The Unix and GNU/Linux command line

The Unix and GNU/Linux command line

Michael Opdenacker Thomas Petazzoni Free Electrons

Copyright 2009, Free Electrons. Creative Commons BY-SA 3.0 license Latest update: Jul 15, 2010, Document sources, updates and translations: http://free-electrons.com/docs/command-line Corrections, suggestions, contributions and translations are welcome!

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Command memento sheet

It is a useful companion to this presentation. Examples for the most useful commands are given in just one sheet. Suggestions for use Stick this sheet on your wall, use it as desktop wallpaper, make it a mouse mat, print it on clothing, slice it into bookmarks... Caution Store away from mice!
Get it on http://free-electrons.com/docs/command-line
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Training Contents (1)

Shells, filesystem and file handling Everything is a file GNU / Linux filesystem structure Command line interpreters Handling files and directories Displaying, scanning and sorting files Symbolic and hard link File access rights

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Training contents (2)

Standard I/O, redirections, pipes Standard input and output, redirecting to files Pipes: redirecting standard output to other commands Standard error

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Training Contents (3)

Task control Full control on tasks Executing in background, suspending, resuming and aborting List of active tasks Killing processes Environment variables PATH environment variables Shell aliases, .bashrc file

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Training contents (4)

Miscellaneous

Text editors Compressing and archiving Printing files Comparing files and directories Looking for files Getting information about users

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The Unix and GNU / Linux command line

Unix filesystem

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Everything is a file
Almost everything in Unix is a file! Regular files Directories Directories are just files listing a set of files Symbolic links Files referring to the name of another file Devices and peripherals Read and write from devices as with regular files Pipes Used to cascade programs cat *.log | grep error Sockets Inter process communication

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File names
File name features since the beginning of Unix Case sensitive No obvious length limit Can contain any character (including whitespace, except /). File types stored in the file (magic numbers). File name extensions not needed and not interpreted. Just used for user convenience. File name examples: README .bashrc index.htm index.html Windows Buglist index.html.old

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File paths
A path is a sequence of nested directories with a file or directory at the end, separated by the / character Relative path: documents/fun/microsoft_jokes.html Relative to the current directory Absolute path: /home/bill/bugs/crash9402031614568 / : root directory. Start of absolute paths for all files on the system (even for files on removable devices or network shared).

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GNU / Linux filesystem structure (1)

Not imposed by the system. Can vary from one system to the other, even between two GNU/Linux installations! / /bin/ /boot/ /dev/ /etc/ /home/ /lib/ Root directory Basic, essential system commands Kernel images, initrd and configuration files Files representing devices /dev/hda: first IDE hard disk System configuration files User directories Basic system shared libraries

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GNU / Linux filesystem structure (2)

/lost+found /media /mnt/ filesystems /opt/ /proc/ /root/ /sbin/ /sys/ Corrupt files the system tried to recover Mount points for removable media: /media/usbdisk, /media/cdrom Mount points for temporarily mounted Specific tools installed by the sysadmin /usr/local/ often used instead Access to system information /proc/cpuinfo, /proc/version ... root user home directory Administrator-only commands System and device controls (cpu frequency, device power, etc.)
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GNU / Linux filesystem structure (3)

/tmp/ /usr/ /usr/local/ /var/ Temporary files Regular user tools (not essential to the system) /usr/bin/, /usr/lib/, /usr/sbin... Specific software installed by the sysadmin (often preferred to /opt/) Data used by the system or system servers /var/log/, /var/spool/mail (incoming mail), /var/spool/lpd (print jobs)...

The Unix filesystem structure is defined by the Filesystem Hierarchy Standard (FHS): http://www.pathname.com/fhs/

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The Unix and GNU / Linux command line

Shells and file handling

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Command line interpreters

Shells: tools to execute user commands Called shells because they hide the details on the underlying operating system under the shell's surface. Commands are input in a text terminal, either a window in a graphical environment or a text-only console. Results are also displayed on the terminal. No graphics are needed at all. Shells can be scripted: provide all the resources to write complex programs (variable, conditionals, iterations...)

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Well known shells

Most famous and popular shells sh: The Bourne shell (obsolete) Traditional, basic shell found on Unix systems, by Steve Bourne. csh: The C shell (obsolete) Once popular shell with a C-like syntax tcsh: The TC shell (still very popular) A C shell compatible implementation with evolved features (command completion, history editing and more...) bash: The Bourne Again shell (most popular) An improved implementation of sh with lots of added features too.

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fish: a great new shell

The Friendly Interactive SHell http://www.fishshell.org/ Standard features: history, command and file completion... Brand new features: command option completion, command completion with short description, syntax highlighting.. Easier to any open files: open built-in command. Much simpler and consistent syntax (not POSIX compliant) Makes it easier to create shell scripts. Command line beginners can learn much faster! Even experienced users should find this shell very convenient.

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ls command
Lists the files in the current directory, in alphanumeric order, except files starting with the . character. ls -a (all) Lists all the files (including .* files) ls -l (long) Long listing (type, date, size, owner, permissions) ls -t (time) Lists the most recent files first ls -S (size) Lists the biggest files first ls -r (reverse) Reverses the sort order ls -ltr (options can be combined) Long listing, most recent files at the end

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File name pattern substitutions

Better introduced by examples! ls *txt The shell first replaces *txt by all the file and directory names ending by txt (including .txt), except those starting with ., and then executes the ls command line. ls -d .* Lists all the files and directories starting with . -d tells ls not to display the contents of directories. cat ?.log Displays all the files which names start by 1 character and end by .log

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Special directories (1)

./ The current directory. Useful for commands taking a directory argument. Also sometimes useful to run commands in the current directory (see later). So ./readme.txt and readme.txt are equivalent. ../ The parent (enclosing) directory. Always belongs to the . directory (see ls -a). Only reference to the parent directory. Typical usage: cd ..

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Special directories (2)

~/ Not a special directory indeed. Shells just substitute it by the home directory of the current user. Cannot be used in most programs, as it is not a real directory. ~sydney/ Similarly, substituted by shells by the home directory of the sydney user.

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The cd and pwd commands

cd <dir> Changes the current directory to <dir>. cd Gets back to the previous current directory. pwd Displays the current directory ("working directory").

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The cp command
cp <source_file> <target_file> Copies the source file to the target. cp file1 file2 file3 ... dir Copies the files to the target directory (last argument). cp -i (interactive) Asks for user confirmation if the target file already exists cp -r <source_dir> <target_dir> (recursive) Copies the whole directory.

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mv and rm commands
mv <old_name> <new_name> (move) Renames the given file or directory. mv -i (interactive) If the new file already exits, asks for user confirm rm file1 file2 file3 ... (remove) Removes the given files. rm -i (interactive) Always ask for user confirm. rm -r dir1 dir2 dir3 (recursive) Removes the given directories with all their contents.

