ME 6222: Manufacturing Processes and Systems

Prof. J.S. Colton GIT 2010

1
Machining - Cutting Tool Life
ver. 1
ME 6222: Manufacturing Processes and Systems
Prof. J.S. Colton GIT 2010
2
Overview
Failure mechanisms
Wear mechanisms
Wear of ceramic tools
Tool life
Machining conditions selection
ME 6222: Manufacturing Processes and Systems
Prof. J.S. Colton GIT 2010
3
Tool Wear Zones
workpiece
chip
cutting tool
shear zone
Crater wear
Flank wear
ME 6222: Manufacturing Processes and Systems
Prof. J.S. Colton GIT 2010
4
Chip / Tool Interface
ME 6222: Manufacturing Processes and Systems
Prof. J.S. Colton GIT 2010
5
Tool Wear
(e) (d)
(a) (b) (c)
Rake
Flank
ME 6222: Manufacturing Processes and Systems
Prof. J.S. Colton GIT 2010
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Tool Wear Zones
Crater wear (crater)
tool-chip interface
predominant at high speeds
mitigated by efficient use of carbides
Flank wear (wear land)
tool-workpiece interface
predominant at low speeds
ME 6222: Manufacturing Processes and Systems
Prof. J.S. Colton GIT 2010
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Failure Mechanisms
Gross Fracture
High rupture strength needed
pure WC - 200,000 psi (1.4 GPa)
Al
2
O
3
+TiC - 125,000 psi (0.86 GPa)
Transverse rupture strength
max. tensile stress at failure of 3 pt.
bending
ME 6222: Manufacturing Processes and Systems
Prof. J.S. Colton GIT 2010
8
Failure Mechanisms
Gross Fracture
Plastic deformation resistance needed
function of temperature
tensile
strength
T(
o
C)
1100 1200
ME 6222: Manufacturing Processes and Systems
Prof. J.S. Colton GIT 2010
9
Failure Mechanisms
Fatigue
Abrasion
Chemical diffusion and convection
Chemical diffusion
ME 6222: Manufacturing Processes and Systems
Prof. J.S. Colton GIT 2010
10
Tool Wear Mechanisms
Low speed High speed Very high speed
Mechanical
properties
Chemical
diffusion
and
convection
Chemical
diffusion
ME 6222: Manufacturing Processes and Systems
Prof. J.S. Colton GIT 2010
11
Wear at Low Speeds
Mechanical Properties
flow induced crack nucleation and growth
micro fracture
fatigue
abrasion
Al
2
O
3
at all speeds
cutting steel and Ni
ME 6222: Manufacturing Processes and Systems
Prof. J.S. Colton GIT 2010
12
Wear at High Speeds -
Chemical Diffusion and Convection
Chip
Chip flow
Tool atoms
Tool
Interphase
ME 6222: Manufacturing Processes and Systems
Prof. J.S. Colton GIT 2010
13
Chemical Diffusion and Convection
Tool dissolves directly into chip
Convection - chip sliding on surface
transition between sliding and sticking
begins
maximum heat generation point moves
away from tool tip
Net flow of material away from
interface
ME 6222: Manufacturing Processes and Systems
Prof. J.S. Colton GIT 2010
14
Wear at High Speeds
Carbides - super alloys, hard steels
Al
2
O
3
- Ti
Carbides, nitrides - steels
CBN - steels
ME 6222: Manufacturing Processes and Systems
Prof. J.S. Colton GIT 2010
15
Wear at Very High Speeds -
Chemical Diffusion
Chip
Chip flow
Tool atoms
Tool
Interphase
ME 6222: Manufacturing Processes and Systems
Prof. J.S. Colton GIT 2010
16
Chemical Diffusion
Transition from sliding to sticking
moves from the nose
finally sticking occurs everywhere
Boundary layer builds up
no convection directly from tool to chip
only chemical diffusion through
boundary layer of chip material
ME 6222: Manufacturing Processes and Systems
Prof. J.S. Colton GIT 2010
