thl = 116C; U = 340 W/m2"c;A = 1 m2.
, /hxample 10.40. The overall temperature rise of the coldfludin a cross-jlow heat exchanger is 20C and overall temperature drop of hot-fluid is 30C, The effectiveness of heat exchanger
Heat Exchangers
is 0.6. The heat exchanger area is lm2 and overall heat transfer coeflcient is 60 W / ~ ~ O Find C. out the rate of heat transfer. Assume both jluids are unmixed. Solution. Given: tc2- tcl = 20C; thl - th2= 30C; E = 0.6; A = lm2; u = 60 W / m 2 ~ ~ ,
Now,
Q = E Cmin (thl - tcl)

= 0.75 x mh cph(thl- tcl) = 0.75 x 1 x 1 x (420 - 20) = 3200 kJ (Ans.)
...[Eqn. (10.39)]
Rate of heat transfer, Q: Heat lost by hot fluid = heat gained by water mh cph (thl - th2) = cp, (tc2 - tcl)
(ii) The exit temperature of fluid B, tc2:
..
mc cpc = C,,
and
mh cph = Cmin
I - 0.67 Cm, 1.5 Now from the graph, for the given values of
E = 0.6 and Cmin / C,, = 0.67, we get NTU = 1.4 (From Fig. 10.48) UA mu=Cmin Cmin= UA = 60 x 1 NTU 1.4 - 42.86 = Ch; Cmin 42.86 c,,=-=---- 63.97 = Cc 0.67 0.67
- -'mi'
Q = mc cpc x ( 4 2 - 41) = 1 x 4 (tc2 - 20) 300 or 300 + 20 = 9SC (Ans.) tc2= .. 4 Example 10.43. Water at the rate of 0.5 kg/s is forced through a smooth 25 mm ID tube of 15 m length. The inlet water temperature is 10C and the tube wall is at a constant temperature of 40C. What is the exit water temperature ? Average properties of water are : (AMIE Summer, 1998) c, = 4180 J/kgC; p = 0.8 X 10- Pa S; k = 0.57 W/m 'C.
Solution. Given :m, = 0.5 kg/s; D = 25 mm = 0.025 m; L = 15 m

ti = 10C; t*= 40C; cp= 4180 J/kgC; p = 0.8 x
k = 0.57 W/mC
But
Pas;
- -
Exit water temperature, to : m, = pVA W e know that,
= mh cph (thl - th2) = c h (thl - th2) = 42.86 x 30 = 1285.8 W (Ans.) Example 10.41. Dejhe the terms NTUand effectiveness. Derive an expressionfor effectiveness of a counter-flow heat exchanger in terms of NTU and capacity ratio. (U.P.S.C., 1996) Solution. Refer Article 10.7.
..
: .
Reynolds number,
Re =
pVD 1000 X 1.086 X 0.025 = 3,183 = P 0.8 x low3
104
Example 10.42. Two fluids, A and B exchange heat in a counter-current heat exchanger. Fluid A enters at 4200C and has a mass flow rate of I kg/s. Fluid B enters at 20C and has a mass flow rate of I kg/.. Effectiveness of heat exchanger is 75%. Determine : (i) The heat transfer rate; (ii) The exit temperature of Jluid B. Specz3c heat of Jluid A is I kJ/kg K and that of fluid B is 4 kJkg K. (GATE, 1999) Solution. Given :tAl= thl= 420C; mh = 1 kg/s;
cpB= cpc= 4 kJ/kg K . (i) The heat transfer rate, Q :
= 1 kg/s;
i.e., flow is turbulent (since Re > 2300) Using the relation, = 0.023 ( ~ e ) '(. ~ r ) " ~'
...[Eqn. (7.15)]
(for t, > tf)
Substituting the values in the above - eqn., we get
Heat transfer area, A = nDL = x 0.025 x 15 = 1.1781 m2 Since the surface temperature is constant, UA hA 3785 x 1.1781 = 2.133 NTu=-=-2090 Cmin Cmin -
690
Heat and
Mass Transfer
eat
Exchangers
601
Effectiveness,
E=
1 - e-NTU
...[Eqn. (10.51)]
= 1 - (e)- 2.133 = 0.8815
Now,
(ii) The number o f transfer units, (NTU) : UA 100 x 48 NTU = -= = 1.09 Cmin 4400
(Ans.)
.. to = 0.88 15 (40 - 10) + 10 = 3644C (Ans.) Example 10.44. A counterflow heat exchanger is to heat air entering Hot fluid (Gas) at 400C with aflow rate of 6 kg/s by the exhaust gas entering at 800C with a flow rate of 4 kg/s. The overall heat *c2 transfer coefficient is 100 w/m2 K and the outlet temperature of the air is 551SC. Specific heat at constantpresI sure for both air and exhaust gas can be taken as 1100 Jkg K. Calculate : Fig. 10.55. (i) The heat transfer area needed;
, /
(ii) The nhmber of transfer units. Solution. Given : m, = 6 kg/s; tcl = 400C; tc2= 551 SC; thl= 800C;
Now, Hence,
thz
L Example 10.45. A chemical having specijk heat of 3.3 kJ/kg Kflowing at the rate of 20000 k g h enters a parallel flow heat exchanger at 120C. The flow rate of cooling water is 50000 k g h with an inlet temperature of 20C. The heat transfer area is 10 m2 and the overall heat transfer coefficient is 1050 w/m2 K. Find : (i) The effectiveness of the heat exchanger. (ii) The outlet temperature of water and chemical. (U.P.S.C., 1992) Take for water, specijk heat = 4.186 kJ/kg K.
Solution. Given : cph= 3.3 kJ/kg K; h --= - 3600