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Creating and removing directories

mkdir dir1 dir2 dir3 ... (make dir) Creates directories with the given names. rmdir dir1 dir2 dir3 ... (remove dir) Removes the given directories Safe: only works when directories and empty. Alternative: rm -r (doesn't need empty directories).

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Displaying file contents

Several ways of displaying the contents of files. cat file1 file2 file3 ... (concatenate) Concatenates and outputs the contents of the given files. more file1 file2 file3 ... After each page, asks the user to hit a key to continue. Can also jump to the first occurrence of a keyword (/ command). less file1 file2 file3 ... Does more than more with less. Doesn't read the whole file before starting. Supports backward movement in the file (? command).

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The head and tail commands

head [-<n>] <file> Displays the first <n> lines (or 10 by default) of the given file. Doesn't have to open the whole file to do this! tail [-<n>] <file> Displays the last <n> lines (or 10 by default) of the given file. No need to load the whole file in RAM! Very useful for huge files. tail -f <file> (follow) Displays the last 10 lines of the given file and continues to display new lines when they are appended to the file. Very useful to follow the changes in a log file, for example. Examples head windows_bugs.txt tail -f outlook_vulnerabilities.txt

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The grep command

grep <pattern> <files> Scans the given files and displays the lines which match the given pattern. grep error *.log Displays all the lines containing error in the *.log files grep -i error *.log Same, but case insensitive grep -ri error . Same, but recursively in all the files in . and its subdirectories grep -v info *.log Outputs all the lines in the files except those containing info.

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The sort command

sort <file> Sorts the lines in the given file in character order and outputs them. sort -r <file> Same, but in reverse order. sort -ru <file> u: unique. Same, but just outputs identical lines once. More possibilities described later!

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The sed command

sed is a Stream EDitor It parses text files and implements a programming language to apply transformations on the text. One of the most common usage of sed is text replacement, which relies on regular expressions
sed -e 's/abc/def/' testfile will replace every string abc by def in the file testfile and display the result on the standard output. sed 's/^[ \t]*//' testfile will remove any tabulation or space at the beginning of a line
sed 's/^|\([^|]*\)|\([^|]*\)|$/\1 -> \2/' testfile

replace lines like |string1|string2| by string1 -> string2

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sed : regular expressions

Regular expressions are useful in many Unix tools, not only sed. They allow to match the input text against an expression.
. matches any character [ ] matches any character listed inside the brackets [^ ] matches any character not listed inside the brackets ^ matches the beginning of the line $ matches the end of the line * matches the previous element zero or more times, + matches the previous element one or more times, ? matches the previous element zero or one time \( \) defines a sub-expression that can be later recalled by using \n, where n is the number of the sub-expression in the regular expression More at http://www.regular-expressions.info/
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Symbolic links
A symbolic link is a special file which is just a reference to the name of another one (file or directory): Useful to reduce disk usage and complexity when 2 files have the same content. Example:
anakin_skywalker_biography -> darth_vador_biography

How to identify symbolic links: ls -l displays -> and the linked file name. GNU ls displays links with a different color.

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Creating symbolic links

To create a symbolic link (same order as in cp): ln -s file_name link_name To create a link with to a file in another directory, with the same name: ln -s ../README.txt To create multiple links at once in a given directory: ln -s file1 file2 file3 ... dir To remove a link: rm link_name Of course, this doesn't remove the linked file!

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Hard links
The default behavior for ln is to create hard links A hard link to a file is a regular file with exactly the same physical contents While they still save space, hard links can't be distinguished from the original files. If you remove the original file, there is no impact on the hard link contents. The contents are removed when there are no more files (hard links) to them.

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Files names and inodes

Makes hard and symbolic (soft) links easier to understand!
Users File name interface

Soft link Inode

rm

File Inode

Hard link
rm

Inode interface Filesystem

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The Unix and GNU / Linux command line

Command documentation

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Command help
Some Unix commands and most GNU / Linux commands offer at least one help argument: -h (- is mostly used to introduce 1-character options) --help (-- is always used to introduce the corresponding long option name, which makes scripts easier to understand) You also often get a short summary of options when you input an invalid argument.

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Manual pages
man <keyword> Displays one or several manual pages for <keyword> man man Most available manual pages are about Unix commands, but some are also about C functions, headers or data structures, or even about system configuration files! man stdio.h man fstab (for /etc/fstab) Manual page files are looked for in the directories specified by the MANPATH environment variable.

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Info pages
In GNU, man pages are being replaced by info pages. Some manual pages even tell to refer to info pages instead. info <command>
info features:
Documentation structured in sections (nodes) and subsections (subnodes) Possibility to navigate in this structure: top, next, prev, up Info pages generated from the same texinfo source as the HTML documentation pages

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Searching the Internet for resources (2)

Looking for documentation Look for <tool> or <tool> page to find the tool or project home page and then find the latest documentation resources. Look for <tool> documentation or <tool> manual in your favorite search engine. Looking for generic technical information WikiPedia: http://wikipedia.org Lots of useful definitions in computer science. A real encyclopedia! Open to anyone's contributions.

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Searching the Internet for resources (1)

Investigating issues Most forums and mailing list archives are public, and are indexed on a very frequent basis by Google. If you investigate an error message, copy it verbatim in the search form, enclosed in double quotes (error message). Lots of chances that somebody else already faced the same issue. Don't forget to use Google Groups: http://groups.google.com/ This site indexes more than 20 years of newsgroups messages.
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The Unix and GNU / Linux command line

Users and permissions

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File access rights

Use ls -l to check file access rights
3 types of access rights Read access (r) Write access (w) Execute rights (x) 3 types of access levels User (u): for the owner of the file Group (g): each file also has a group attribute, corresponding to a given list of users Others (o): for all other users

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Access right constraints

x is sufficient to execute binaries Both x and r and required for shell scripts. Both r and x permissions needed in practice for directories: r to list the contents, x to access the contents. You can't rename, remove, copy files in a directory if you don't have w access to this directory. If you have w access to a directory, you CAN remove a file even if you don't have write access to this file (remember that a directory is just a file describing a list of files). This even lets you modify (remove + recreate) a file even without w access to it.

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Access rights examples

-rw-r--r-Readable and writable for file owner, only readable for others -rw-r----Readable and writable for file owner, only readable for users belonging to the file group. drwx-----Directory only accessible by its owner -------r-x File executable by others but neither by your friends nor by yourself. Nice protections for a trap...