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Wear at Very High Speeds
Carbide, diamond - Ti at all speeds
CBN - super alloys, hard steels
ME 6222: Manufacturing Processes and Systems
Prof. J.S. Colton GIT 2010
18
Chip
Chip flow
Tool atoms
Tool
Dissolution Controls Wear
Tool atoms diffuse up and are swept
away by the chip at high temps.
ME 6222: Manufacturing Processes and Systems
Prof. J.S. Colton GIT 2010
19
Wear Velocity (v
wear
)
k =
c = equilibrium solubility
v
y
= bulk velocity of chip at chip-tool
interface
D = chemical diffusivity
= concentration gradient
y
c
kD kcv v
y wear
c
c
=
y
c
c
c
) (
) (
chip
tool
V material chip of volume Molar
V material tool of volume Molar
ME 6222: Manufacturing Processes and Systems
Prof. J.S. Colton GIT 2010
20
Wear Velocity
Very difficult to determine from
first principles
Estimate from experiments
ME 6222: Manufacturing Processes and Systems
Prof. J.S. Colton GIT 2010
21
Bulk Velocity - Ex. 1.1
v
wear
(HfC in Fe) ~ 0.61 m/min
k = V
tool
(HfC) / V
chip
(Fe) =
15.04 cm
3
/mole 7.11 cm
3
/mole = 2.12
c
HfC
~ 2.75 x 10
-5
v
wear
~ 0.61 m/min = 2.12 x 2.75 x 10
-5
x v
v(bulk velocity) ~ 10,500 m/min ~ 1 cm/min
ME 6222: Manufacturing Processes and Systems
Prof. J.S. Colton GIT 2010
22
Relative Wear Rates
Need solubilities to solve: can be looked up
2 2
1 1
2
1
2
1
2 2
1 1
2
1
c V
c V
c
c
V
V
V
V
c k
c k
v
v
chip
chip
wear
wear
=
= =
ME 6222: Manufacturing Processes and Systems
Prof. J.S. Colton GIT 2010
23
Relative Wear Rate - Ex. 2-1
HfC vs. TiC in contact with steel (Fe+C)
at 1600 K
Example to show method
ME 6222: Manufacturing Processes and Systems
Prof. J.S. Colton GIT 2010
24
m
C
m
Hf
HfC
G G G A + A = A
Relative Wear Rate - Ex. 2-2
HfC in contact with steel (Fe+C)
AG = free energy of formation
= affinity of Hf for C
= affinity of Hf for Fe
= affinity of C for Fe
HfC
G A
m
Hf
G A
m
C
G A
Josiah Willard Gibbs
1839-1903
Gibbs A little history
Gibbs entered Yale University at the age of
15 graduating, in 1858, at the age of 18.
He then entered the new Yale graduate
school earning the first PhD in engineering in
the United States, completed in 1863. Gibbs'
PhD thesis was On the Form of the Teeth of
Wheels in Spur Gearing.
In 1871, two years after returning from a
study abroad at various universities in
Europe, Gibbs became Yale's first professor
of mathematical physics.
25 ME 6222: Manufacturing Processes and Systems
Prof. J.S. Colton GIT 2010
ME 6222: Manufacturing Processes and Systems
Prof. J.S. Colton GIT 2010
26
Relative Wear Rate - Ex. 2-3
= excess free energy (enthalpy)
of mixing
= entropy of mixing x T =(TAS
i
)
c = concentration
T = absolute temperature (K)
R = gas constant = 2 cal/mol/K
i
xs
i
m
i
c RT G G ln + A = A
xs
i
G A
i
c RT ln
ME 6222: Manufacturing Processes and Systems
Prof. J.S. Colton GIT 2010
27
Relative Wear Rate - Ex. 2-4
= -49,000 cal/mole
c
Hf
= c
C
for HfC
-49,000 = -2,100 + RT lnc
Hf
+ 7,600
+ RT lnc
C
HfC
G A
C
xs
C
Hf
xs
Hf
c RT G c RT G ln ln + A + + A =
ME 6222: Manufacturing Processes and Systems
Prof. J.S. Colton GIT 2010
28
Relative Wear Rate - Ex. 2-5
-49,000 + 2,100 - 7,600
= 2 x 1600 (lnc
Hf
+ lnc
C
)
= 4 x 1600 x (lnc
Hf
)
lnc
Hf
= - 8.52
c
Hf
= 2 x 10
-4
= c
HfC
ME 6222: Manufacturing Processes and Systems
Prof. J.S. Colton GIT 2010
29
Relative Wear Rate - Ex. 2-6
mole cal G
TiC
/ 500 , 39 = A
mole cal G
xs
Ti
/ 900 , 6 = A
mole cal G
xs
C
/ 600 , 7 = A
T R
G G G
c
xs
C
xs
Ti
TiC
TiC