(= 400C)
tCl
5.56 kg/s;
t,, = 20C; A = 10 m2; U = 1050 w / m 2 K. (i) The effectiveness o f the heat exchanger, E : ~ o fluid t capacity rate, Ch = 6th cph = 5.56 ~ 3 . = 3 18.35
(GATE, 1995)
C, = m, c,, = 6 x 1 100 = 6600, and C , = m,, c , , , , = 4 x 1 100 = 4400 Ch < C,
Cmln = C,, = 4400 Now, heat transferred to cold air = heat transferred from hot gases
..
--
( i ) The heat transfer area needed, A :
---*
Water
Q = UA 8 ,
Fig. 10.56.
where
Ltth2
- 'cl)J
Cold fluid capacity rate, Cc = m, c, = 13.89 x 4.186 = 58.14
75.75 - (800 - 551.5) - (572.75 - 400) --o.3636 (800 - 55 1.5) (572.75 - 400)
Substituting the various values, we get 999900 = 100 x A x 208.33 . A 2 48 m2 (Ans.)
- 208.33"C
We find Ch c Cc Heat lost by hot fluid = heat gained by cold fluid .'. 5.56 x 3.3 x (120 - th2)= 13.89 x 4.186 x (tc2- 20) or Now,
( 120 - th2)= 3.17 (tC2 - 20)
...(i)
Heat Exchangers
603
Effectiveness,
E=
1 - exp [- NTU(l+ R)] l+R
C m i n 18.35 - o.316 where R (capacity ratio) = =C , 58.14
1 - exp [- 0.572 (1 + 0.316)] - 1 - 0.471 = 0.402 (1 + 0.316) 1.316 (ii) The outlet temperatures of water (tc2) and chemical, (th2):
E=
(Ans.)
(120 - t,) (120 - 20) or th2 = 120 - 0.402 (120 - 20) = 79.SC Substituting the value of th2= 79JC in eqn, (i), we get 0.402 = (120-79.8) = 3.17 (tc2- 20)
(ii) The exit temperatures of hot and cold fluids,Lh2,tc2: When mh is increased from 10 kglmin to 20 kglmin hi will become h,' (considering hot fluid is inside).
(Ans.)
h,' = 60 x 1.74 = 104.4 w/m2 O C
# ',.
+ 20 = 32.70, (Ans.) 3.17 Example 10.46. A parallel flow heat exchange has hot and cold water streams running through it and has the following data: mh = I0 kg. / min ;mc = 25 kg / min;
Cc2=
cph = cpc = 4.18 kJ/kg OC; thl = 70C; thl = 7ooc th2 50c8 fclX 25OC Individual heat transfer coeficent on both sides = 60 w/m2 OC. Calculate the following: (i) The area of the heat exchanger; (ii) The exit temperatures of hot and cold fluids if hot water pow rate is doubled. Fig. 10.57 (P.U.) Solution: (i) The area of heat exchanger, A: Heat lost by hot fluid = heat gained by cold fluid
th2= 50c
UA 38.1 x 0.0161 NTU = - = 0.44 1.39 cmin