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chmod: changing permissions

chmod <permissions> <files> 2 formats for permissions: Octal format (abc): a,b,c = r*4+w*2+x (r, w, x: booleans) Example: chmod 644 <file> (rw for u, r for g and o) Or symbolic format. Easy to understand by examples: chmod go+r: add read permissions to group and others. chmod u-w: remove write permissions from user. chmod a-x: (a: all) remove execute permission from all.
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More chmod (1)

chmod -R a+rX linux/ Makes linux and everything in it available to everyone! R: apply changes recursively X: x, but only for directories and files already executable Very useful to open recursive access to directories, without adding execution rights to all files.

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More chmod (2)

chmod a+t /tmp t: (sticky). Special permission for directories, allowing only the directory and file owner to delete a file in a directory. Useful for directories with write access to anyone, like /tmp. Displayed by ls -l with a t character.

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File ownership
Particularly useful in (embedded) system development when you create files for another system. chown -R sco /home/linux/src (-R: recursive) Makes user sco the new owner of all the files in /home/linux/src. chgrp -R empire /home/askywalker Makes empire the new group of everything in /home/askywalker. chown -R borg:aliens usss_entreprise/ chown can be used to change the owner and group at the same time.

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Beware of the dark side of root

root user privileges are only needed for very specific tasks with security risks: mounting, creating device files, loading drivers, starting networking, changing file ownership, package upgrades... Even if you have the root password, your regular account should be sufficient for 99.9 % of your tasks (unless you are a system administrator). In a training session, it is acceptable to use root. In real life, you may not even have access to this account, or put your systems and data at risk if you do.

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Using the root account

In case you really want to use root... If you have the root password: su - (switch user) In modern distributions, the sudo command gives you access to some root privileges with your own user password. Example: sudo mount /dev/hda4 /home

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The Unix and GNU / Linux command line

Standard I/O, redirections, pipes

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Standard output
More about command output All the commands outputting text on your terminal do it by writing to their standard output. Standard output can be written (redirected) to a file using the > symbol Standard output can be appended to an existing file using the >> symbol

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Standard output redirection examples

ls ~saddam/* > ~gwb/weapons_mass_destruction.txt cat obiwan_kenobi.txt > starwars_biographies.txt cat han_solo.txt >> starwars_biographies.txt echo README: No such file or directory > README Useful way of creating a file without a text editor. Nice Unix joke too in this case.

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Standard input
More about command input Lots of commands, when not given input arguments, can take their input from standard input. sort windows linux [Ctrl][D] linux windows sort takes its input from the standard input: in this case, what you type in the terminal (ended by [Ctrl][D])

sort < participants.txt The standard input of sort is taken from the given file.

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Pipes
Unix pipes are very useful to redirect the standard output of a command to the standard input of another one. Examples
cat *.log | grep -i error | sort grep -ri error . | grep -v ignored | sort -u \ > serious_errors.log cat /home/*/homework.txt | grep mark | more

This one of the most powerful features in Unix shells!

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The tee command

tee [-a] file The tee command can be used to send standard output to the screen and to a file simultaneously. make | tee build.log Runs the make command and stores its output to build.log. make install | tee -a build.log Runs the make install command and appends its output to build.log.

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Standard error
Error messages are usually output (if the program is well written) to standard error instead of standard output. Standard error can be redirected through 2> or 2>> Example: cat f1 f2 nofile > newfile 2> errfile Note: 1 is the descriptor for standard output, so 1> is equivalent to >. Can redirect both standard output and standard error to the same file using &> : cat f1 f2 nofile &> wholefile

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The yes command

Useful to fill standard input with always the same string. yes <string> | <command> Keeps filling the standard input of <command> with <string> (y by default). Examples yes | rm -r dir/ bank> yes no | credit_applicant yes "" | make oldconfig (equivalent to hitting [Enter] to accept all default settings)

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Special devices (1)

Device files with a special behavior or contents /dev/null The data sink! Discards all data written to this file. Useful to get rid of unwanted output, typically log information: mplayer black_adder_4th.avi &> /dev/null /dev/zero Reads from this file always return \0 characters Useful to create a file filled with zeros: dd if=/dev/zero of=disk.img bs=1k count=2048 See man null or man zero for details

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Special devices (2)

/dev/random Returns random bytes when read. Mainly used by cryptographic programs. Uses interrupts from some device drivers as sources of true randomness (entropy). Reads can be blocked until enough entropy is gathered. /dev/urandom For programs for which pseudo random numbers are fine. Always generates random bytes, even if not enough entropy is available (in which case it is possible, though still difficult, to predict future byte sequences from past ones). See man random for details.

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Special devices (3)

/dev/full Mimics a full device. Useful to check that your application properly handles this kind of situation. See man full for details.

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The Unix and GNU / Linux command line

Task control

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Full control on tasks

Since the beginning, Unix supports true preemptive multitasking. Ability to run many tasks in parallel, and abort them even if they corrupt their own state and data. Ability to choose which programs you run. Ability to choose which input your programs takes, and where their output goes.

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Processes
Everything in Unix is a file Everything in Unix that is not a file is a process Processes Instances of a running programs Several instances of the same program can run at the same time Data associated to processes: Open files, allocated memory, stack, process id, parent, priority, state...

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Running jobs in background

Same usage throughout all the shells Useful
For command line jobs which output can be examined later, especially for time consuming ones. To start graphical applications from the command line and then continue with the mouse.

Starting a task: add & at the end of your line: find_prince_charming --cute --clever --rich &

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Background job control

jobs Returns the list of background jobs from the same shell
[1][2]+ Running ~/bin/find_meaning_of_life --without-god & Running make mistakes &

fg fg %<n> Puts the last / nth background job in foreground mode Moving the current task in background mode: [Ctrl] Z bg kill %<n> Aborts the nth job.

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Job control example

> jobs [1]- Running ~/bin/find_meaning_of_life --without-god & [2]+ Running make mistakes & > fg make mistakes > [Ctrl] Z [2]+ Stopped make mistakes > bg [2]+ make mistakes & > kill %1 [1]+ Terminated ~/bin/find_meaning_of_life --without-god

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Listing all processes

... whatever shell, script or process they are started from ps -ux Lists all the processes belonging to the current user ps -aux (Note: ps -edf on System V systems) Lists all the processes running on the system
ps -aux | grep bart | grep bash USER PID %CPU %MEM VSZ RSS bart 3039 0.0 0.2 5916 1380 bart 3134 0.0 0.2 5388 1380 bart 3190 0.0 0.2 6368 1360 bart 3416 0.0 0.0 0 0 PID: VSZ: RSS: TTY: STAT: TTY pts/2 pts/3 pts/4 pts/2 STAT S S S RW START 14:35 14:36 14:37 15:07 TIME 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 COMMAND /bin/bash /bin/bash /bin/bash [bash]

Process id Virtual process size (code + data + stack) Process resident size: number of KB currently in RAM Terminal Status: R (Runnable), S (Sleep), W (paging), Z (Zombie)...