A A A
=
2
ln
ME 6222: Manufacturing Processes and Systems
Prof. J.S. Colton GIT 2010
30
Relative Wear Rate - Ex. 2-7
3
10 87 . 1
28 . 6 ln
1600 2 2
600 , 7 900 , 6 500 , 39

=
= =

+
TiC
TiC
c
c
ME 6222: Manufacturing Processes and Systems
Prof. J.S. Colton GIT 2010
31
Relative Wear Rate - Ex. 2-8
HfC has 13% of the wear rate of TiC
when cutting steel.
13 . 0
10 87 . 1
10 2
2 . 12
04 . 15
3
4
=

TiC TiC
HfC HfC
c V
c V
ME 6222: Manufacturing Processes and Systems
Prof. J.S. Colton GIT 2010
32
Relative Wear Rate - Ex. 2-9
TiC wears much less than calculated
because it forms an oxide layer with
oxygen from the steel being cut.
TiC predicted = 10.6
TiC actual = 2.75
TiC
0.75
O
0.25
= 2.61
AG
TiO
< AG
TiC
ME 6222: Manufacturing Processes and Systems
Prof. J.S. Colton GIT 2010
33
Concentration - General Expression
( )
( )

)

+
+ A A A
=
RT y x
y y x x RT G y G x G
c
xs
B
xs
A
B A
B A
y x
y x
ln ln
exp
ME 6222: Manufacturing Processes and Systems
Prof. J.S. Colton GIT 2010
34
Nickel Alloys
Similar calculations not too accurate.
Nickel forms more stable intermetallic
compounds than iron.
ME 6222: Manufacturing Processes and Systems
Prof. J.S. Colton GIT 2010
35
Affinity Estimation -
Free energy of formation of
intermetallic compounds
Good indication of stable
compounds
is very negative
Get from:
AG of intermetallic
Phase diagram
xs
i
G A
xs
i
G A
ME 6222: Manufacturing Processes and Systems
Prof. J.S. Colton GIT 2010
36
Affinity Estimation - Ex. 3-1
TiC and stainless steel (Fe, C, Ni)
Phase diagram of Ni-Ti:
1726K
1653K
Ni
Ti
12.5%
Solid solution
1560K
Ni+Ni
3
Ti
ME 6222: Manufacturing Processes and Systems
Prof. J.S. Colton GIT 2010
37
Affinity Estimation - Ex. 3-2
Ni
3
Ti:
AH = enthalpy of formation
= -33,500 cal/mole
AG = AH - TAS
AG ~ AH = -33,500 cal/mole
0
ME 6222: Manufacturing Processes and Systems
Prof. J.S. Colton GIT 2010
38
Affinity Estimation - Ex. 3-3
Equilibrium between stainless steel and
intermetallic:
c
Ti
= 0.125 from phase diagram @ 1560K
) (
3
Ti of mole per G SS in Ti of G
Ti Ni sol
=
( ) ( ) Ti mole per G Ti mole per G
Ti Ni
m
Ti
3
=
cal/mole , c RT G
Ti
xs
Ti
500 33 ln = +
ME 6222: Manufacturing Processes and Systems
Prof. J.S. Colton GIT 2010
39
mole cal G
mole cal G
xs
Ti
xs
Ti
/ 000 , 27
/ 500 , 33 500 , 6
= A
= A
Affinity Estimation - Ex. 3-4
This is the value for Ti in Ni.
This number is different than -6,900
cal/mole, for Ti in Fe.
ME 6222: Manufacturing Processes and Systems
Prof. J.S. Colton GIT 2010
40
Wear of Ceramics (low speed)
Ceramics are very stable chemically
c (dissolution) is small
(diffusion) is small
Mechanical wear is left as mechanism
flow, fracture, fatigue
thermal, mechanical
y
c
c
c
ME 6222: Manufacturing Processes and Systems
Prof. J.S. Colton GIT 2010
41
Wear of Ceramics
T
cutting
> 0.5 T
m
(Al
2
O
3
) (in K)
Al
2
O
3
is quite ductile
Delamination theory
voids join to form cracks which form
sheet-like wear plates (in areas of
intimate contact)
void
crack
ME 6222: Manufacturing Processes and Systems
Prof. J.S. Colton GIT 2010
42
Wear of Ceramics
Outside areas of intimate contact
intermittent contact
thermal cycles
low thermal expansion, low modulus
mechanical (stress) cycles
ME 6222: Manufacturing Processes and Systems
Prof. J.S. Colton GIT 2010
43
Tool Wear and Life