Cmin = 0.799 and NTU = 44, from the fig. 10.44, we get For the calculated value of -
cm,
Also,
..
mit, cph (thl - th2) = mc cpc (tc2 - tc,) 10 x 4.18 (70 - 50) = 25 x 4.18 (tc2- 25)
Log-mean temperature difference,
t,, = 70 - 0.31 (70 - 25) = 56.0SC 0.31 (70 - 25) + 25 = 36.16OC tc2= 1.25
(Ans.) (Ans.)
The overall heat transfer coefficient is given by,
Example 10.47. An oil is cooled to 375 K in concurrent heat exchanger by transferring its heat to the cooling water that leaves the cooler at 300 K. However, it is required that oil must be cooled down to 350 K by lengthening the cooler while the oil and waterpow rates, their inlet temperatures and other dimensions of the cooler remaining unchanged. The inlet temperatures of the cooling water and oil being 288 K and 425 K respectively.
TI-
604
Heat Exchangers
605
If the length of the original cooler was I m, calculate the following: (i) The outlet temperature of cooling water of the new cooler, and (ii) The length of the new cooler. (M.U.) Solution: Given: thl = 425 - 273 = 152C; th2= 375 - 2'73 = 102C; tcl = 288 - 273 = 15C; tc2 = 300 - 273 = 27C; L, = lm ... Case I
4,
= 350 - 273 = 77OC; tc2 = ?
... Case I1
Case I1 : (After increasing the length) The effectiveness of the parallel flow for the second case is given by 1 - exp [-(NTU), (1 + R)] E = l+R 1 - exp [-0.486 L2 (1 + 0.24)] - 1 - (e)-0.6Lz E = 1 + 0.24 1.24
The effectiveness E for the second case is also given by
Cmin where R = -
cm
...(i)
, ['.' Ch = C
Cc = Cm, and R = -= 0.241
Lmin
C m ,
...(ii)
152 - 77 x 0.24 (152 - 15) + 15 = 33OC = (152 - 15) (ii) The length of the new cooler, L, : Equating eqns. ( i ) and (ii), we get. 1 - (e)-0.6% 152 - 77 1.24 152 - 15
'''
(Ans.)
Fig. 10.58.
The outlet temperature of the cooling water of the new cooler, 4, : Case I : (Before increasing the length)
..
C ,
C m in - R = 0.24 = hhcp, and -
cm,
Heat transfer rate is given by L,=-- 134 - 1.89 m (Ans.) 0.6 This indicates 89% increase in length of the cooler. Example 10.48.A simple counter-flow heat exchanger operates under thefollowing conditions: Fluid-A, inlet and outlet temperatures 80C and 40C; Fluid-B, inlet and outlet temperatures 20C and 40C. The exchanger is cleaned, causing an increase in the overall heat transfer coeflcient by 10% and inlet temperature offluid B is changed to 30C. What will be new outlet temperatures of fluid A and of fluid B. Assume heat transfer coeflcients and capacity rates are unalered by temperature changes. ... Case I Solution. Given: thl = 80C. th2 = 40C. tcl = 20C tc2 = 40C ... Case I1 thl = 80C, th2 = ?, tcl = 30C, tc2 = ? U2 = 1.1 U, As outlet temperatures of both fluids are to be calculated, so we have to use NTU method to find th2and tc2 for the new inlet condition of the cold fluid after cleaning the exchanger. Further the area of heat exchanger and mass flow rates in both cases remain same. or
or (152 - 102) = (NTO), O r

WTUh =
= (NTO), x 102.9
- lo2) = 0.486 102.9 UA, UCL, (NTU), = - = , where C = n d Cmin cmin
..
UC 0.486 = 0.486 [': --
Cmin
LI
L, = lm (given)]
Heat Exchangers
Again
where It is obvious that