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Live process activity

top - Displays most important processes, sorted by cpu percentage
top - 15:44:33 up 1:11, 5 users, load average: 0.98, 0.61, 0.59 Tasks: 81 total, 5 running, 76 sleeping, 0 stopped, 0 zombie Cpu(s): 92.7% us, 5.3% sy, 0.0% ni, 0.0% id, 1.7% wa, 0.3% hi, 0.0% si Mem: 515344k total, 512384k used, 2960k free, 20464k buffers Swap: 1044184k total, 0k used, 1044184k free, 277660k cached PID USER 3809 jdoe 2769 root 3006 jdoe 3008 jdoe 3034 jdoe 3810 jdoe PR 25 16 15 16 15 16 NI VIRT RES SHR S %CPU %MEM 0 6256 3932 1312 R 93.8 0.8 0 157m 80m 90m R 2.7 16.0 0 30928 15m 27m S 0.3 3.0 0 5624 892 4468 S 0.3 0.2 0 26764 12m 24m S 0.3 2.5 0 2892 916 1620 R 0.3 0.2 TIME+ 0:21.49 5:21.01 0:22.40 0:06.59 0:12.68 0:00.06 COMMAND bunzip2 X kdeinit autorun kscd top

You can change the sorting order by typing M: Memory usage, P: %CPU, T: Time. You can kill a task by typing k and the process id.
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Killing processes (1)

kill <pids> Sends an abort signal to the given processes. Lets processes save data and exit by themselves. Should be used first. Example: kill 3039 3134 3190 3416 kill -9 <pids> Sends an immediate termination signal. The system itself terminates the processes. Useful when a process is really stuck (doesn't answer to kill -1). kill -9 -1 Kills all the processes of the current user. -1: means all processes.
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Killing processes (2)

killall [-<signal>] <command> Kills all the jobs running <command>. Example: killall bash xkill Lets you kill a graphical application by clicking on it! Very quick! Convenient when you don't know the application command name.

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Recovering from stuck graphics

If your graphical session is stuck and you can no longer type in your terminals, don't reboot! It is very likely that your system is still fine. Try to access a text console by pressing the [Ctrl][Alt][F1] keys (or [F2],[F3] for more text consoles) In the text console, you can try to kill the guilty application. Once this is done, you can go back to the graphic session by pressing [Ctrl][Alt][F5] or [Ctrl][Alt][F7] (depending on your distribution) If you can't identify the stuck program, you can also kill all your processes: kill -9 -1 You are then brought back to the login screen.

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Sequential commands
Can type the next command in your terminal even when the current one is not over. Can separate commands with the ; symbol: echo I love thee; sleep 10; echo not Conditionals: use || (or) or && (and): more God || echo Sorry, God doesn't exist Runs echo only if the first command fails ls ~sd6 && cat ~sd6/* > ~sydney/recipes.txt Only cats the directory contents if the ls command succeeds (means read access).

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Quoting (1)
Double (") quotes can be used to prevent the shell from interpreting spaces as argument separators, as well as to prevent file name pattern expansion. > echo "Hello World" Hello World > echo "You are logged as $USER" You are logged as bgates > echo *.log find_prince_charming.log cosmetic_buys.log > echo "*.log" *.log

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Quoting (2)
Single quotes bring a similar functionality, but what is between quotes is never substituted > echo 'You are logged as $USER' You are logged as $USER Back quotes (`) can be used to call a command within another > cd /lib/modules/`uname -r`; pwd /lib/modules/2.6.9-1.6_FC2 Back quotes can be used within double quotes > echo "You are using Linux `uname -r`" You are using Linux 2.6.9-1.6_FC2

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Measuring elapsed time

time find_expensive_housing --near <...command output...> real 0m2.304s (actual elapsed time) user 0m0.449s (CPU time running program code) sys 0m0.106s (CPU time running system calls) real = user + sys + waiting waiting = I/O waiting time + idle time (running other tasks)

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Environment variables
Shells let the user define variables. They can be reused in shell commands. Convention: lower case names You can also define environment variables: variables that are also visible within scripts or executables called from the shell. Convention: upper case names. env Lists all defined environment variables and their value.

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Shell variables examples

Shell variables (bash) projdir=/home/marshall/coolstuff ls -la $projdir; cd $projdir Environment variables (bash) cd $HOME export DEBUG=1 ./find_extraterrestrial_life (displays debug information if DEBUG is set)

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Main standard environment variables

Used by lots of applications!
LD_LIBRARY_PATH MANPATH

Manual page search path

PATH

Shared library search path

DISPLAY

Command search path

PRINTER

Screen id to display X (graphical) applications on.

EDITOR

Default printer name

SHELL

Default editor (vi, emacs...)

HOME

Current shell name

TERM

Current user home directory

HOSTNAME

Current terminal type

USER

Name of the local machine

Current user name

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PATH environment variables

PATH Specifies the shell search order for commands / home/acox/bin:/usr/local/bin:/usr/kerberos/bin: /usr/bin:/bin:/usr/X11R6/bin:/bin:/usr/bin LD_LIBRARY_PATH Specifies the shared library (binary code libraries shared by applications, like the C library) search order for ld /usr/local/lib:/usr/lib:/lib:/usr/X11R6/lib MANPATH Specifies the search order for manual pages /usr/local/man:/usr/share/man
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PATH usage warning

It is strongly recommended not to have the . directory in your PATH environment variable, in particular not at the beginning: A cracker could place a malicious ls file in your directories. It would get executed when you run ls in this directory and could do naughty things to your data. If you have an executable file called test in a directory, this will override the default test program and some scripts will stop working properly. Each time you cd to a new directory, the shell will waste time updating its list of available commands. Call your local commands as follows: ./test

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Alias
Shells let you define command aliases: shortcuts for commands you use very frequently. Examples
alias ls='ls -la' Useful to always run commands with default arguments. alias rm='rm -i' Useful to make rm always ask for confirmation. alias frd='find_rambaldi_device --asap --risky' Useful to replace very long and frequent commands. alias cia='. /home/sydney/env/cia.sh' Useful to set an environment in a quick way (. is a shell command to execute the content of a shell script).

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The which command

Before you run a command, which tells you where it is found bash> which ls alias ls='ls --color=tty' /bin/ls tcsh> which ls ls: aliased to ls --color=tty bash> which alias /usr/bin/which: no alias in (/usr/local/bin:/usr/bin:/bin:/usr/X11R6/bin) tcsh> which alias alias: shell built-in command.

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~/.bashrc file
~/.bashrc
Shell script read each time a bash shell is started You can use this file to define Your default environment variables (PATH, EDITOR...). Your aliases. Your prompt (see the bash manual for details). A greeting message.