Tool life depends on application
Total destruction
rough cutting - surface damage at failure
Fixed value of flank wear
easy to measure, tools fail by cratering at
high speeds
0.015 (0.38 mm) for finish cuts
0.030 (0.76 mm) for rough cuts
ME 6222: Manufacturing Processes and Systems
Prof. J.S. Colton GIT 2010
44
Tool Wear and Life
Surface finish
Cutting rate - band sawing
constant feed force
cutting rate decreases as tool dulls
Excessive torque - drilling
breakage
ME 6222: Manufacturing Processes and Systems
Prof. J.S. Colton GIT 2010
45
How to affect tool life?
In tests,
T ~ u
-n
T = tool life
u = temperature
n = 6 - 12
ME 6222: Manufacturing Processes and Systems
Prof. J.S. Colton GIT 2010
46
How to affect tool life?
Reduce temperature
hard to do
Cutting fluids do not penetrate to
interface - small effect
Can adjust
V = cutting speed (very sensitive)
f = feed rate (sensitive)
determines surface finish
d = depth of cut (not sensitive)
ME 6222: Manufacturing Processes and Systems
Prof. J.S. Colton GIT 2010
47
Taylors Equation
VT
n
= C
V = cutting speed
T = tool life
n, C = Taylor constants (empirical)
log V
C
n
log T
1
Frederick W. Taylor
1856-1915
ME 6222: Manufacturing Processes and Systems
Prof. J.S. Colton GIT 2010
48
F.W. Taylors Contributions
Metal cutting
Time / motion studies
Led to Congressional
inquiry and banning of
stop watch use by civil
servants (1921-1949)
Design of shovels
Scientific management
ME 6222: Manufacturing Processes and Systems
Prof. J.S. Colton GIT 2010
49
Extended Taylors Equation
VT
n
f
m
=C
f = feed rate
For high speed steels:
V T
0.24
f
0.45
= 23
T= C V
-4.2
f
-1.9
ME 6222: Manufacturing Processes and Systems
Prof. J.S. Colton GIT 2010
50
Taylors Equation - Ex. 4-1
Derive Taylors equation from data
speed (V)
(sfpm) [m/s]
tool life (T)
(min)
600 [3.1] 19.95
700 [3.6] 12.20
ME 6222: Manufacturing Processes and Systems
Prof. J.S. Colton GIT 2010
51
Taylors Equation - Ex. 4-2
VT
n
@(600 sfpm) = VT
n
@(700 sfpm)
700(12.2)
n
= 600(19.95)
n
700/600 = 1.167 = (19.95/12.2)
n
n ~ 0.31
C = 600 x 19.95
0.31
~ 1520
VT
0.31
= 1520
ME 6222: Manufacturing Processes and Systems
Prof. J.S. Colton GIT 2010
52
Choosing Machining Conditions
Pick maximum possible depth of cut
Take maximum feed rate subject to:
surface finish (see next slides)
power limitations of machine
If youre power limited, are chips breaking?
Chips break at f > 0.005/min (0.13 mm/min)
Pick cost optimum speed
ME 6222: Manufacturing Processes and Systems
Prof. J.S. Colton GIT 2010
53
Tool Marks
ME 6222: Manufacturing Processes and Systems
Prof. J.S. Colton GIT 2010
54
Surfaces produced on steel by cutting, as observed with a scanning electron microscope: (a) turned
surface and (b) surface produced by shaping. Source: J. T. Black and S. Ramalingam.
(b) (a)
Surface Marks
ME 6222: Manufacturing Processes and Systems
Prof. J.S. Colton GIT 2010
55
Roughness
f = feed
r = nose radius
AA = arithmetic average
t = peak-to-valley
r
f
Roughness
AA
3 18
2
~
r
r
f
Roughness
t
8
2
~
f
ME 6222: Manufacturing Processes and Systems
Prof. J.S. Colton GIT 2010
56
Summary
Failure mechanisms
Wear mechanisms
Wear of ceramic tools
Tool life equations
Machining conditions selection
ME 6222: Manufacturing Processes and Systems
Prof. J.S. Colton GIT 2010
57