mh
Cmin R = capacity ratio = 7 , cph =

cmin
Case I ( U l = U )
Fig. 10.59
Case I ( U2= 1.1 U 1 )
We can also write
Case 1 1 :
as U2 = 1.1 U1 and A and Cm, both the variables remain same in both cases. The effectiveness of the counter-flow heat exchanger for the case I1 is given by
E
1 - exp [- (NTU), ( 1 - R)] 1 - R exp [- (NTU)2( 1 - R)]
where R = 0.5 (calculated earlier)
The effectiveness
E
1 - e- 0.76 1 - exp [(-I .52) ( 1 - OS)] 1 - 0.5 exp [(-I S 2 ) ( 1 - 0.5)] 1 - 0.5 x e-0.76 = 0.695
is also given by
...[Eqn. (10.381
= 47.4"C (Ans.) Example 10.49. In a large steam power plant, a shell and tube lype steam condenser is employed which has the following data: ...2100 M W Heat exchange rate ...one Number of shell passes ...31500, each executing two passes Number of tubes (thin walled) ...25 mm Diameter of each tube ...3.4 x 104 kg/s Mass jlow rate of water through the tubes ...50C. The condensation temperature of steam (The steam condenses on the outer suface of the tubes) ...11400 w/~**c The heat transfer coeflcient on the steam side The inlet temperature of water Using LMTD correction factor method Steam (mh) I and NTU method, calculate: (i) The outlet temperature of cooling water, and (ii) The length of tube per pass. Take the following properties of water = 27'C): (at tbulk cp = 4.18 WkgC, p = 855 x 1@ ~ s / m k~ = , 0.613 W/mC and Pr = 5.83 (m,) The thermal resistance of tube material (a) Flow arrangement and fouling effects may be neglected. thl = th2 = 5O0C Solution. Given : Q = 2300 x lo6 W ; N, = 31500; d = 25 mm = 0.025 m; thl = th2= 50C; hw= hc= 3.4 X lo4 tcl = 20C; h, = 11400 ~ l m ~ ~ c . (i) The water outlet temperature, tC1 = 20C
42
- 'h2) - ',in (thl - th2) - fhl - th2 Cmin (th~ - t c ~ ) Cmin(thl- tcl) --thl - tcl
'h
(*h~
In order to obtain water outlet temperature, using overall energy balance, we get Q = mc Cpc ($2 - tCl)
Fig. 10.60. Shell and tube type condenser.
or
= 80 - 0.696 (80 - 30) = 452C
..
(Ans.)
2100 x lo6 = 3.4 x lo4 x (4.18 X 1000) (tc2- 20) tc2 = 34.77OC (Ans.)
(ii) The length of the tube per pass, L: (1) LMTD correction factor method:
608
Heat Exchangers
The total rate of heat transfer is given by, Q = FUAO, where F = correction factor, U = overall heat transfer coefficient, A = 2Np n d L, where Np is the number of tubes per pass, and Om = log-mean temperature difference. Tn find F we have to find P(temperature ratio) and R (capacity ratio).
...(i)
Here
Cmin = 0 .-.
But
R=--'hl - th2 - 50 - 50 = 0 37.44 - 20 tc2- t,, With the values of P = 0.492 and R = 0, we get F = 1 To find the value of U, hi has to be calculated first. Here, mass flow rate through each tube = riz = 3.4 x 104 = 1.079 kgls 31500 4 X 1.079 Reynokis number, Re = P D V = p ndp nx0.025~855 lo6 ~ = 6.43 x 104 Since Re > 2300, hence the flow is turbulent.
NTU = U A - U(2NpndL) Cmin Cmin
..
L =
0.677 x 14212 x 104 = 4.131 m 4707.2 x (2 x 31500 x n x 0.025)
(Ans.)
: .
Example 10.50. In a double pipe heat exchanger ih cph= 0.5 inc cpc,The inlet temperatures of hot and cold fluids are thl and tcl. Deduce an expression in t e n s of thl, tcl and th2for the ratio of the area of the counter-flow heat exchanger to that of parallel flow heat exchanger which will give the same hot fluid outlet temperature th2. Find this ratio if thl = 150C, tcl = 30C and (U.P.S.C., 1994) th2 = 90C.
I
Now,
1 = -+1 -
h,
1 hi
...neglecting thermal resistance of tube material and fouling effects.