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Command editing
You can use the left and right arrow keys to move the cursor in the current command. You can use [Ctrl][a] to go to the beginning of the line, and [Ctrl][e] to go to the end. You can use the up and down arrows to select earlier commands. You can use [Ctrl][r] to search inside the history of previous commands.

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Command history (1)

history Displays the latest commands that you ran and their number. You can copy and paste command strings. You can recall the latest command: !! You can recall a command by its number !1003 You can recall the latest command matching a starting string: !cat

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Command history (2)

You can make substitutions on the latest command: ^more^less You can run another command with the same arguments: more !*

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The Unix and GNU / Linux command line

Miscellaneous
Text editors

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Text editors
Graphical text editors Fine for most needs nedit Emacs, Xemacs Kate, Gedit Text-only text editors Often needed for sysadmins and great for power users vi, vim nano

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The nedit text editor

http://www.nedit.org/ Best text editor for non vi or emacs experts Feature highlights:
Very easy text selection and moving Syntax highlighting for most languages and formats. Can be tailored for your own log files, to highlight particular errors and warnings. Easy to customize through menus

Not installed by default by all distributions

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nedit screenshot

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Emacs / Xemacs
Emacs and Xemacs are pretty similar (up to your preference) Extremely powerful text editor features Great for power users Less ergonomic than nedit Non standard shortcuts Much more than a text editor (games, e-mail, shell, browser). Some power commands have to be learnt.

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Kate and gedit

Kate is a powerful text editor dedicated to programming activities, for KDE
http://kate.kde.org

Gedit is a text editor for the Gnome environment

http://projects.gnome.org/gedit/

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vi
Text-mode text editor available in all Unix systems. Created before computers with mice appeared. Difficult to learn for beginners used to graphical text editors. Very productive for power users. Often can't be replaced to edit files in system administration or in Embedded Systems, when you just have a text console.

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vim - vi improved
vi implementation now found in most GNU / Linux host systems Implements lots of features available in modern editors: syntax highlighting, command history, help, unlimited undo and much much more. Cool feature example: can directly open compressed text files. Comes with a GTK graphical interface (gvim) Unfortunately, not free software (because of a small restriction in freedom to make changes)

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vi basic commands
Though vi is extremely powerful, its main 30 commands are easy to learn and are sufficient for 99% of everyone's needs! You can also take the quick tutorial by running vimtutor. Get our vi memento sheet if you didn't get it with this course: http://free-electrons.com/docs/command-line

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GNU nano
http://www.nano-editor.org/ Another small text-only, mouse free text editor. An enhanced Pico clone (non free editor in Pine) Friendly and easier to learn for beginners thanks to on screen command summaries. Available in binary packages for several platforms. An alternative to vi in embedded systems. However, not available as a busybox built-in.

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GNU nano screenshot

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The Unix and GNU / Linux command line

Miscellaneous
Compressing and archiving

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Measuring disk usage

Caution: different from file size!

du -h <file> (disk usage) -h: returns size on disk of the given file, in human readable format: K (kilobytes), M (megabytes) or G (gigabytes), . Without -h, du returns the raw number of disk blocks used by the file (hard to read). Note that the -h option only exists in GNU du. du -sh <dir> -s: returns the sum of disk usage of all the files in the given directory.

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Measuring disk space

df -h <dir> Returns disk usage and free space for the filesystem containing the given directory. Similarly, the -h option only exists in GNU df. Example:
> df -h . Filesystem /dev/hda5 Size 9.2G Used Avail Use% Mounted on 7.1G 1.8G 81% /

df -h Returns disk space information for all filesystems available in the system. When errors happen, useful to look for full filesystems.
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Compressing and decompressing

Very useful for shrinking huge files and saving space g[un]zip <file> GNU zip compression utility. Creates .gz files. Ordinary performance (similar to Zip). b[un]zip2 <file> More recent and effective compression utility. Creates .bz2 files. Usually 20-25% better than gzip. [un]lzma <file> Much better compression ratio than bzip2 (up to 10 to 20%). Compatible command line options.

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Archiving (1)
Useful to backup or release a set of files within 1 file tar: originally tape archive Creating an archive: tar cvf <archive> <files or directories> c: create v: verbose. Useful to follow archiving progress. f: file. Archive created in file (tape used otherwise). Example: tar cvf /backup/home.tar /home bzip2 /backup/home.tar

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Archiving (2)
Viewing the contents of an archive or integrity check: tar tvf <archive> t: test Extracting all the files from an archive: tar xvf <archive> Extracting just a few files from an archive: tar xvf <archive> <files or directories> Files or directories are given with paths relative to the archive root directory.

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Extra options in GNU tar

tar = gtar = GNU tar on GNU / Linux Can compress and uncompress archives on the fly. Useful to avoid creating huge intermediate files Much simpler to do than with tar and bzip2! j option: [un]compresses on the fly with bzip2 z option: [un]compresses on the fly with gzip --lzma option: [un]compresses on the fly with lzma Examples (which one will you remember?)
gtar jcvf bills_bugs.tar.bz2 bills_bugs tar cvf - bills_bugs | bzip2 > bills_bugs.tar.bz2

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Checking file integrity

Very low cost solution to check file integrity md5sum FC3-i386-disk*.iso > MD5SUM Computes a MD5 (Message Digest Algorithm 5) 128 bit checksum of the given files. Usually redirected to a file. Example output: db8c7254beeb4f6b891d1ed3f689b412 2c11674cf429fe570445afd9d5ff564e f88f6ab5947ca41f3cf31db04487279b 6331c00aa3e8c088cc365eeb7ef230ea FC3-i386-disc1.iso FC3-i386-disc2.iso FC3-i386-disc3.iso FC3-i386-disc4.iso

md5sum -c MD5SUM Checks the integrity of the files in MD5SUM by comparing their actual MD5 checksum with their original one.

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The Unix and GNU / Linux command line

Miscellaneous
Printing

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Unix printing
Multi-user, multi-job, multi-client, multi-printer In Unix / Linux, printing commands don't really print. They send jobs to printing queues, possibly on the local machine, on network printing servers or on network printers. Printer independent system: Print servers only accept jobs in PostScript or text. Printer drivers on the server take care of the conversion to each printers own format. Robust system: Reboot a system, it will continue to print pending jobs.

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Printing commands
Useful environment variable: PRINTER Sets the default printer on the system. Example: export PRINTER=lp lpr [-P<queue>] <files> Sends the given files to the specified printing queue The files must be in text or PostScript format. Otherwise, you only print garbage. a2ps [-P<queue>] <files> Any to PostScript converts many formats to PostScript and send the output to the specified queue. Useful features: several pages / sheet, page numbering, info frame...

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Print job control

lpq [-P<queue>] Lists all the print jobs in the given or default queue.
lp is not ready Rank Owner Job 1st asloane 84 2nd amoore 85 File(s) nsa_windows_backdoors.ps gw_bush_iraq_mistakes.ps Total Size 60416 bytes 65024000 bytes

cancel <job#> [<queue>] Removes the given job number from the default queue.

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Using PostScript and PDF files

Viewing a PostScript file PostScript viewers exist, but their quality is pretty poor. Better convert to PDF with ps2pdf: ps2pdf decss_algorithm.ps xpdf decss_algorithm.pdf & Printing a PDF file You don't need to open a PDF reader! Better convert to PostScript with pdf2ps: pdf2ps rambaldi_artifacts_for_dummies.pdf lpr rambaldi_artifacts_for_dummies.ps

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The Unix and GNU / Linux command line

Miscellaneous
Synchronizing files

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Smart directory copy with rsync

rsync (remote sync) has been designed to keep in sync directories on 2 machines with a low bandwidth connection.
Only copies files that have changed. Files with the same size are compared by checksums. Only transfers the blocks that differ within a file! Can compress the transferred blocks Preserves symbolic links and file permissions: also very useful for copies on the same machine. Can work through ssh (secure remote shell). Very useful to update the contents of a website, for example.

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rsync examples (1)

rsync -a /home/arvin/sd6_agents/ /home/sydney/misc/

-a: archive mode. Equivalent to -rlptgoD... easy way to tell you want recursion and want to preserve almost everything.
rsync -Pav --delete /home/steve/ideas/ /home/bill/my_ideas/

-P: --partial (keep partially transferred files) and --progress (show progress during transfer) --delete: delete files in the target which don't exist in the source. Caution: directory names should end with / . Otherwise, you get a my_ideas/ideas/ directory at the destination.

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rsync examples (2)

Copying to a remote machine rsync -Pav /home/bill/legal/arguments/ \ [email protected]:/home/legal/arguments/ User bill will be prompted for a password. Copying from a remote machine through ssh rsync -Pav -e ssh [email protected]:/prod/beer/ \ fridge/homer/beer/ User homer will be prompted for his ssh key password.

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The Unix and GNU / Linux command line

Miscellaneous
Comparing files and directories

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Comparing files and directories

diff file1 file2 Reports the differences between 2 files, or nothing if the files are identical. diff -r dir1/ dir2/ Reports all the differences between files with the same name in the 2 directories. These differences can be saved in a file using the redirection, and then later re-applied using the patch command. To investigate differences in detail, better use graphical tools!
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tkdiff
http://tkdiff.sourceforge.net/ Useful tool to compare files and merge differences

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kompare
Another nice tool to compare files and merge differences Part of the kdesdk package (Fedora Core)

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gvimdiff
Another nice tool to view differences in files Available in most distributions with gvim Apparently not using diff. No issue with files with binary sections!

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The Unix and GNU / Linux command line

Miscellaneous
Looking for files

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The find command

Better explained by a few examples! find . -name *.pdf Lists all the *.pdf files in the current (.) directory or subdirectories. You need the double quotes to prevent the shell from expanding the * character. find docs -name "*.pdf" -exec xpdf {} ';' Finds all the *.pdf files in the docs directory and displays one after the other. Many more possibilities available! However, the above 2 examples cover most needs.

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The locate command

Much faster regular expression search alternative to find locate keys Lists all the files on your system with keys in their name. locate *.pdf Lists all the *.pdf files available on the whole machine locate /home/fridge/*beer* Lists all the *beer* files in the given directory (absolute path) locate is much faster because it indexes all files in a dedicated database, which is updated on a regular basis. find is better to search through recently created files.

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The Unix and GNU / Linux command line

Miscellaneous
Various commands

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Getting information about users

who Lists all the users logged on the system. whoami Tells what user I am logged as. groups Tells which groups I belong to. groups <user> Tells which groups <user> belongs to. finger <user> Tells more details (real name, etc) about <user> Disabled in some systems (security reasons).

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Changing users
You do not have to log out to log on another user account! su hyde (Rare) Change to the hyde account, but keeping the environment variable settings of the original user. su - jekyll (More frequent) Log on the jekyll account, with exactly the same settings as this new user. su When no argument is given, it means the root user.

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The wget command

Instead of downloading files from your browser, just copy and paste their URL and download them with wget! wget main features http and ftp support Can resume interrupted downloads Can download entire sites or at least check for bad links Very useful in scripts or when no graphics are available (system administration, embedded systems) Proxy support (http_proxy and ftp_proxy env. variables)

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wget examples
wget -c \ http://microsoft.com/customers/dogs/winxp4dogs.zip Continues an interrupted download. wget -m http://lwn.net/ Mirrors a site. wget -r -np http://www.xml.com/ldd/chapter/book/ Recursively downloads an on-line book for off-line access. -np: "no-parent". Only follows links in the current directory.

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Misc commands (1)

sleep 60 Waits for 60 seconds (doesn't consume system resources). wc report.txt (word count) 438 2115 18302 report.txt Counts the number of lines, words and characters in a file or in standard input.

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Misc commands (2)

bc ("basic calculator?") bc is a handy but full-featured calculator. Even includes a programming language! Use the -l option to have floating point support. date Returns the current date. Useful in scripts to record when commands started or completed.

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Checksum commands
A checksum or hash sum is a fixed-size datum computed from an arbitrary block of digital data for the purpose of detecting accidental errors that may have been introduced during its transmissions or storage. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Checksum The MD5 hash algorithm is implemented in the md5sum command
$ md5sum patch-2.6.24.7.bz2 0c1c5d6d8cd82e18d62406d2f34d1d38 patch-2.6.24.7.bz2

The SHA algorithm is implemented in the shaXsum (sha1sum, sha256sum, etc.) The integrity of several files can be verified against a file listing the checksums using the -c option.
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System administration
See our presentation about system administration basics: Network setup Creating and mounting filesystems Accessing administrator (root) priviledges Package management Also available on http://free-electrons.com/docs/command-line

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The Unix and GNU / Linux command line

Application development

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Compiling simple applications

The compiler used for all Linux systems is GCC http://gcc.gnu.org To compile a single-file application, developed in C : gcc -o test test.c
Will generate a test binary, from the test.c source file

For C++ : g++ -o test test.cc The -Wall option enables more warnings To compile sources files to object files and link the application : gcc -c test1.c gcc -c test2.c gcc -o test test1.o test2.o gcc automatically calls the linker ld
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Using libraries (1)

On any Linux system, a C library is available and offers a large set of APIs for application development.
See http://www.gnu.org/software/libc/manual/

Outside of the C library, thousands of other libraries are available for graphic programming, multimedia, networking, scientific computations, and moroe. Most libraries are already available as packages in your distribution, in general in two packages
libfoo is the package containing the library itself. This package is required to execute already compiled applications, but not sufficient to build new applications libfoo-dev is the package containing the headers and other configurations files and tools needed to build new applications relying on libfoo.
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Using libraries (2)

In your source code, include the proper header files of the library
Usually #include <foo.h> or #include <foo/foo.h> These headers are present in /usr/include/ Refer to the documentation of the library for details, available in /usr/share/doc/<package>/, on the Web... or in the header files !