Further, LMTD is given by,
(a) Parallel flow arrangement
I
(b) Counter-flow arrangement
Substituting the values in eqn. (i), we get Q = FU(2NPndL)8, 2100 x lo6 = 1 x 4707.2 [ 2 x 31500 x n x 0.025 x L] x 21.8 . L = 4.136 m (Ans.) (2) NTU method: Since the heat exchanger is a condenser, hence Ch = Cmm= and C,,,,, = Cc = m,cpc = 3.4 x lo4 x (4.18 x 1000) = 14212 x lo4 Since Ch > Cc, hence
The effectiveness of the heat exchanger & is given by Ch (thl - th2) E = .
Cc (tc2
- 'cl)
nh
-c
Cmin (thl
- tcl)
In this case Cmi, = Ch and Ch = 0.5 Cc and Cc = C,,
= 2Ch
This equation is true for counter flow as well as parallel flow. A, = area of parallel flow heat exchanger, and Let A, = area of counter-flow heat exchanger. As (th2), = (th2),therefore, the heat lost by hot fluid in both the cases is same.
610
.. ..
Heat Exchangers
611
Q = uAp (ern), = u A c (ern),, since U is not dependent on the direction of flow. Ac -=-
From eqn. (I), we get tc2in terms of thl, th2and tc1as tc2 = tcl + 0 3 (thl (a) Parallel flow:
- th2)
A x a m p l e 10.51. 8000 k g h of air at l0O0C is cooled by passing it through a single-pass cross-flow heat exchanger. To what temperature is the air cooled if water entering at 15OCflows through the tubes unmixed at the rate of 7500 kgh? J = 500 k.l/h-mZ0c and A = 20 mZ Take : t. c ( a ) = 1 kr/kgC and cp (water) rcz = ? = 4.2 kJkgC Treat both fluids are unmixed. Solution: Given: rhh = 3600 = 2.22 kgls; cph= 1
(b) Counter-flow:
1.5 th2- 0.5 thl - tcl
...(i)
NTU =
UA - 1 3 8 9 x 2 0 = Cmin 2220
For the calculated values of
= 0.254 Cmm
Cmin
L (th2 - tcl) 1 Substituting the values of (i) and (ii) in eqn. (2), we get
and NTU = 1.25, from the Fig. 10.48, we get E = 0.63
The given data is : thl : 150C, tc, = 30C and th2 = 90C
..
and
th2 = 100 - 0.63 (100 -15) = 46.45"C

+
0'63 (loo - 15) 15 = 28.60C 3.935 The air is cooled to a minimum temperature of 46.4SC. (Ans.) dExample 10.52. It is required to design a finned tube, cross-flow heat exchanger to heat pressurized water by means of hot exhaust gases, which enter the exchanger at 310C and leave it at llOC, respectively. The water flowing at the rate of 1.4 kg/s enters the exchanger at 3oOC and leaves at 130C. The hot exhaust gases heat tranCr coeficient based on the gas side is 105 w/rn2'c. Using NTU method, calculate the following:
t"2 =
Heat Exchangers from the hot gases leaving the turbine at 450C to the air leavhg the'c~m~ressor at 170C. The air flow rate is 5000 k g h and fuel-air ratio is 0.015 kg&. The overall heat transj2r coeficient fhr the heat exchanger is 52.33 w/m2 OC. The surface area is 50 m2 and arrangement is cross-flow (both fluids unmixed). Calculate the following: (i) The exit tempeatures on the air and gas sides, and (ii) The rate of heat transfer in the exchanger. C Take cph = cpc = 1.05 W k g O Solution: Given : th, = 450C; tcl = 170C; A = 50 m2. (i) The exit temperatures on the air and gas sides tc2,th2:
r,, = 4 5 0 " ~
(i) The efectiveness, and (ii) The gas side surface area. Take the following properties: Exhaust gas: cp = 1 kJ/kgC: water (at tbUIk = 80C) :cp = 4.2 U/kgC Solution. Given: m, = i t c = 1.4 kgh; tcl = 30C; m = 130C; cpc = 4.2 WlkgC;
thl = 3 loC; th2 = 1 10C; cPh = 1 kl/kgC; Uh = 105 w / m 2 OC.
'hI
tC2= ! '
thZ = ?
Fig. 10.64
Fig. 10.63. Fixed tube, cross-flow heat exchanger.
(i) The effectiveness, & : The he'at capacity o f cold fluid, The value o f Ch (heat capacity o f hot fluid) may be obtained by writing overall energy balance (since mh is not given). Hence
mh =
50M)
3600
= 1.4 1 kgls as 1.015 kg of gases are formed per kg of air
50 = 1.795 1457.4 Cmin = 0.984 and NTU = 1.795, From the Fig. 10.48, we get For the calculated values o f
NTU =
c min
"fl
Hence Cm, = Cc = 5.88 kWI0C and Cmin= Ch = 2.94 kWI0C When Cc > Ch, then effectiveness E is given by
& = -lhl -
The effectiveness & is given by
- th2
(ii) The gas side surface area, Ah :
thl-tcl
310 - 110 = 0.714 310-30
(Ans.)
Corresponding to Cmin = 0.5 and