To compile your application with the library, the easiest solution is to use pkg-config, which is supported by most libraries today : gcc -o test test.c $(pkg-config --cflags libs) By default, the application are dynamically linked with the libraries
The libraries must be present in /lib/ for the application to work Use the ldd command to see which libraries are needed by an application

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Make and Makefiles

The compilation process can be automated using the make tool. make reads a file called Makefile from the current directory, and executes the rules described in this file Every rule is has a target name, a colon, and a list of dependencies, and the list of commands to generate the target from the dependencies target: dep1 dep2 command1 command2 command3
When simply running make, the default target that is generated is all. A target is only re-generated if dependencies have changed.

See http://www.gnu.org/software/make/manual/
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Simple Makefile example

Variables can be defined and later expaneded with $(VARNAME) CFLAGS = -Wall all: test test: t1.o t2.o gcc -o $@ $^ $(CFLAGS) The default target all simply depends on the test target.

The test target depends on t1.o and t2.o. Once these files are generated, clean: the gcc command is $(RM) -f test executed. $@ is the target name install: $^is the name of all $(CP) test /usr/bin dependencies. The .o files are generated using implicit These targets are executed by running make clean and make dependencies, known by make. install

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Build systems
Makefiles are nice, but they don't easily allow easy adaptation to the different build environment and different build options More elaborated build systems have been developed
Autotools (automake, autoconf), based on Makefiles and shell scripts. Even though they are old and a little bit difficult to understand, they are the most popular build system for free software packages. CMake, a newer, cleaner build system Sconcs and Waf, other build systems based on Python

The typical steps to compile a autotools based package are ./configure make sudo make install
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Debugging
The official debugger that comes with the GNU development tools is gdb.
See http://sourceware.org/gdb/download/onlinedocs/gdb.html

An application must be compiled with the -g option to be properly debugged. This option adds debugging information to the application binary gcc -o test test.c -g The application can then be run inside the gdb debugger : gdb test Or the debugger can be attached to the application while it is running : gdb test -p PID
Where PID is the process ID of the running application
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Using gdb
gdb is a text-based debugger, with a command-line interface like a shell, providing dedicated commands. Some of the important commands are :
break (b) to set a breakpoint in the code. Can be used with a function name or a location in the source code, or an absolute memory address. print (p) to print the value of a variable. Used with a variable name, even if it's a complex one (which involves dereferencing structures, for example) c to continue the execution until the next breakpoint. next (n) to execute only the next line of code (step over any function call) and step (s) to execute only the next line of code (step into any function call) backtrace (bt) to display the function call stack
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gdb sample session

thomas@surf:/tmp$ gcc -o test test.c -g
thomas@surf:/tmp$ gdb test GNU gdb 6.8-debian [...) (gdb) break foo Breakpoint 1 at 0x80483c7: file test.c, line 5. (gdb) run Starting program: /tmp/test2 Breakpoint 1, foo (a=2, b=3) at test.c:5 5 return a + b; (gdb) p a $1 = 2 (gdb) p b $2 = 3 (gdb) c Continuing. foo=5 Program exited normally.
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ddd, the graphical gdb

There are several graphical frontends to gdb. A popular one is ddd.
Allows to navigate in the source code while debugging Allows to set break points, inspect and change variable value directly by looking at the source code

http://www.gnu.org/software/ddd/

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The Unix and GNU / Linux command line

Version control system CVS

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Version control (1)

Activity that consists in maintaining the full history of project files Every version of every file is recorded It allows to :
Create a knowledge database about the project codebase Revert in case of mistake Review the modifications introduced between two different versions Work as a team on a single project Create parallel development or release branches Tag previous versions of a project

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Version control (2)

Useful for :
Source code, of course Documentation, translation strings, compilation scripts, configuration files, etc. Binary data can be versioned, but the functionalities will be limited. Best to use text-only file formats.

Generated files should never be versioned. Version control is absolutely necessary when working as a team on a project
Version control systems are one of the fundamental tools used for open source development

Version control is still very useful when working alone on a project.

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Tools and approaches

A lot of version control systems available
Proprietary: Perforce, Synergy, StarTeam, BitKeeper, ClearCase Free and open source: CVS, Subversion, Git, Mercurial, Arch, Monotone

In the free/open solutions, two main approaches

The classical one, the centralized approach, implemented by CVS and Subversion A newer one, the decentralized or distributed approach, implemented in Git, Mercurial, Arch or Monotone.

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Centralized approach
The centralized approach is based on the presence of a server hosting a repository. The repository contains the history of all files and acts as the reference for all participants in the project. Typical client/server approach.

Repository Client Client

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Conflict management (1)

When two persons are working at the same time on the same file, when the changes are sent to the server, a conflict can occur if the modifications are not compatible .

A'' A' A

Repository

A' A Linus

A'' A Richard
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Conflict management (2)

Two solutions to solve the conflict problem
The locking approach : preventing two developers to work on the same file. The merge approach : the second developer sending his changes to the server is responsible for merging his changes with the other developers changes already present on the server.

In the free/open source projects, the traditional model is the merge one. It avoids the burden of handling the locking and scales better with a bigger team. But CVS and Subversion both implement advisory locking : a developer must voluntarily lock the files he is going to work with.

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Conflict resolution by fusion

A* A'' A

A* A' Linus

A''

A* A'' A Richard

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CVS

Free Software Used to be the most widely used free version control system. Now replaced by Subversion. Still used by big projects, but a lot of large projects (KDE, Apache, Eclipse) have moved to Subversion. Homepage : http://www.nongnu.org/cvs/ Documentation : http://ximbiot.com/cvs/manual/

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CVS usage
The main client is a command-line one, implemented in the cvs command
cvs help gives the list of available commands
add, admin, annotate, checkout, commit, diff, edit, editors, export, history, import, init, log, login, logout, ls, pserver, rannotate, rdiff, release, remove, rlog, rls, rtag, server, status, tag, unedit, update, version, watch, watchers

cvs --help command gives the help of command.

Graphical interfaces
Integration in Vim, Emacs, Anjuta, Dev-C++, Eclipse, Kdevelop, etc. Graphical clients: Cervisia (for KDE), gcvs (for Gnome), CrossVC, etc. Web clients: ViewVC, cvsweb, etc.
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Create the working copy

The first step to work on an existing project is to create a working copy. A working copy is a copy on the developer machine of the full tree of the project source code.
The developer will work on this copy of the source code, as usual (files are directly accessible and editable).

cvs -d repository-address checkout module

Create in the current directory a working copy of the module module located in the given repository

A repository address can be :

A local path, like :local:/home/user/cvsrepo/ The address of a CVS pserver, like :pserver:user@host :/var/cvsrepo/ Using SSH, by setting the environment variable CVS_RSH to ssh, and using an address like :ext:user@host:/var/cvsrepo/

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Simple usage
Working copy creation to be done once for all ! Modifications of the project files
Files are modified directly, as usual, nothing special is necessary. CVS knows the contents of the original version of the files and is able to compute the list of modifications made by the developer. Every directory contains a CVS directory that should not be modified.

Send the modifications to the server : commit

cvs commit Runs a text editor to write the message that describes the commit. This message will be preserved forever in the history. Very important to describe your change in details !

Fetch the modifications made by other developers : update

cvs update
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Example
$ cvs -d :local:/tmp/repo/ checkout project cvs checkout: Updating project U project/README U project/a.c U project/b.c $ cd project/ project$ vi README project$ cvs commit -m "Adding infos" cvs commit: Examining . /tmp/repo/project/README,v <-- README new revision: 1.3; previous revision: 1.2 project$ cvs update cvs update: Updating . U a.c project$

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File management
When new files or directories are created inside the project, they are not automatically taken into account by CVS They must be explicitly added with the add command
cvs add file1.c The new file is not propagated to the repository until the next commit Same thing with directories

Files and directories can be removed with the remove command Issues fixed in Subversion
Files and directories cannot be renamed without losing the history Directory removal is badly handled in CVS
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Example
project$ vi c.c project$ cvs add c.c cvs add: scheduling file `c.c' for addition cvs add: use `cvs commit' to add this file permanently project$ cvs commit -m "New file c.c" cvs commit: Examining . /tmp/repo/project/c.c,v <-- c.c initial revision: 1.1 project$ rm a.c project$ cvs remove a.c cvs remove: scheduling `a.c' for removal cvs remove: use `cvs commit' to remove this file permanently project$ cvs commit -m "Remove a.c" cvs commit: Examining . /tmp/repo/project/a.c,v <-- a.c new revision: delete; previous revision: 1.2

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State of the working copy

To get informations about the state of the working, use the status command
Will tell the version of the file, if they have been locally modified, etc.

To see the modifications made to the project and not committed yet, use the diff command Repository checkout Working copy diff
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update

Diff command example

project$ cvs diff cvs diff: Diffing . Index: c.c ======================================================== RCS file: /tmp/repo/project/c.c,v retrieving revision 1.1 diff -u -r1.1 c.c --- c.c 28 Jan 2009 16:48:11 -0000 1.1 +++ c.c 28 Jan 2009 16:50:41 -0000 @@ -1 +1,2 @@ Test. +Test2.

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Using the history

See the commit messages
cvs log cvs log file.c

See the differences between two past revisions

cvs diff -r 1.1 -r 1.2 file.c With CVS, the versioning is done on a per-file basis : a commit is not an entity that can be referred to once completed. It makes the usage of the history very complicated. This is fixed in Subversion.

See who made a change

cvs annotate

A graphical interface, either a graphical client or a web client, will be very useful to navigate and use the history efficiently
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Conflict management in CVS (1)

After changing a file, we try to commit the change to the server
$ cvs commit -m "Modification" cvs commit: Examining . cvs commit: Up-to-date check failed for `main.c' cvs [commit aborted]: correct above errors first!

The file has been modified on the server since our last update. So we must make merge the modifications we have done with the modifications of the other developers, by updating our working copy.
$ cvs update cvs update: Updating . RCS file: /tmp/repo/project/main.c,v retrieving revision 1.1 retrieving revision 1.2 Merging differences between 1.1 and 1.2 into main.c rcsmerge: warning: conflicts during merge cvs update: conflicts found in main.c C main.c
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Conflict management in CVS (2)

Inside main.c #include <stdio.h> int main(void) { <<<<<<< main.c printf("Bonjour monde\n"); ======= printf("Hola mundo\n"); >>>>>>> 1.2 return 0; } Our modification !

The modification made by the other developer

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Conflict resolution in CVS

The conflict must be manually resolved by the developer, no automated tool can resolve such conflicts The conflict is resolved directly in the file by removing the markers and merging the modifications (either selecting one of them or creating a new version based on both modifications) Once resolved, the file can be committed as usual
project$ cvs commit -m "In French" cvs commit: Examining . /tmp/repo/project/main.c,v <-- main.c new revision: 1.3; previous revision: 1.2

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Repository initialization
A repository must be initialized using the init command :
mkdir /home/user/cvsrepo cvs -d :local:/home/user/cvsrepo init

Once initialized, it can be accessed locally or remotely through SSH. Remote access through pserver will require additional configuration, see the CVS documentation. If already existing projects have to be imported in the repository, use the import command
cd project cvs -d :local:/home/user/cvsrepo import modulename vendortag releasetag
vendortag, symbolic name for the branch releasetag, symbolic name for the release
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Tags and branches

Tags allow to identify a given version of the project through a meaningful symbolic name
Useful for example if the version has been delivered to the test team or to a customer.

Tags are created using the cvs tag command. Branches allow to create parallel flow of developments
Maintenance of a previous release Development of experimental new features

Created using the -b option of the cvs tag command Branching and merging is relatively complicated, and falls outside the scope of this training.
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Connection with other tools

Mail
Send a mail at every commit, with the diff. Allow others to review, and notifies them of the changes..

IRC
Send a message at every commit. Notifies of the changes.

Version control

At every commit, a build and test machin builds and tests the project.

Link the commits with the bugs and the bugs with the commits.

Build and test

Bug tracking
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Why Subversion ?
Because CVS has many drawbacks and short-coming
Not possible to simply rename files and directories while preserving the history No atomic commits identifying the commit as a whole, making it difficult to navigate in the history, revert commits, and is the source of repository incoherency in case of crashes Poor branching and merging capabilities

In usage, Subversion is very similar to CVS : the commands are exactly the same.
Fixes all CVS short comings And provides interesting branching and merging features such as merge-tracking. Many large-scale projects already made the switch.
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Distributed version control systems

Since a few years, a new generation of version control systems Distributed version control instead of a centralized approach Principles
No technically-central repository, every copy is a repository All developers can create local branches, share these branches with other developers without asking a central authority. Advanced branching and merging capabilities.

More and more commonly used in free software projects (Linux kernel, X.org, etc.) Most commonly used tools : Git, Mercurial

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Related documents

All our technical presentations on http://free-electrons.com/docs Linux kernel Device drivers Architecture specifics Embedded Linux system development
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