~ m ,
= 0.714 from Fig. 10.48, we get
and
0.52 =
But
NTU =
41 Ah
Cmin
..
,
tc2 = 0.52 (450 - 170) + 170 = 315.6OC (ii) The rate of heat transfer in exchanger, Q: Q = UA(0m)coun,er= FUA (0m)counter where F = correction factor
tc2 - tcl - tc2 - 170 thl - tcl 450 - 170
(Ans.)
1.8 x 2.94 x 1000 = 50.4 m2 (Ans.) 105 Example 10.53. In a gas turbine power plant heat is being transferred in a heat exchanger
A, =
Heat Exchangers
0
Temperature ratio, P = tc2-tcl - 315.6-170 = 0.52 thl - tCl 450 - 170

450 - 306.6 = 0.985 315.6 170 Using the values of P and R, from Fig. 10.48, we get
th2
Basket vertical tube Long tube vertical.
Capacity ratio, R =
41- 4 2 - tcl
B. On the basis of the method of evaporation : 1. Single effect evaporators :

(i) Batch evaporators. Here filling, evaporating and emptying are consecutive steps. (ii) Semi-batch. Here feed is continuously added to maintain a constant level until entire change reaches a final density. (iii) Continuous evaporators. Here feed and discharge are continuous, and concentration of both feed and discharge remain substantially constant. 2. Multiple effect evaporators : (I). Forward feed Here raw feed is introduced in the first effect, and passed from effect to effect in parallel to the steam flow. The product is withdrawn from the last feed. (ii) Backward feed, Here the raw feed enters the last (coldest) effect, the discharge from this effect becomes the feed to next to the last effect and so on, until the product is discharged from this first effect, The following characteristics are important in design and operation of evaporators ' 1. The boiling heat transfer coefficient. 2. The boiling point. The heat transfer coefficient (i.e,, boiling film coefficient) depends upon viscosity, and surface tension; p (boiling coefficient) increases with increase in viscosity and varies inversely with surface tension. h increases with increase in boiling point. h. ; pa,where n lies between 0.3 to 0.78 depending upon the solution.
F = 0.76 Now substituting the values in eqn. (i), we get Q = 0.76 x 52.33 x 50 x 135.5 = 269447 W or 269.45 10.9. EVAPORATORS
kW (Ans.)
10.9.1. Introduction Evaporation is a process in which the solvent is removed from a solution of a non-volatile solute and a volatile solvent. Examples. Brine when heated with water (solvent) is evaporated and salt (solute) is produced. Other typical examples of evaporation of water are concentration aqueous solutions of sodium hydroxide: glycerol, sugar, juices and glue. In certain cases where the primary object is to get crystals by evaporation, this special process is termed crystallisatlon. On account of changes ili concentration and properties of the solution the following special problems may creep up : 1. Concentration of liquid 2. Solubility and crystal formation 3. Foaming 4. Pressure and temperature 5. Temperature sensitivity of materials 6. Entrainment of drops 7. Scale deposition and materials of construction. 10.9.2. Classification of Evaporators Evaporators may be classified as follows : A. On the basis of the fluids to be evaporated : 1. Power plant evaporators : (i) Make up evaporators for boiler feed (ii)Process evaporarors (iii) Salt water evaporators (iv) Heat transfer evaporators. In all above evaporators water is the solvent. 2. Chemical evaporators : Chemical evaporators may be natural circulation type or forced circulation type. Natural circulation may fall into the following four main classes : Horizontal tube Vertical tube
Types of Evaporators : The general types of evaporators are : 1. Open kettle or pan. 2. Horizontal tube natural circulation evaporator. 3. Vertical type natural circulation evaporator. 4. Long tube vertical type natural circulation evaporator. 5. Falling film type vertical natural circulation evaporator. 6. Forced circulation type evaporator. 7. Agitated film evaporator. Example 10.54. (a) Between counter-current and co- current heat exchangers which is more preferable, and why ? (b) A triple effect evaporator is concentrating a liquid that has no appreciable elevation in boiling point. The temperature of the steam to the jirst effect is 108OC, the boiling point of the solution in the last effect is 52OC The overall heat transfer co-eflcients in w/m2'c 2500 in whal tempemtun will the fint effect, 2000 in the second effect and 1000 in the third effect. At(AMIE Winter, 1996) the liquidbil in the first and second effects ? Solution. (a) Counter-current heat exchanger is more preferable to co-current heat exchanger because of the following reasons : 1. The counter-current heat exchanger is thermodynamically the most eficient. 2. For given heat flow rates, and given inlet and outlet fluid temperatures, a counter-current heat exchanger requires the minimum heat transfer area and a cwcurrent heat exchanger requires the maximum heat transfer area.
616
Heat Exchangers
617
3. In co-current flow (i.e.. parallel flow), the lowest temperature theoretically attainable by the hot fluid is that of the outlet temperature of the cold fluid. If this temperature were attained, the WMTD would be zero, requiring infinite heat transfer surface. Further, inability of the hot fluid in a co-current flow to fall below the outlet temperature of the cold fluid has a marked effect upon the ability of the co-current apparatus to recover heat. Hence, co-current heat flow heat exchanger are rarely used. (b) Assuming that the multiple effect evaporator is forward feed type, the arrangement is drawn below : Steam to ejector
--3
space pressure is 100 mm Hg (absolute). Find out the steam consumption, steam economy and the heat transfer area if the following data is available. Feed temperature = 37'C; BPE = 52OC; (cP)feed= 0.92
O' 75 Overall heat transfer co-eflcient, Uo= 1200 w/m20c. Solution. (a) Refer Article 10.9.2. m v (vapour at 100 mrn Hg)
(cp)product=
4
(m,
(AMIE Winter, 1997)
Feed
I I
----Steam 108C
Drip
--
I I
.
Fig. 10.65. Multiple effect evaporator (Forward feed type).
(mf= 15000 kg/h, 20% solid)

Product
For the above arrangement, if equal surfaces are employed in each effect (as is the usual practice), the difference in pressures between tbeffects, will be nearly equal. From steam .. tables, Correspondingto 108"C, pressure = 1.3390 bar, Corresponding to 52"C, pressure = 0.1360 bar;
& I ,
s
Heating steam Product
= 60%)
Average pressure difference = 1.3390 - 0.1360 = 0.401 bar 3 Break-up of the total pressure difference is given in the table below :
I
I
1
Fig. 10.66. Single effect evaporator.
Pressure (bar) Steam chest, first effect Steam chest, second effect Steam chest, third effect Vaccuum to ejector
1.3390 0.9380 0.5370 0.1360
(
AP (bar)
Steam or vapour "C

108 98 83 52
...
(b) Caustic soda balance : 15000 x 0.2 = mpx 0.6 ,@l : . Mass of product, mp : 0.6 0e2= 5000 1500 = m, + mv = 5080 + m (where mv = mass of vapour) Total mass balance, m, = 15000- 5000 = 10000 k g h .. hh of heating steam (at 25C) from steam tables = 2188 kJ/kg Vapour pressure = 100 mm Hg
= (13.6 x 1000) x 9.81 x E loo0 x
0.401 0 . 4 0 1 0.401
bar = 0.13342 bar
So, the boiling temperatures of liquid are : First effect = 98C (Ans.) Second effect = 83C (Ans.) Example 10.55. (a) How are evaporators dasszj?ed ? What are the characteristics of the solution which are important in design and operation of evaporators and how do these characteristics effect the evaporation process ? (b)A single effect evaporator is used to concentrate 15000 kg/h of a 20% solution of caustic soda to 60% concentration. Heating medium is dry and saturated steam at 125C. The vapour
h, = enthalpy of vapour = 2595 Wkg (from steam tables) Assuming that only latent heat of steam is used for heating, an energy balance of the evaporator is made as : mf x ( c ~ x 37 ) + ~m, ~ x hl, ~ =~ mvx hv+ mpx ( ~ ~ )x 52 ~ ~ d ~ ~ t = mass of feed, m, mf = mass of steam
[ZY
15000 x 0.92 x 37 + m, x 2188 = 10000 x 2595 + 5000 x 0.75 x 52
: .
The steam consumption, m, = 11716 kg/h
(Ans.)
618
Heat Exchangers
Steam economy is defined as kg of solvent evaporated per kg of steam used :

Steam economy = mv = loooo - 0.8535 Am. m, 11716
= 11716 x 2188
125C
...(iii)
dB = dQ.Z = U.dA.0.Z
...from (ii) and (i)
3600
Again integrating, we get

Fig. 10.67.
LMTD
in (02/81)= U.A.Z = UA
=UA 8 , = U A (LMT.03
.,,from (iii)
(Am.)
Heat transfer area = Q - 7121 x 1000 = 73.93 d (Ans.) U8, 1200 x 80.27 Example 10.56. (a) Derive an expression for LMTD of an evaporator. (b) The tube of an oil cooler is submerged in a large pool of stagnant water at temperature of 25C. The inside diameter of the tube is 25 mm and its length is 35 m. Estimate the overall heat transfer coeficient of this system if the temperature of oil drops from 85C to 35C and the average velocity of oil is 0.6 m/s. Assume for oil specific heat = 2.51 HAE K and th, spec@ gravity = 0.8. (AMIE Summer, 1995) Solution. (a)Derivation of expression for LMTD of an evaporator : Let the temperature in the evapoth2 rator be t,, the hot fluid (heat capacity 3I rate mh cph)enters the evaporator at thl tc 4 and leaves at th2. iI The temperature distribution along W-dA I the heat exchanger area is as shown in Area, A --+ Fig. 10.68. Fig. 10.68. Temperature distribution of an evaporator. For an elementary area, dA
(b) Given : d = 25 mm = 0.025 m; L = 35 m; tc = 25OC; thl = 85C; th2= 35C; V = 0.6 m/s; cph= 2.51 kJ/kg K; specific gravity of oil = 0.8 Overall heat transfer co-efficient, U :
25 mm 4
_ - - - _ -_ - - - - - _
_--- _ - _ - ----_ --- -- - - Water - I
-'-
tc (= 25C)
Fig. 10.69.
m = pAf V
(where A ! =
area of flow)
&
where Z = -
1 = a constant.
mh Cph
8 = t , - t, d8 = dt, = dQ.2 On integration, we get

2
2
...(ii)
9
= 385.53
(..a
Surface area, A, = d L )
w/m2'c
(Ans.)

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What is dimensional analysis and what are its uses?

What is dimensional analysis and what are its uses?

Explain the term dimensional homogeneity.

Explain the term dimensional homogeneity.

350

Heat and Mass Transfer

Heat and Mass Transfer

- surface roughness, - pressure gradient,

- plate curvature, and

Fig. 7.1. Boundary layer on a flat plate.

Log law or a power law).

(ir) Critical value of

v at which boundary layer changes from laminar to turbulent depends

on : - turbulence in ambient flow,

Fig. 7.2. Displacement thickness.

Loss of K.E. through elementary strip 1

=2 (pudy) u2- 5(pudy)u2 = ? p u (U -u 2) dy

Total loss of K.E. of fluid = - -; pu A

Equating Eqns. (i) and (ii), we have s

(iv) The value of 8 '

(i) The displacement thickness, 6*:

...I Eqn. (7.111

Heat and Mass Transfer

(ii) The momentum thickness, I :

(iii)The energy thickness, 6, :

(iv) The value of

Example 7.2. The velocity distribution in the boundary layer is given by

6 being boundary layer thickness.

u = -3y Solution. Velocity distribution : U 26 (i) 6*/6:

u = a + by + cy2 O=a+O+O ;.a=O y = 6, u=U U = b6 + c6' y = 6, -du dy =o

d (a + by + cy2)= b + 2cy = b + 2c6 = 0 -

Heat and Mass Transfer . Forced Convection Then,

av dy = fluid velocity at the top-face AD. +y

Velocity distribution Stationary plate

Equation (7.9) is known as equation of motion or momentum equation for hydrodynamic

Fig. 7.3. Equation of motion for boundary layer.

The hydrodynamic equation for boundary layer: u Continuity equation:

Here f is abbreviated as f (q)

a ' -.-( a &

Also as u = U and - = - along A plate length L, therefore, we have L' Again,

of the dimensionless distance from the wall

Substituting the value of 6 from Eqn. (7.1 1) in Eqn. (7.12), we obtain,

Inserting the values of u, (7.19) in Eqn. (7.9), we get

Heat and Mass Transfer

Table 7.1. Laminar boundary layer solution for a flat plate

Fig. 7.4. Velocity distribution in boundary layer on flat plate by Howarth

Cfi at any value of x is

Heat and Mass Transfer

From Fig. 7.4, the gradient at 11 = 0 is

Fig. 7.5. Momentum equation for boundary layer by Von Karman.

Mass rate of fluid entering through AD

Momentum rate of fluid leaving the control volume in x-direction through BC

Momentum rate of fluid entering the control volume through DC in x-direction

L" Rate of change of momentum of control volume

Heat and Mass Transfer

(ii) At the outer edge of boundary layer: y = 6, d

( p is constant for incompressible fluid)

drag' - and is denote by CD. e.,

geometrically similar. This means that the dimensionless velocity

- $)dy = momentum thickness ( 8 )